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1.  Sirloin  of  Beef       2.  Koast  Turkey       3.  Boiled  Salmon       4.  Calf's  Head 
5.  Leg  of  Mutton       6.  Roast  Ducks         7.  Boiled  Turbat         S.  lioast  Hare 


Cjsscirs  Household  Guide. 


Fronthpirre. 


CASSELL'S 


HOUSEHOLD  GUIDE: 


^  (Homplctc  (EufgcloporMci 


DOMESTIC     AND     SOCIAL     ECONOMY, 


AND    FORMING 


A  Gtcide  to  Every  Departme7it  of  Practical  Life. 


VOLUME     I. 


LONDON: 

CAS  SELL,   FETTER,   AND  GAL  PIN, 

LUDGATE     HILL,     EX.; 
AND     596,     BROADWAY,     NEW     YORK. 


INDEX. 


INDEX     TO    VOL.     I. 


Abscess,  Treatment  of,  303. 

Acted  Charades,  320,  347. 

Ague,  Treatment  of,  302. 

Alum  Baskets,  How  to  Make,  263. 

Animals  Kept  for  Pleasure,  11,  60,  76,  106,  204,  266,  395,  308, 

32s.  358,  375- 
Animals  Kept  for  Profit,  30,  46,  95,   121,   145,  1C8,  i88,  217, 

228,  295,  309,  325,  375. 
Apoplexy,  Treatment  of,  318. 
Aquarium,  The,  17,  63,  69,  105,  132,  161, 
Arable  Husbandry,  301,  327,  344. 
Asthma,  Treatment  of,  319. 

Back  Windows,  How  to  Ornament,  299. 

Baking  Powders,  263. 

Bedroom  Furniture,  155. 

Bell  Hanging,  180. 

Biliousness,  How  to  Treat,  334,  350. 

Blankets,  How  to  Wash,  299. 

Blinds,  Construction  of,  1 75. 

Boot-Cleaning,  305. 

Bread,  5. 

Bronchitis,  How  to  Treat,  358. 

Broths,  How  to  Make,  253,  258. 

Bunions,  How  to  Treat,  201. 

Bums  and  Scalds,  Treatment  of,  71. 

Busts  and  Statuettes  in  Marble,  How  to  Imitate,  164. 

Cage  Birds,  175. 

Cameos,  a  Worti  or  Two  About,   123, 

Card  Games,  261. 

Carpenter's  Bench,  lOI. 

Carpets,  to  Remove  Grease  from,  312. 

Carving,  Hints  on,  6,  55,  79,  143,  197,  256. 

Cattle,  188,  228,  309. 

Ohapped  Hands,  &c.,  124. 

Cheap  Heme  Comforts,  Some,  312. 

Cheese  Cement,  248. 

Chicken-Pox,  Treatment  of,  271. 

Chilblains,  Treatment  of,  123. 

Choosing  a  Trade,  307,  362. 

Christmas  Decorations,  97. 

Christmas  Fare,  150,  166.  j 

Cinder-Sifting,  305.  ', 

Citizenship,  Law  of,  230.  | 

Clothes-Bnishing,  306.  j 

Clothing  for  Children,  88,  1 16,  177,  236,  291,  331,  369. 

Clothing  for  Infants,  33,  88. 

Coffee  Making,  C94. 

Colds,  Precautions  against,  284. 

Coloured  Transparencies,  How  to  Make,  165. 

Comical  Combinations,  320. 

Convulsions,  Treatment  for,  83. 


i  Cook,  the  Duties  of,  170. 

j  Cooking,  4,  27,  36,  53,  66,  86,   103,   119,   139,  166,  181,  195, 
I  219,  232,  253,  258,  282,  304,  310,  322,  340,  364,  376. 

!  Cottage  Farming,  2^,  93,  152,  209,  276,  300,  327,  344. 

Corns,  Treatment  of,  124. 
I  Correspondence,  106. 
;  Croup,  Treatment  of,  115. 

Curtains,  Construction  of,  208. 

Dairy  Cows,  Management  of,  309. 

Diaphanie,  92. 

Diarrhoea,  How  to  Treat,  83. 

Dietary  in  Early  Childhood,  314. 

Dietary  of  Youth,  343,  354. 

Dinner  Tables,  Dressing  of,  371. 

Dinner  Table,  Hints  on  Arranging  the,  1 14. 

Diseases  Incidental  to  Children,  83,  114. 

Diseases  of  Dogs,  266,  308. 

Dislocations,  How  to  Treat,  71. 

Doctors  and  Patients,  359. 

Dog,  The,  II,  60,  76,  106,  204,  266,  308,  358. 

Domestic  Medicine,  7,  41,  83,    114,   186,  215,   226,  271,   302, 

318,  334,  350,  359- 
Domestic  Servants,  Their  Duties,  I02. 

Domestic  Surgery,  7,  29,  51,  71,  11 1,  154,  172,  201,  252,  286 
Doors,  Construction  of,  128. 
Drainage,  25,  93,  247. 
Draughts,  How  to  Stop,  312. 
Ducks  and  Geese,  Keeping,  169. 
Dyeing,  a  Few  Words  about,  360. 

Eruptive  Fevers,  Treatment  of,  186,  215. 

Exercise  for  Children,  242. 

Feather  Screens,  289,  321. 

Fencing,  276,  300. 

Fevers,  How  to  Treat,  186,  215,  226. 

Fish,  How  to  Cook,  67,  86,  322,  340,  364. 

Fish  Soups,  How  to  Make,  260,  282. 

Food  in  Infancy,  270. 

Forfeits,  Game  of,  163,  202. 

Fractures,  Treatment  of,  71. 
j  Frost-Bke,  154. 
;  Frying,  171. 

j  Furniture,  18,  125,  155,  183,  243,  285,  346. 
I  Furniture-Hiring,  312. 

I  Gardening,  43,  8i,  113. 
Garden  Furniture  and  Decorations,  372. 
Gardening,   Home,  20,  58,  65,   109,   136,   148,   174,   190,  223, 

239,  246,  271,  287,  330,  355,  37& 
Gas,  250,  273,  299. 
General  Servant,  Duties  of,  147. 


INDEX. 


Godfrey's  Cordial,  284. 

Gold  and  Silver  Marks,  180. 

Gold  and  Silver,  Qualities  and  Values  of,  279 

Gold,  How  to  Cleanse,  284. 

Gutta-Percha  for  Mending  Shoes,  214. 

Haemorrhage,  How  to  Stop,  9,  29. 
Hair,  Management  of,  241,  274,  366,  379. 
Hooping  Cough,  Treatment  of,  226. 
Horse,  The,  295,  325,  374. 
Hot  Dishes  Easily  Served  at  Short  Notice,  167. 
'House,   The,    2,   38,   74,   99,    134,   162,    179,    198,    247,    257, 

317,  351- 
House  Hunting,  99. 
Household  Amusements,    127,    159,    163,    191,  202,  238,  251, 

261,  278,  319,  347. 
Household  Chemistry,  338. 
Household  Decorative  Art,  39,  57,  92,  97,  129,  164,  193,  264, 

289,  315.  321,  345.  353- 
Household  Mechanic,    14,  23,  42,   49,   77,  84,   lOl,    128,    140, 

175,  180,  208,  213,  250,  273,  299,  372. 
Housemaid,  her  Duties,  221. 
Housing  Hay,  276,  300. 

Inmates  of  the    House,    13,  35^  90,   102,  130,   147,    170,  206, 

221,  230,  140,  17s,  180,  221,  268,  305,  363. 
Invalid  Broths  and  Beverages,  283. 

Jr.undice,  How  to  Treat,  350. 
Joints,  in  Carpentry,  78,  84. 

Kitchen  Requisites,  232. 
Knife-Cleaning,  306. 

Lady's  Maid,  her  Duties,  363. 

Lamp-Trimming,  306. 

Leather  Work,  39,  57. 

Letter-Writers,  Hints  to,  79,  loi,  207,  235,  267,  231- 

Life  Assurance,  74,  134,  179,  198. 

Liquids,  How  to  Keep  them  Warm,  299. 

Local  Ailments,  Treatment  of,  252,  268. 

Locks  and  Door- Fittings,  213. 

Lodgers,  Advice  to,  2H. 

Mad  Dogs,  308. 

Marketing,  261,  336. 

Master  and  Servant,  Law  of,  13. 

Mats,  312. 

Mattresses,  Stuffing,  263. 

Meat  Dishes  at  Moderate  Cost,  103,  119,  139. 

Modelling  in  Clay,  315,  345,  353. 

Mumps,  How  to  Treat,  227. 

Mushrooms,  How  to  Cook,  195. 

Novelties  in  Toys  and  Tricks,  191, 
Nursery,  The,  IIO. 

Odds   and   Ends,   190,  203,  223,  230,  255,  263,  284,  299,  312, 

349,  361,  377- 
Page,  the  Duties  of,   305. 
Paint  for  Out-Door  Work,  248. 
Paper  Flower  Making,  193,  264. 


Parlour  Maid,  Duties  of,  268. 

Parent  and  Child,  Law  of,  35. 

Patchwork,  337. 

Pickles,  How  to  Make,  195,  219. 

Plain  Cookery,  4. 

Point  Lace  Work,  225,  280,  356. 

Pomades,  Receipts  for  Making,  276. 

Poor- Rate,  The,  131. 

Poultry,  Management  of,  30,  46,  95,  121,  145,  168,  217. 

Preserves,  How  to  Make,  219. 

Property- Tax,  131. 

Qualities,  The,  and  Values  of  Gold  and  Silver,  279. 
Qualities  of  Beef  and  Veal,  261. 
Quilts  and  Counterpanes,  284. 

Rates  and  Taxes,  Law  of,  130,  206. 

Rearing  and  Management  of  Children,    10,   33,  88,    no,    116, 

142,  177,  236,  242,  270,  291,  3ii,  331,  343,  354,  369. 
Recipes,  Miscellaneous,  234. 
Recipes,  Simple,  5,  27,  36,  53. 
Recreations  for  Long  Evenings,  i::!9. 
Relapsing  Fevers,  Treatment  of,  226. 
Roasting,  170. 

Sauce  for  Calf's  Head,  374. 

Sealing  Wax,  How  to  Make,.  368. 

Seasonable  Food,  m,  148,  235,  284. 

Shell  Fish,  How  to  Cook,  140,  181. 

Skin,  The  Management  of,  22,  45,  62,  70,  123,  157. 

Sleep  of  Children,  142. 

Soups,  How  to  Make,  87,  103,  258,  283,  304,  310. 

Stools  for  Children,  How  to  Make,  299. 

Stoppers,  How  to  Remove,  306. 

Substitute  for  Common  Washing  Soda,  299. 

Suspended  Animation,  To  Restore,  iii. 

Sweetmeats,  How  to  ISIake,  291. 

Table  Ornaments,  How  to  Make,  313. 

Tea,  How  to  Make,  380. 

Teething  of  Children,  172. 

Toast,  How  to  Make  and  Butter,  313. 

Toilette,  The,  21,  45,  62,  70,  123,  157,  241,  274,  366,  379. 

Tool  Chest,  The,  15,  23,  42,  49. 

Typhoid  and  Typhus  and  Infantile  Intermittent  Fevers,  215. 

Vegetables,  How  to  Cook,  182. 

Wages  and  Income  Table,   368. 

Waiting  at  Table,  268. 

Warts,  Cure  of,  124. 

Watchmaking,  307,  362. 

Water  Supply,  162,  257,  317,  351. 

Ways  and  Means,  2,  38,  106. 

Weights  and  Measures,  160. 

Weights  of  Bread  and  Flour,  284. 

Whist,  Game  of,  262,  278,  319. 

Window  Garden,  43,  81,  113. 

Windows,  Construction  of,  140. 

Will  Making,  Law  of,  co. 

Woods  used  in  Household  Carpentry,  77. 

Worms,  Treatment  for,  302. 

Wounds,  Bruises,  and  Sprains,  Hov/  to  Trer.t,  51. 


CASSELL'S 


HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE 


INTRODUCTION. 


In  an  age  when,  owing  to  the  spread  of  education  and 
the  consequent  growth  of  intelligence  and  of  competition, 
the  atfairs  of  human  hfe  are  becoming  in  every  depart- 
ment more  intricate  and  complicated,  no  apology  can  be 
needed  for  an  endeavour  to  set  out  accurately,  and  in 
something  like  scientific  order,  the  laws  which  govern, 
and  the  rules  which  should  regulate,  that  most  necessary 
and  most  important  of  all  human  institutions.  The 
Household.  It  is  there  that  the  fruits  of  man's  labour 
are  ultimately  enjoyed ;  there  that  woman  finds  her 
chief  sphere  of  duty,  as  the  helpmate  of  man  ;  there 
that  the  coming  generation  is  being  trained  for  the  duties 
of  life.  It  is  there,  then,  if  anywhere,  that  the  secret  of 
man's  material  well-being  should  be  sought  out  and  its 
principles  carried  out  into  constant  practice. 

The  lesson,  above  all  others,  which  is  required  to  be 
learnt  in  the  present  day,  is  the  good  old  homely  one  that 
wealth  is  to  be  found  not  in  the  possession  of  a  large 
income,  but  in  the  possession  of  a  surphis  after  the 
income  has  been  made  to  meet  the  necessary  demands 
upon  it.  He  who  earns  a  hundred  a  year  and  spends 
ninety,  is  really  richer  than  he  who  earns  two  hundred 
and  spends  two  hundred  and  ten.  And  it  not  unfrequently 
happens  that  where  the  resources  of  the  household  are 
judiciously  husbanded,  a  relatively  smaller  income  is  found 
to  yield  more  solid  results  than  a  larger  one.  Domestic 
comfort,  in  short,  together  with  all  the  benign  influences 
that  flow  therefrom,  as  health,  good  spirits,  equability  of 
temper,  clearness  of  head,  prudence  in  enterprise,  happi- 
ness in  the  home  circle,  and  the  esteem  of  one's  neigh- 
bours, centres  in  the  practice  of  a  wise  economy — in  the 
thoughtful  and  intelligent  fitting  of  means  to  ends,  so  as 
to  secure  the  most  advantageous  results  at  the  lowest 
c._pjOssJble  cost. 

More  especially  is  this  so  at  a  time  when  a  deeper 
investigation  of  the  laws  of  health  has  brought  into 
prominence  the  necessity  of  increase^l  recreation,  and 
longer  and  more  frequent  migrations  into  purer  atmo- 
spheres— desiderata  which,  when  men  have  moderate 
incomes,  can  be  supplied  only  by  a  prudent  curtailment 
of  expenditure  in  other  directions.  For  we  believe  it  will 
be  found  by  many  that  when  they  have  learnt  how  to 
obtain  economically  the  necessaries  of  the  household, 
and  to  do  for  themselves  what  hitherto  they  have  had 
to  get  done  by  expensive  assistance,  they  will  have  in 
every  case  something  left  with  which  they  can  augment 
the  convenience,  the  comfort,  and  possibly  even  the 
luxury  of  their  house  and  living — bettering  at  once  their 
mode  of  life  and  their  measure  of  enjoyment 

VOL.   L 


Management  is  the  one  thing  needful  in  the  house- 
hold. No  matter  what  the  amount  of  income  may  be, 
everything  depends  upon  the  careful  laying  out  of  the 
money.  In  one  house  the  owner  always  seems  to  get 
full  value  for  his  outlay;  in  another  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  where  the  money  expended  goes  to,  the  apparent 
return  is  so  inadequate.  And  this  difterence  does  not 
always  and  of  necessity  spring  from  recklessness,  or  even 
from  carelessness  in  management;  far  more  frequently  it 
is  owing  to  the  want  of  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the 
way  in  which  the  available  resources  can  be  best  turned 
to  account. 

To  supply,  in  a  plain,  practical,  and  exhaustive  manner, 
this  information,  which  otherwise  must  be  ineffectively 
obtained  by  long  and  wearisome  experience,  is  the  object 
of  The  Household  Guide.  We  shall  take  up  in 
succession  each  department  of  domestic  and  social  eco- 
nomy, and  the  various  branches  of  household  manage- 
ment, showing  in  every  case  how  true  economy  can  ba 
practised — how  by  the  viinimum  of  expenditure  the 
maximum  of  comfort  and  of  luxury  may  be  obtained. 
In  each  department  we  shall  commence  with  the 
treatment  of  the  subject  in  its  simplest  possible  fonrj, 
so  as  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  most  moderate 
incomes. 

We  shall  first  treat  of  the  House  itself,  in  the  threefold 
aspect  of  a  building,  a  possession,  and  a  home.  Those 
who  are  about  to  take  a  house  for  the  first  time,  or  to 
change  their  present  residence  for  another,  will  find  in- 
formation as  to  the  points  which  they  ought  to  look  to  as 
essential  in  regulating  their  choice,  what  e\ils  they  ought 
specially  to  avoid,  and  how  such  evils  may  most  readily 
be  detected.  For  those  who  are  about  to  build,  there 
will  be  papers  on  the  best  way  of  planning  a  house,  and 
the  best  materials  to  be  employed  in  its  construction  ; 
while  those  who  are  already  occupying  houses  which  they 
are  unable  or  unwilling  to  leave,  will  find  advice  as  to 
the  best  plan  for  remedying  or  removing  existing  defects 
which  are  making  their  houses  unhealthy  or  uncomfort- 
able. We  shall  also  explain,  in  language  as  free  as  pos- 
sible from  technicality,  those  points  of  law  with  which  it 
is  desirable  that  the  occupiers  of  houses  or  masters  of 
households  should  be  fully  acquainted. 

In  the  articles  on  Furnitukf,  information  will  be 
given  as  to  what  sort  of  furniture  in  each  part  of  the 
house  will  be  found  most  economical,  durable,  and 
pleasing,  both  in  colour,  materini,  shape,  and  texture. 
Under  this  head  we  shall  include  some  of  the  simplest 
branches  of  the  decorative  art,  a  knowledge  of  which 

I 


y 


THE    HOUSE. 


will  enable  our  readers  to  find  amusement  and  gratifica- 
tion in  the  exercise  of  their  taste  and  ingenuity. 

Our  papers  upon  Cooking  will  be  a  practical,  simple, 
and  complete  work  upon  the  subject  in  every  depart- 
ment, commencing  with  receipts  for  the  most  ordi- 
nary and  homely  operations,  and  proceeding  gradually 
to  the  highest  and  most  elaborate  branches  of  the  culi- 
nary art.  Hints  will  be  given  which  will  enable  the 
cooking  to  be  performed  with  the  most  limited  appliances, 
while  the  best  and  most  improved  form  of  cooking 
utensils  will  also  be  described.  Various  methods  of 
preparing  food  almost  unknown  at  present  in  this  country, 
but  which  in  other  lands  are  a  great  boon  to  those  of 
limited  means,  will  be  explained ;  while  a  place  will  also  be 
found  for  instructions  in  the  serving  of  the  choicest  dishes. 

The  Inmates  of  the  House  will  be  considered  from 
two  points  of  view.  First  of  all  with  regard  to  their 
position  in  law  and  their  legal  obligations,  as  standing 
in  a  civil  relation  to  each  other ;  secondly,  their  social 
position  and  domestic  duties  as  members  of  a  household. 
Under  the  latter  head  will  be  found  instructions  to 
servants  in  their  various  capacities. 

The  articles  on  Domestic  Surgery  and  Medicine 
(^which  will  be  contributed  by  professional  men  of  emi- 
nence) will  give  merely  simple  remedies  for  simple  ail- 
ments, and  instructions  how  to  act  in  sudden  emergencies 
and  accidents  when  medical  aid  cannot  readily  be  pro- 
cured ;  showing,  also,  how  symptoms  which  are  trivial  and 
unimportant  are  to  be  distinguished  from  those  which 
prognosticate  a  serious  illness,  and  call  imperatively  for 
the  doctor's  interference. 

While  some  of  our  papers  on  the  Toilette  will  con- 
tain hints  upon  various  matters  of  dress  and  personal 
adornment,  we  shall  give  in  others  instructions  on  the 
management  of  the  skin  and  hair,  especially  with  regard 
to  health  and  cleanliness — a  matter  which  has  by  no 
means  received  the  attention  which  its  great  importance 
demands. 

A  subject  of  kindred  importance,  and  one  about  which 
a  large  amount  of  ignorance  prevails,  is  the  FEEDING, 
Clothing,  and  Training  of  Children  ;  and  we  shall 
therefore  treat  of  these  points  in  detail  from  an  economic, 
social,  and  medical  point  of  view. 

Passing  to  the  outside  of  the  House,  the  Garden, 
the  Cottage  Farm,  and  Animals  kept  for  Pleasure 
and  for  Profit,  will  form  the  three  series  which  will  be 
occupied  with  what  we  may  term  the  out-of-door  depart- 
ments of  the  household. 

In  the  papers  on  the  Garden,  one  of  the  earliest  fea- 
tures will  be  instructions  in  Window  Gardening,  as  being 
that  branch  of  the  art  within  reach  of  every  one  who  has 
but  a  room  which  he  can  call  his  own,  and  thence  we 
shall  proceed  gradually  to  the  most  complex  operations, 
which  require  the  greatest  care  and  most  elaborate  con- 
trivances to  be  carried  out  successfully.  Pursuing  the 
same  plan  in  our  papers  upon  Animals  kept  for  Plea- 
sure and  for  Profit,  we  shall  begin  with  papers  upon 
Poultry,  as  being  the  most  universally  useful,  and  as 
suiting  the  means  of  the  largest  number,  and  afterwards 
give  information  on  the  breeding,  rearing,  management, 
and  diseases  of  all  other  domestic  animals. 

Those  who  possess  more  land  than  need  be  devoted  to 


gardening,  will  find  in  the  Cottage  Farming  complete 
instructions  for  carrying  on  farming  upon  a  small  scale. 
Drainage,  rotation  of  crops,  the  variety  of  soils,  and  the 
various  agricultural  operations  which  are  possible  in  a 
limited  portion  of  land,  will  be  treated  of  in  turn. 

As  a  kind  of  essentially  practical  supplement  to  nearly 
all  the  above-mentioned  departments,  we  shall  give  a 
scries  of  papers  entitled  The  Domestic  Tool-Chest. 

From  this,  which  is  after  all  but  a  brief  outline  of  our 
plans,  it  will  be  seen  that  our  work  will  be  at  once  com- 
prehensive in  scope  and  exhaustive  in  detail,  treating 
in  each  branch  of  our  subject  alike  of  the  simplest 
necessaries  and  the  most  refined  luxuries — furnishing, 
in  the  truest  sense,  a  Guide  to  every  department  of  the 
Home,  and  affording  instruction  the  most  valuable  and 
practical  to  every  member  of  the  Household. 


THE   HOUSE. 


I.— ways  and  means. 
It  is  attributed  to  the  Rev.  Sydney  Smith  to  have  said, 
"  All  degrees  of  nations  begin  with  living  in  a  pig-stye. 
The  king  or  the  priests  first  get  out  of  this  style  of 
living,  then  the  noble,  then  the  pauper,  just  in  proportion 
as  each  class  becomes  more  and  more  opulent ;  better 
tastes  arise  from  better  circumstances,  and  what  is  termed 
luxuiy  in  one  period  bears  the  name  of  wretchedness  in 
another." 

Far  too  often  an  appearance  of  luxury,  but  with  real 
wretchedness,  exists  in  the  same  habitation.  Living  in  a 
fine  house  with  very  straitened  means  frequently  entails 
great  discomfort,  and  is  in  most  cases  excessively  impru- 
dent, although,  under  others,  it  may  be  quite  the  reverse. 
A  respectable-looking  house,  in  a  desirable  locality,  is  to 
a  profession  or  trade  absolutely  necessary  to  future  success, 
even  though  the  tenants  be  poor.  The  style  of  a  house 
in  a  degree  determines  the  respectability,  class,  credit,  or 
means  of  its  occupier,  even  though  he  be  without  a  fixed 
income,  and  living  to  the  extent  of  or  beyond  his  means. 

Where  there  is  a  fixed  income,  derivable  from  whatever 
source,  it  is  positive  dishonesty  to  live  in  a  finer  house 
than  the  means  honestly  permit.  Hundreds,  perhaps 
thousands,  of  people  make  no  calculations  how  far  their 
incomes  will  go,  or  in  what  manner  their  money  should 
be  spent.  The  daily  life  of  the  household  is  a  happy-go- 
lucky  style  ;  the  wife  has  her  allowance  freely  given,  some- 
times without  any  consideration  of  what  proportion  the 
amount  so  allotted  really  should  bear  to  the  entire  income  ; 
but  by  those  acting  thus  it  is  soon  found  that  both  ends  will 
not  meet,  and  "once  in  debt,  rarely  out  of  trouble,"  for  the 
home  and  all  that  the  word  means  are  neglected,  and  con- 
tention and  wretchedness  are  rife.  "  In  for  a  penny  in  for 
pound"  is  the  reckless  proverb  of  such  people,  ever  recur- 
ring in  thought  and  producing  the  most  fearful  results. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  give  minute  details  for  every 
item  of  expenditure  in  any  household,  be  the  income 
small  or  large,  but  the  following  rules  for  the  expenditure 
of  some  fixed  incomes  have  been  found  to  work  well 
when  the  difterent  items  of  cost  have  been  faithfully 
adhered  to  in  their  limitations.  There  is  no  doubt  diffi- 
culty in  this,  for  the  "'tis  buts,"  the  "unforeseens,"  and 
the  "  musts  "  are  devouring  moths,  always  intruding  and 
ever  spoiling  the  finest  plans  of  housekeeping. 

Speaking  roughly,  one-half  may  be  appropriated  to 
housekeeping,  including  the  expenses  of  coals,  candles, 
gas  charges  (beer,  wines,  and  spirits,  if  such  liquors  be 
used),  and  laundry.  One-eighth  to  rent,  taxes,  and  water- 
rate.  One-eighth  to  clothing  of  all  descriptions,  inclu- 
sive of  dressmaking  and  milliner's  bills,  and  needlework. 
One-eighth  to  wages,  medical  attendance,  insurance  from 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


fire,  and  life  assurance.  One-eighth  to  incidentals — as 
general  travelling  expenses,  the  cost  of  carriage,  cabs,  and 
horses,  whether  of  stable  expenses  or  hiring,  the  pur- 
chase or  repairs  of  furniture,  personal  expense^  of  the 
family,  as  pocket-money,  (S:c. — which  et  catera  has  a  very 
extended  signification,  but  must  be  provided  for. 

We  may,  however,  be  able  to  approximate  to  some- 
thing like  definite  information  if  we  take  a  scries  of 
different  incomes,  and  apportion  out  their  expenditure. 
To  begin  with,  let  us  take  an  income  of  ^lo©  a  year, 
which  may  be  divided  as  follows  : — 

Expenditure  for  an  Income  of  £ioo  per  annum. 
Rent  and  taxes,  rates  and  water-rate  .       ;^I7     o     o 

Housekeeping  .  .  .  .  55     o    o 

Clothing         .  .  .  .  .  12  10    o 

Incidentals,  which  will  include  travelling 
expenses,  medicine,  education  of  children, 
repairs  of  furniture,  &;c.,  pew  rents,  and 
charitable  gifts       .  .  .  .  15  10    o 


Weekly  Expenditure. 

Rent  .  .  .     ^o 

Housekeeping  .  .        i 

Clothing        .  .  .0 

Incidentals  .  .  .0 


i^^ 


6    Gh 
I     2 

4  9^ 

5  II 


^i  18    5 
Daily,  5s.  sfd. ;  Monthly,  ^^8  6s.  8d. 

Expenditure  for  an  Income  of  ;^2oo  a  year. 

Rent,  taxes,  rates,  and  water-rate       .             •  ;^35     o     o 
Housekeeping,  laundry,  coal,  gas,  also  wines, 

spirits,  and  beer  (where  used)          .             .  80     o     o 
Wages — one  servant,  ^10.    Beer,  yd.  weekly ; 

laundry,  6d.  weekly               .             .             .  12  16     4 

Clothing  of  all  descriptions     .            .            .  30    o    o 

Incidentals       .            .           .            .            .  42    3    8 


/200    o    o 


Weekly 

E. 

xpc 

nditurc. 

Rent  and  taxes 

■   £°  13 

St 

Housekeeping 

I  10 

9 

Wages 

0   5 

0 

Clothing 

0  II 

6.1 

Incidentals   . 

0  16 

I* 

£3  16  II 

Daily,  10s.  lUd. ;  Monthly,  ;^  16  13s.  4d. 

Expenditure  for  an  Income  of  ^300  a  year. 
Rent,  rates,  taxes,  and  water-rate  .        .     £\(>    o    o 

Housekeeping — laundry,  coals,  candles,  gas, 

also  wines,  spirits,  and  beer  (where  used) .       150    o    o 
Wages — one  servant,  ^16,  inclusive  of  tea 

and  sugar.    Beer,  1  s.  2d.  weekly ;  laundry, 

IS.  2d.  weekly         .  .  .  .         19    o    o 

Clothing,  including  tailor's  bills,  millinery, 

and  dress-making    .  .  .  .4500 

Incidentals,  as  above  .  .  .        40    o    o 

£100    o    o 
Weekly  Expenditure  for  £yyo  a  year. 
Rent  ,  .  .      ^o  17     8 

Housekeeping        .  .         2  17     8 

Wages         .  .  -075 

Clothing      .  .  .         o  17     3J 

Incidentals.  .  ,         o  15     4^ 


/400  per  annum  allows  of  the  following  Disbursement. 

Rent,  taxes,  and  all  rates,  including  water- 
rate  (one-eighth  of  income)  .  .     ^50    o    o 

Housekeeping— laundry,  coal,gas  charge,  also 

wines,  spirits,  and  beer,  where  used  (one-half)     200     o    o 

Wages — two  servants — general  servant,  ;^  16 ; 
houscrwaid,  £i\i  inclusive  of  tea  and 
sugar.  Beer,  is. 2d.  each, weekly;  laundry, 
IS.  2d.  each,  weekly  .  .  .         36     i     4 

Clothing  of  all  descriptions,  including  tailor's, 
milliner's,  and  dress-making  bills  (one-eighth)    50  1 3     8 

Incidentals     .  .  .  .  .         63    o    o 

;{;40o    o    o 


Veekly  Expenditure 

for 

;i^4oo  per  annum 

Rent 

£°  19    3 

Housekeeping 

3  16  II 

Wages 

0  13  10 

Clothing 

0  19     "jl 

Incidentals. 

I      4     2j 

£s  15    5 

Daily,  i6s.  sJd- ;  Monthly,  £2$. 


£7  13  10 
Daily,  £1  is.  iid. ;  Monthly,  ^33  6s.  8d. 
The  balance  in  favour  of  surplus  cash,  over  that  of  ;^500 
a  year — for  incidentals — arises  from  keeping  two  servants 
instead  of  three. 

Expenditure  for  an  Incojnc  of  £^00  a  year. 

Rent,  rates,  taxes,  and  water-rate  (one- 
eighth  of  income)    .  .  •  ,      ^62  10    o 

Housekeeping— including  laundry  expenses, 
coal,  candles,  gas  charge,  also  wines, 
spirits,  and  beer,  where  used  (one-half)     .       250    o    o 

Clothes,  including  tailor's,  dress-making,  and 
millinery  bills  (one-eighth)  .  .  62  10     o 

Wages — one-eighth,  expended  thus  :  tliree 
servants — cook,  ^18;  nurse,  or  house- 
maid, ;^i6  ;  general  servant,  ;^io;  or 
cook,  housemaid,  and  nurse — tea  and 
sugar  being  included  in  their  wages — 
_;^44.  Beer  money — is.  2d.  each  weekly — 
£(^  2s. ;  laundry,  £<^  8s.  (being  a  fraction 
less  than  is.  i\^.  weekly)  .  .  .  62  10     o 

Incidental  expenses — one-eighth       .  .         62  10    o 


Rent 

Housekeeping 

Clothing 

W^agcs 

Incidentals 


£9  12     3} 
Daily,  ^i  7s.  4?d- ;  Monthly,  ^41  3s.  4d. 

It  is  a  matter  for  prudential  consideration  whether  three 
servants  can  be  maintained  on  an  income  of  ;^5oo  a  year 
— we  thJnk  not. 

The  above  calculations  show  how  very  little  money  can 
be  honestly  spent  in  extravagance  of  any  kind,  whether  of 
clothes,  of  amusements,  of  visiting,  or  entertainments,  and 
what  perpetual  watchfulness  is  required  to  guard  against 
waste  of  the  most  trivial  nature  in  all  incomes  below  six 
hundred  a  year. 

It  will  be  observed  that  we  have  omitted  from  our  list 
the  items  of  expenditure  of  an  income  of  ;^i5o  a  year,  an 
income  which  is  a  ver}'  common  one.  In  our  next  paper 
on  this  subject  we  propose  to  enter  at  still  greater  length 
and  in  fuller  detail  into  the  question  of  household  ex- 
penses, and  to  take  the  ;^I50  income  as  the  basis  of  a 
more  exhaustive  article. 


i^5o=> 

0    0 

^^500  a  year. 

.     /I 

4 

0} 

4 

16 

2i 

I 

4 

o\ 

I 

4 

o\ 

I 

4 

ok 

COOKING. 


COOKING. 

PLAIN   COOKERY. — INTRODUCTION. 

Everybody  knows  that  a  good  cook  is  an  economical 
cook,  so  that  a  knowledge  of  the  elementary  rules 
regarding  the  preparation  of  food  must  prove  an  economy 
to  all,  and  not  only  an  economy  of  money,  but  of 
life  and  strength,  by  cnabHng  people  to  get  better  food, 
and  thus  obtain  more  actual  nourishment  out  of  the 
materials  they  can  afford  to  provide. 

The  great  secret  in  cooking  is  to  make  food  palatable, 
and  not  to  waste  the  nutriment  contained  in  the  meat, 
neither  to  let  it  boil  out  or  steam  out.  If  you  boil  your 
.  dinner,  always  keep  the  liquor  in  which  it  is  boiled ;  there 
must  be  the  very  essence  of  the  meat  in  it,  and  it  is  there- 
fore always  good  for  vegetable  soup.  Always  cover  your 
pot,  and  let  the  steam,  which  contains  the  strength,  fall 
back  into  the  stew.  Never  waste  anything.  Remember 
the  old  adage,  "  Waste  not,  want  not."  Save  every  bone, 
every  leaf,  every  crust,  and  make  them  into  soup,  if  not 


abandon  altogether  the  attempt  to  cook  their  dinners 
for  themselves,  and  after  preparing  it  in  the  rudest 
possible  form,  send  it  to  the  baker's  oven  to  be  cooked, 
a  proceeding  utterly  wasteful  and  bad,  the  reason  show- 
ing upon  the  very  face  of  it  ;  for  how  is  it  possible 
that  dishes  of  all  sizes  and  sorts  can  be  equally  well 
cooked  in  the  same  heat  ?  Besides,  think  of  the  different 
gases  all  condensing,  and  flowing  mingled  back  upon 
the  meat.  Fish,  flesh,  fowl,  pastry,  and  vegetables,  all 
share  alike.  Then,  again,  there  is  the  mixture  of 
gravy,  for  basting  must  go  on  quite  "promiscuously." 
You  cannot  expect  the  baker's  man  to  dip  his  ladle 
into  the  very  dish  he  wants  to  baste.  Will  he  not, 
as  a  matter  of  course,  dip  where  the  dish  is  deepest 
and  handiest  ? 

In  many  families  of  moderate  means,  after  the  Sunday 
dinner  is  eaten,  the  meat  that  is  left  comes  in  cold  day 
after  day  through  the  week  until  it  is  consumed.  Such  a 
disagreeable  sameness  might  easily  be  avoided,  and  a 
wholesome  and  pleasant  variety  be  obtained,  by  a  slight 


Fig-  2. 


for  your  own  children,  for  the  children  of  those  poorer 
than  yourself. 

It  should  always  be  remembered  that  "  wholesome 
fare"  is  well-prepared  fare,  and  fare  necessary  to  keep  up 
the  system,  especially  where  there  is  an  extra  amount  of 
wear  and  tear  by  any  exhausting  labour.  In  rural  dis- 
tricts, where  work  is  done  in  the  open  air,  and  without 
any  excitement  to  the  nervous  system,  nature  does  not 
seem  to  make  such  large  demands  for  replenishment,  and 
turns  out  fine  muscular  men  upon  no  stronger  feeding 
than  potatoes  and  oatmeal.  This,  however,  does  not  hold 
good  in  all  cases.  With  many  animal  food  is  a  necessity, 
and  reasoning  from  this  necessity,  it  is  not  too  much 
to  argue  that  every  young  woman  ought  to  study  the 
rudiments  of  cookery — so  as  to  learn  that  a  clear  quick 
fire  is  required  to  cook  a  chop  or  a  steak,  which  may  be 
rendered  tender  by  beating,  either  with  the  point  of  a  knife 
or  a  rolling-pin  ;  that  a  stew  ought  never  to  boil ;  that 
meat  boiled  is  meat  spoiled,  unless  simmered  ;  that  vege- 
tables must  be  put  in  boiling  water,  and  without  a  cover  ; 
that  bread  goes  twice  as  far,  and  is  three  times  as  whole- 
some stale  as  fresh  ;  and  that  brovvn  flour  is  much  more 
nutritious  and  cheaper  than  white. 

Many  people,  especially  such  as  live  in  large  towns, 


but  sound  knowledge  of  cooking.  Of  course,  some  people 
have  greater  facilities  than  others.  Where  there  is  a 
small  garden  a  good  dinner  may  be  eaten  every  day ; 
but  even  without  this,  it  is  possible,  by  a  little  judicious 
economy,  to  obtain  a  regular  supply  of  vegetables. 

As  almost  all  who  possess  a  garden  may  keep  a  pig 
and  a  few  hens,  they  may  vary  their  bill  of  fare,  either 
by  using  or  selling  the  home  produce.  For  growing 
children  a  full  supply  of  food  is  a  necessary  to  health 
and  development.  Where  oatmeal  is  cheap,  nothing 
can  be  better  than  well -boiled  porridge;  but  where 
any  prejudice  exists  against  this,  let  the  breakfast  and 
supper  consist  of  coarse  brown  bread,  and,  if  you  can 
get  it,  skim  or  butter  milk ;  if  not,  treacle  and  toast- 
and-water. 

Children  will  generally  thrive  well  upon  bread  alone, 
but  nature  requires  something  else,  and  the  more  you  can 
vary  the  diet,  even  by  the  use  of  common  vegetables 
boiled  down,  the  better.  Onions  are  easily  grown,  are 
cheap  to  buy,  and  contg-in  a  large  amount  of  nutriment ; 
so,  too,  do  carrots  ;  both  are  wholesome  and  palatable, 
and  make  a  loaf  of  bread  go  much  further.  Always  teach 
children  to  masticate  their  food,  and  eat  slowly  ;  half  the 
quantity  so  eaten  will  suffice.     Bolting  food  is  not  only 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


5 


wasteful  but  unhealthy,  and  ought  to  be  carefully  guarded 
against. 

In  France  the  culinary  art  is  much  more  generally 
known  or  understood  than  in  Great  Britain,  and  without 
doubt  Scotland  and  the  Border  land  come  next  in  at- 
tention to  it  in  its  simpler  branches. 

As  a  rule,  people  in  this  country  do  not  pay  sufficient 
itention  to  the  matter  of  culinary  vessels  ;  quite  for- 
getting that  it  is  really  the  best  economy  to  have  such 
vessels  as  will  enable  them  to  cook  their  food  easily  and 
well  without  at  the  same  time  necessitating  any  great 
outlay.  In  many  houses  in  this  country  a  great  deal  of 
fuel  is  wasted  in  the  large  open  grates  generally  in  use, 
and  they  are  being  consequently  superseded  in  most 
places  by  some  sort  of  cooking  range.  P"ig.  i  shows 
a  range  suitable  for  a  household  of  moderate  means, 
which  will  be  found  convenient  and  economical ;  to  the 
details  of  such  a  range  we  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  in 
treating  of  the  preparation  of  various  dishes. 

It  will  be  found  an  economical  plan  to  use  a  stove  like 
that  shown  on  page  4,  Fig.  2,  ranging  from  about  two  feet 
and  a  half  by  two,  and  only  containing  an  oven  (the  larger 
sizes  have  a  boiler  as  well).  They  heat  equally  all  over ; 
will  boil,  bake,  and  roast,  all  at  once ;  use  very  little  fuel, 
and  can  be  allowed  to  go  out  directly  their  work  is  done. 
In  addition  to  this  they  are  easy  to  manage ;  the  saucepans 
require  little  or  no  scrubbing,  as  they  never  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  smoke  ;  and  the  consumption  of  fuel  is  very 
small.  We  use  coke  to  advantage,  French  people  use 
charcoal,  but  coal  is  the  best.  The  first  outlay  in  a  stove 
without  a  boiler  is  about  £1  los.,  with  a  boiler,  £■}) ;  and 
this  is  soon  saved  in  fuel  and  time  occupied  in  cleaning 
the  saucepans. 

A  frying-pan,  a  gridiron,  a  saucepan,  and  a  three-legged 
pot  or  "getlin,"  are  all  the  culinary  utensils  absolutely 
necessary  for  ordinary  plain  cookery.  These  vary  in  price, 
according  to  size  ;  for  example- — a  moderate-sized  gridiron 
costing  from  is.  2d.  to  2s.  6d. ;  frying-pan,  is.  to  is.  6d. ; 
saucepan,  is.  6d.  to  3s.  ;  iron  pot,  4s.  6d.  to  7s.  With 
these,  a  decent  cook  can  do  all  that  is  necessary.  As 
for  a  roasting-jack,  nothing  is  better  than  a  skewer  and 
a  hank  of  yarn. 

The  gridiron  is  a  serviceable  utensil,  which  deserves 
to  be  kept  with  special  care.  It  is  not  unfrequcntly  the 
friend  in  need  to  whom  we  resort  when  other  means  of 
cooking  fail.  It  has  also  been  made  the  subject  of 
modern  improvements.  In  olden  time  a  silver  gridiron 
was  the  pride  of  aristocratic  cooks ;  but  an  enamelled  or 
a  well  tinned  one  is  scarcely  its  inferior.  A  good  gridiron 
now  has  grooved  bars  (as  shown  in  Fig.  3),  which  render 
the  double  service  of  keeping  the  fire  clear  of  dropping 
fat,  and  consequently  of  smoke,  and  of  conducting  the 
gravy  to  a  trough  in  front,  whence  it  may  be  poured 
over  steaks  or  chops  in  their  dish. 

A  rusty  gridiron  will  not  improve  a  steak,  while  one 
still  greasy  with  last  week's  broil  will  spoil  it.  Although 
not  made  of  silver,  it  should  be  as  bright,  and  scrupulously 
clean  between  the  bars.  For  broiling,  a  charcoal  fire  is 
best ;  a  coke  fire,  second  best.  With  a  cinder  fire,  you 
must  wait  till  it  is  quite  clear,  and  then  sprinkle  it  with 
salt.  Then  heat  your  gridiron  before  laying  on  the 
steak,  otherwise  the  parts  touching  the  bars  will  remain 
raw  when  the  rest  is  cooked.  \i  made  too  hot,  the 
bars  will  burn  and  char  the  steak,  marking  it  with  black 
hnes,  besides  spoiling  the  flavour.  Turning  the  steak 
several  times  keeps  the  gravy  inside.  This  turning, 
which  should  be  done  not  with  a  fork,  but  with  a  pair  of 
meat  tongs,  will  slightly  prolong  the  time  of  cooking. 
A  good  rump  steak  will  take  ten  minutes;  pork  chops 
and  mutton  cutlets  less,  according  to  their  thickness; 
the  former,  however,  should  always  be  well  done.  For 
turning  chops  and  steaks  without  pricking  them  with  a 
fork,  a  double  gridiron  has  been  invented,  the  only  objec- 


tions to  which  are  that  it  is  more  trouble  to  keep  clean 
and  less  easy  to  heat  its  bars  equally  to  the  proper 
temperature.  When  placed  on  the  fire,  the  gridiron 
should  stand  forwards,  to  cause  the  fat  to  run  in 
that  direction,  instead  of  dropping  into  the  fire,  and  so 
smoking  the  steak.  This  position  is  now  insured  by 
making  the  hind  legs  of  the  gridiron  higher  than  the 
front  ones,  as  shown  in  our  illustration.  Fig.  3. 

The  above  utensils  we  have  indicated  here  as  especially 
useful  in  a  household  of  moderate  means.  As  our  work 
proceeds,  we  shall  give  illustrations  of  others  necessary  for 
the  more  advanced  and  elaborate  branches  of  cookery,  and 
proceed  now  with 

SIMPLE  RECIPES. 

Bread  is  the  Briton's  staff  of  life  ;  we  therefore  begin 
our  Homely  Cookery  with  that  important  article  of  food. 
It  is  sometimes  a  good  deal  helped  out  with  potatoes,  but 
the  use  of  more  than  a  certain  proportion  of  that  vegetable 
is  not  desirable  for  maintaining  strength.  People  who  live 
almost  entirely  on  potatoes  become  too  stout,  and  are 
comparatively  weak.  The  Hindoos  and  other  Eastern 
nations,  who  eat  little  besides  rice,  are  inferior  in  bodily 
strength  not  only  to  the  northern  peoples  of  Europe,  who 
consume  fish  in  large  quantities,  and  to  the  South  American 
races  of  men,  whose  diet  is  meat  exclusively,  but  to 
brcad-and-meat  eating  people  like  ourselves.  It  is  the 
large  quantity  of  bread  they  consume  that  maintains  the 
strength  of  the  French  labourers,  many  of  whom  do  not 
taste  fresh  meat  more  than  once  or  twice  a  year.  All  the 
soups  so  liked  by  the  working  classes  in  France,  contain 
soaked  bread  in  some  shape  or  another. 

Bread,  if  we  think  of  it,  is  an  ingenious  contrivance  for 
rendering  corn  eatable  by  human  mouths,  and  digestible 
by  human  stomachs,  which  could  only  have  been  discovered 
step  by  step.  The  eating  of  dry  barley,  wheat,  or  rye,  must 
have  been  working  hard  for  one's  living.  Even  frumity 
(new  wheat  boiled  soft  and  flavoured  with  sugar,  nutmeg, 
and  eggs)  is  tolerably  trying  to  the  jaws.  Pounded  corn 
might  furnish  an  ingredient  for  stews  and  gruel ;  after  the 
further  invention  of  grinding  it  into  flour  between  two  flat 
stones,  it  would  make  porridge,  and  could  even  be  baked 
on  the  hearth  into  cakes,  which,  however,  would  not  yet 
be  bread.  It  is  the  FERMENTATION,  the  "working,"  the 
causing  of  the  dough  to  "rise "  and  become  light,  without 
which  there  is  no  real  bread.  Unleavened  bread  is  an 
incomplete  article,  the  produce  of  an  unfinished  process  ; 
and  is  therefore  the  symbol  of  pressure,  danger,  and  con- 
sequent haste,  in  the  eyes  of  the  persons  who  partake  of  it 
at  stated  seasons.  We  may  believe  that  the  discovery  of 
the  fermentation  of  dough,  converting  it  from  heavy- 
cake  into  light  bread,  was  the  result  of  some  lucky 
accident. 

Good  Household  Bread. — To  ten  pounds  of  flour  in 
your  kneading-trough,  put  a  small  handful  of  salt.  Stir 
into  this  about  two  quarts  of  water,  more  or  less  ;  but 
some  flours  will  soak  up  more  water  than  others.  For 
very  white  bread,  made  with  superfine  flour,  the  dough 
should  be  softer  than  for  seconds  or  brown  bread.  In 
summer  the  water  may  be  milk-warm  ;  in  winter,  con- 
siderably warmer,  but  never  hci  enough  to  kill  the  yeast. 
After  the  water  is  mixed  with  the  flour,  add  the  yeast 
Much  depends  on  the  quality  of  the  yeast.  Then  knead 
your  bread.  After  kneading,  leave  it  to  rise  in  a  warm  ' 
place,  covered  with  a  cloth.  If  all  goes  well,  it  will  have 
risen  in  something  between  an  hour  and  an  hour  and 
a  half.  Then  divide  it  into  rolls,  loaves,  or  tin-breads, 
as  wanted,  and  bake. 

For  a  three-pound  loaf,  you  must  take  three  pounds 
and  a  half  of  dough;  for  a  four-pound  loaf,  four  pounds 
eleven  ounces  ;  for  a  six-pound  loaf,  six  pounds  and 
three-quarters  ;  and  for  an  eight-pound  loaf,  nine  pounds 
of  dough. 

You  cannot  make  good  bread  without  good  water.    The 


HINTS  ON  CARVING. 


water  should  be  good  drinking  water,  pure  both  to  the 
taste  and  smell — water  which  dissolves  soap  without 
curdling,  and  which  boils  fresh  vegetables  green,  and  dry 
vegetables  (as  peas  and  haricots)  tender.  None  is  better 
than  rain-water,  when  it  can  be  had  clean  and  without 
the  taste  of  soot.  •)(  Stagnant  water,  hard  water,  and  water 
from  melted  ice  or  snow,  arc  all  to  be  avoided.  The 
quality  of  the  water  has  a  considerable  effect  on  the 
quantity  of  it  which  the  flour  will  take  up.  The  quantity 
varies  according  to  the  kind  of  bread  you  want  to  make, 
and  even  according  to  the  season.  You  can  put  in  more 
water  in  winter  than  in  summer,  because  the  dough  re- 
mains firmer  in  winter  than  in  summer. 

It  takes  more  water  to  make  soft  bread,  like  the  French, 
\han  to  make  firm  bread,  like  the  generality  of  bakers' 
bread  in  England.  When  it  is  kneaded  with  salt  and 
yeast,  as  for  making  unusually  light  rolls,  there  enters  into 
the  composition  of  the  dough  almost  as  much  water  as 
flour.  The  smaller  the  rolls  are,  the  less  stiff  the  dough 
should  be.  But,  as  we  have  already  stated,  exact  precision 
in  these  matters  is  not  possible.  In  kneading  dough,  too 
much  water  is  less  inconvenient  than  too  little.  Never- 
theless, when  the  dough  is  too  moist,  the  "eyes"  in 
the  bread  become  too  big,  irregular,  and  unequal  ; 
and  the  crust  is  apt  to  separate  from  the  bread  and  get 
burnt. 

Oaten  bread  requires  to  be  made  with  warni  water,  good 
yeast  and  plenty  of  it,  and  to  be  well  kneaded  ;  to  be 
thoroughly  baked  in  a  hot  oven,  and  left  there  some  time, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  loaf,  because  the  inside  is  apt 
to  be  pasty.  Barley-bread  takes  less  yeast,  but  should  also 
be  thoroughly  baked  in  a  brisk  oven.  The  German  pea- 
santry make  bread  with  a  mixture  of  barley-flour  and 
potatoes,  which  they  highly  relish,  custom  being  second 
nature.  For  rye-bread,  make  a  stiff  dough  with  cold 
water  and  plenty  of  good  yeast ;  knead  well ;  when  risen, 
put  it  into  a  smart  oven,  and  be  in  no  hurry  to  take  it  out. 
In  Sweden,  bread  is  made  with  a  mixture  of  flour  and 
barley  ;  in  some  districts,  buckwheat-flour  is  mixed  with 
rye-flour. 

When  yeast  cannot  be  got,  we  recommend  the  following 
way  of  making 

Bread  without  Yeast. — To  every  half-quartern  of  flour, 
add  one  teaspoonful  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt.  Mix  all  together ;  then,  to  the  water 
sufficient  to  make  a  dough,  add  half  a  teaspoonful  of 
niJiriatic  acid.  Set  into  the  oven  at  once.  This  makes 
beautiful  sweet  bread,  and  is  wholesome.  Some  use  tar- 
taric acid  ;  in  which  case  the  bread  will  contain  tartrate 
of  soda,  which,  although  not  poisonous,  is  medicinal — 
slightly  purgative  even.  On  the  other  hand,  muriatic  acid 
neutralises  soda  just  as  well  as  tartaric  acid,  and  the 
resulting  compound  is  only  common  salt. 

Potato  P/t'.— There  is  one  dish,  a  home  invention, 
which  will   be  found   both   useful  and   economical,    and 


each  end.  Fill  the  pie-dish  with  slices  of  cold  meat, 
two  boiled  onions,  a  little  seasoning,  and  a  cup  of  water  ; 
flour  the  meat,  and  set  on  the  tin  lid.  Pile  upon  the  lid 
cold  mashed  potatoes,  done  up  with  salt,  pepper,  and  a 
little  dripping  (as  shown  in  Fig.  5),  and  bake,  either  in  a 
regular  oven  or  before  the  fire,  for  an  hour.  When  served, 
lift  up  the  lid  and  place  it  with  the  potatoes  upon  a  spare 
dish. 


Potaio  Duvipling. — This  cheap,  simple,  and  whole- 
some preparation  o'f  food,  not  much  known  in  England, 
but  which  forms  the  daily  meal  of  poor  artisans  and 
others  in  North  Germany  (who  never  taste  meat,  and, 
as  they  say,  never  think  of  it),  will  be  found  to  supply  a 
useful  variety  in  nurseries,  and  for  invalids  whose  allow- 
ance of  meat  is  limited.  The  potatoes,  which  must  be 
mealy  and  of  good  quality,  are  cooked  in  the  usual  way, 
and  then  pounded.  To  three  parts  of  potatoes  put  one 
part  of  wheat-flour,  with  a  httle  salt,  and  mix  them  well 
together.  Milk  sufficient  to  make  a  paste  is  then  stirred 
in,  and  it  is  to  be  boiled  ia  a  cloth  or  basin.  The 
proper  length  of  time  for  cooking  can  only  be  learned 
by  experience,  but  it  must  be  well  boiled.  It  will  then 
be  firm  and  light,  and  may  be  eaten  either  with  butter 
or  meat  gravy,  or  with  cooked  apple,  stewed  prunes, 
jam,  treacle,  or  other  sweet  sauce.  It  is  very  pala- 
table with  salt  fish,  or  meat,  while  the  addition  of  suet, 
currants,  raisins,  and  sugar  converts  it  into  a  nice  plum- 
pudding. 


of  which  an  illustration  is  annexed.  Take  a  good- 
sized  pie-dish.  Cut  out  a  tin  lid  which  will  fit  down  an 
inch  at  least  below  the  level  of  the  rim  of  the  dish  (Fig.  4). 
This  must  be   perforated,  and  have  a    wire    handle    at 


HINTS   ON   CARVING. 

It  has  been  said  that  "a  poet  is  born,  not  made ;"  and 
so  it  is  to  a  great  extent  with  the  carver.  The  skill  to 
carve  well  depends  on  certain  qualities  that  are  gifts  in 
the  possessor — a  true  eye,  a  steady  and  skilful  hand. 
Still,  even  those  who  do  not  possess  a  natural  aptitude, 
acquire  the  art  by  care  and  perseverance  sufficiently  to 
enable  them  to  acquit  themselves  without  awkwardness, 
or  the  risk  of  wasting  and  spoiling  what  they  attempt  to 
carve,  though  they  may  not  be  able  ever  to  attain  to 
that  almost  magical  dexterity  with  which  some  people 
appear  to  be  gifted;  and  even  those  who  possess  this 
natural  skill  will  find  it  useless,  without  they  take  care 
to  discover  the  best  and  most  advantageous  modes  of 
cutting  the  viands  brought  to  table. 

There  are  many  persons  who  fancy  that  as  long  as 
a  joint  is  cut  up,  it  little  matters  how  it  is  done  ;  they 
would,  by  travestying  the  words  of  Shakespeare, "  stand 
not  upon  the  order  of  their  cutting,  but  cut  at  once,"  and 
have  a  notion  that  all  attempts  at  choice  carving  are  con- 
temptible—mere extravagances  of  fancy,  or  epicurean 
self-indulgence.  But  no  greater  mistake  was  ever  made. 
Not  only  is  it  true  that  meat  is  twice  as  nice  if  nicely 
divided,  but  also  a  joint  properly  carved  will  go  nearly 
twice  as  far  as  another  of  similar  size  and  weight  clumsily 
cut  up  ;  and  every  careful  housewife  and  true  economist 
will  do  her  .best  to  master  the  art  of  carving  as  soon  as 
possible.  Not  only  will  she  be  taking  the  best  means  to 
avoid  waste,  but  she  will  also  get  the  credit  of  keeping  a 
well-provided  table  ;  for  even  where  there  is  but  little  to 
serve,  if  it  is  well  cooked,  well  carved,  well  served,  and 
neatly  put    on    the   table,    a    single   dish   is    preferable 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


to  a  profusion  ill  prepared.  Even  in  so  small  a 
matter  as  cutting  a  slice  of  bread,  a  loaf  always  cut 
straight  and  even  goes  much  fartiicr  than  one  hacked 
and  hewn  irregularly,  or  in  all  directions,  and  it  is 
palatable  to  the  last  piece,  so  that  there  is  no  excuse 
for  leaving  odds  and  ends.  Every  good  housewife 
should  make  a  rule  in  this  matter,  to  which  she  should, 
expressing  her  wishes  in  a  courteous  and  gentle  manner, 
compel  every  member  of  the  household  and  every  visitor 
to  adhere— that  is,  to  begin  at  the  top  of  the  loaf,  and 
take  off  the  two  sides  equally,  and  in  cvcnly-cut  pieces. 
Nothing  is  more  disagreeable  than  to  come  to  tabic,  and 
be  served  with  a  loaf  of  bread  after  some  careless  slattern 
has  hacked  it  about  in  all  directions. 

Leg  of  Afu//o;i.— This  joint  is  the  most  frequent  staple 
•of  the  family  dinner,  and  yet  is  very  often  badly  cut.  The 
leg  of  mutton  comes  to  table  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
Fig.  I.  Take  the  carving-fork  as  usual  in  your  left 
hand,  and  plant  it  firmly  in  the  joint,  as  shown  by  A 


Fig.    I. — LEG   OF   MUTTON. 

in  Fig.  I,  placing  it  rather  over  to  the  other  side  of 
the  joint,  and  drawing  the  leg  over  towards  you  on  the 
■dish  about  one  third,  which  brings  the  position  of  the 
fork  from  A  to  B.  Cut  straight  down  across  the  joint 
at  the  line  marked  C,  not  qaiU  to  the  bone.  Make 
the  second  cut  a  little  on  the  slant,  as  shown  in  D,  and 
take  the  piece  out.  Continue  cutting  from  each  side 
slantingly  as  the  line  marked  D    either  from  the  thick 


Fig.  2. — BACK   OF   LEG  OF  MUTTON. 

or  the  knuckle  end,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  person 
to  be  helped.  A  very  small  piece  of  the  udder  fat  should  be 
given  with  each  slice  of  meat  to  those  who  like  it.  The 
knuckle,  if  any  one  asks  for  it,  is  first  cut  off  in  a  lump, 
as  shown  by  the  circular  line  at  F,  and  afterwards  in  slices. 
Mutton  should  be  cut  thick,  but  it  should  not  be  cut  to 
the  bone  ;  the  slices  in  the  centre  should  not  penetrate  as 
far  as  the  circular  kernel  of  fat  found  there,  and  called  the 


"  pope's  eye,"  which  it  is  generally  considered  best  to  leave 
for  hashing.  But  some  persons  consider  the  pope's  eye 
a  delicacy ;  in  that  case  it  is  sliced  out  in  a  lump  with  a 
circular  cut,  similar  to  that  used  to  remove  the  knuckle, 
but  twice  as  large.  The  pope's  eye  should  be  cut  out 
entire,  with  a  handsome  piece  of  meat  round  it.  The 
back  of  a  leg  of  mutton  is  not  generally  cut  until  cold, 
when  it  is  best  sliced  lengthways,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2  ;  the 
meat  is  still  cut  thick,  but  not  quite  so  thick  as  in  the  cuts 
previously  described.  Cold  mutton  should  be  ser\'ed  with 
mashed  potatoes  and  pickles,  and  the  remains  hashed,  as 
there  is  much  left  on  the  bone  that  does  not  cut  up  well 
hot  or  cold.  There  is  a  part  called  the  " cramp  bone"  in 
a  leg  of  mutton,  which  may  be  removed  by  a  circular  cut 
from  H  to  I  in  Fig.  2  ;  it  is  usually  relished  cold.  Fig.  2 
shows  the  joint  when  turned  three  parts  over,  held  by  the 
fork,  as  previously  described,  and  the  dotted  line  at  J 
indicates  the  direction  of  the  first  cut. 

S.h'loin  of  Beef. — This  is  served  as  shown  in  Fig.  2 
of  the  coloured  plate,  with  tufts  of  horse-radish  on  the 
top.  A  sirloin  should  be  cut  with  one  good  firm  stroke 
from  end  to  end  of  the  joint,  at  the  upper  portion, 
making  the  cut  very  clean  and  even  from  A,  B  to  c.  Fig.  3. 
Then  disengage  it  from  the  bone  by  a  horizontal  cut 
exactly  to  the  bone,  B  to  D,  using  the  tip  of  the  knife. 
Bad  carving  bears  the  hand  away  to  the  rind  of  the  beef, 
eventually,  after  many  cuts,  peeling  it  back  to  the  other 
side,  leaving  a  portion  of  the  best  of  the  meat  adhering 
rigidly  to  the  bone.  Every  slice  should  be  clean  and 
even,  and  the  sirloin  should  cut  fairly  to  the  ver>'  end. 
Most  persons  cut  the  under  side  whilst  hot,  not  reckoning 
it  so  good  cold  ;  but  this  is  a  matter  of  taste,  and  so  is 
the  mode  of  carving  it.  The  best  way  is  first  of  all  to 
remove  the  fat,  E,  which  chops  up  well  to  make  puddings, 
if  not  eaten  at  table.  Then  the  under  part  can  be  cut,  as 
already  described,  from  end  to  end,  F  to  C,  or  down- 
wards, as  shown,  by  the  marks  at  H. 


F'S-  3- — SIRLOIN  OF  BEEF. 


Roast  ribs  of  beef  are  cut  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
upper  portion  of  a  sirloin.  Each  person  should  be  asked  if 
he  prefers  his  meat  well  done  or  with  the  gravy  in  it  (/>., 
underdone),  and  if  fat  is  desired.  The  outer  cuts  of  roast 
beef-  are  of  course  the  most  cooked,  the  inner  ones  the 
reverse. 


DOMESTIC  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY. 

I,— introduction- 
Medical  men  have  a  natural  prejudice  against  systems 
of  domestic  medicine.  They  know,  better  than  anybody 
else  can  know,  the  difficulty  of  understanding  the  very 
simplest  medical  facts.  They  know  how  often,  with  all 
their  special  knowledge,  acquired  by  years  of  study  and 
close  obser\-ation  of  disease,  they  are  themselves  puzzled 
in  trying  to  explain  fully  the  coses  which  they  meet  with. 


DOMESTIC   MEDICINE   AND    SURGERY. 


It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  then,  that  they  should  have  a 
distrust  of  domestic  medicine,  and  have  a  strong  tendency 
to  advise  people  that  are  not  well,  not  to  take  this 
medicine  or  the  other,  but  "  to  send  for  the  doctor."  And 
yet  a  little  reflection  will  show  that  there  must  be  more  or 
less  of  domestic  medicine.  People  will  try  their  hands  at 
curing  themselves  or  their  children  ;  sind  for  two  or  three 
reasons  such  experiments  are  not  to  be  altogether  dis- 
couraged. In  the  first  place,  there  are  some  ailments  that 
are  really  very  trifling  and  require  for  their  treatment  only 
a  little  care  and  common  sense.  They  are  not  grave 
enough  to  need  medical  science  or  to  be  materially  helped 
by  it.  It  seems  scarcely  respectful  to  the  profession  to 
cull  it  in  to  cure  a  common  cold,  or  the  stomach-ache 
which  clearly  comes  of  having  eaten  forbidden  fruit. 
Then  there  is  another  good  reason  for  trying  to  help 
people  to  understand  the  rudiments  of  medicine  for 
domestic  purposes.  They  are  often  so  situated  as  to  be 
out  of  the  reach  of  immediate  assistance.     A  sudden  faint 


At  the  same  time,  opportunity  will  be  taken  to  point  out 
those  circumstances  that  indicate  the  necessity  for  im- 
mediate recourse  to  a  medical  man,  and  the  rules  laid 
down  must  be  regarded  as  only  preliminary  to  his  arrival, 
and  on  no  account  to  be  insisted  on  should  he,  from  the 
special  nature  of  the  case,  see  fit  to  carry  out  some 
different  mode  of  treatment.  Great  harm  may  be  done  to 
a  patient  by  injudicious  meddling  on  the  part  of  a  well- 
meaning,  but  only  partially-informed  friend,  who,  finding 
the  treatment  being  pursued  under  medical  advice  different 
from  that  here  laid  down,  should  venture  to  express  dis- 
approval, and  shake  the  confidence  of  the  patient  or  his 
friends  in  their  medical  adviser.  When  a  patient's  case 
has  once  been  undertaken  by  a  medical  man,  it  is  only 
just,  and  for  his  own  interest,  that  the  surgeon  should  be 
treated  honestly,  his  directions  fairly  carried  out,  and  his 
prescriptions  attended  to.  If  a  patient  or  his  friends  are 
dissatisfied  with  their  medical  attendant,  it  is  always  opca 
to  them  to  have  further  medical  advice. 


Fig.  2. 


may  happen,  or  a  vein  or  artery  may  be  bleeding  fast,  and 
even  a  near  doctor  may  be  too  far  off ;  or  the  doctor  may 
live  at  a  great  distance ;  and  a  little  wise  instruction  would 
save  hours  of  pain  to  the  patient  and  anxiety  to  his  friends. 

Many  of  the  mistakes  of  domestic  medicine  would  be 
avoided  if  it  could  be  restricted  to  simple  cases.  But 
here  the  difficulty  arises  of  distinguishing  between  cases 
that  are  simple,  and  cases  that  are  serious.  In  an  early 
number,  we  shall  try  to  enumerate  a  few  symptoms  which 
show  disease  to  be  important,  and  therefore  beyond  the 
proper  province  of  domestic  treatment.  The  only  in- 
formation that  we  shall  pretend  to  give  concerning  such 
serious  diseases,  will  be  such  as  will  enable  our  readers  to 
form  some  intelligent  notions  of  their  nature,  their  course, 
and  their  symptoms  ;  and,  what  is  perhaps  of  most  im- 
portance, to  understand  the  onset  of  them,  and  the  kind 
of  symptoms  which  indicate  a  severe  attack. 

The  object  of  the  articles  on  Domestic  Surgery  will  be, 
not  the  perfectly  futile  and  mischievous  one  of  attempting 
to  make  every  one  his  own  surgeon,  but  only  to  furnish 
our  readers  with  such  simple  rules  for  the  treatment  of 
the  slight  accidents  and  emergencies  of  every  day  life  as 
are  commonly  treated  without  resorting  to  medical  advice. 


There  are  certain  affections  which  are  commonly  de- 
nominated "  surgical,"  because  they  require  some  manual 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  attendant.  These  will  be 
briefly  discussed,  in  order  to  point  out  how  far  they  may 
with  safety  be  treated  domestically,  and  v/hen  it  will  be 
desirable,  and  even  essential,  to  have  professional  advice. 
Opportunity  will  be  taken,  in  connection  with  these 
subjects,  to  describe  the  mode  of  preparation  of  poultices 
and  other  applications  of  household  surgery,  which, 
though  they  are  in  fact  matters  of  every  day  requirement, 
are  frequently  mismanaged. 

It  may  be  here  remarked  how  essential  for  relief  in 
these  surgical  affections  it  is  that  there  should  be  no 
concealment  of  symptoms  from  one's  medical  adviser,  on 
account  of  scruples,  no  doubt  honourable,  but  misplaced,^ 
because  of  the  so-called  "  delicacy  "  of  some  of  the  sub- 
jects involved.  Valuable  lives  (as  for  instance,  that  of 
Caroline,  queen  of  George  II.)  have  been  lost  from  the 
concealment  of  the  existence  of  a  rupture  ;  and  many 
persons  live  a  life  of  discomfort  for  years,  and  even  allow 
their  health  to  be  undermined  by  some  concealed  affec- 
tion of  the  lower  bowel  which  can  be  readily  remedied  by 
medical  advice. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


H/EMORRHAGE. 

Bleeding,  which  is  a  constant  accompaniment  of  acci- 
dental cuts  and  wounds,  is  always  very  alarming  to  non- 
professional bystanders,  and  it  occasionally  happens  that 
for  want  of  knowing  how  to  arrest  it  readily,  serious 
results  occur  before  the  arrival  of  professional  aid.  In 
order  to  be  able  to  stop  bleeding  the  reader  must  under- 
stand that  blood  may  be  poured  out  in  two  ways — ist, 
pumped  out  in  jets  of  a  bright  red  colour,  in  which  case 
one  of  tlie  arteries  which  convey  the  blood  from  the  heart 
to  the  surface  is  wounded  ;  or,  2ndly,  it  may  flow  out  in  a 
dark-coloured  continuous  stream  from  the  veins  which  re- 
turn the  blood  from  the  limbs  to  the  heart.  In  many  cases, 
however,  the  injury  is  a  mixed  one,  and  the  blood,  though 
principally  venous,  is  mmgled  with  blood  poured  out  by 
arteries  too  small  to  give  their  characteristic  jet. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  wound  of  an  artery  of  large 


possible  by  a  medical   man,  and  the  bandage  should  on 
no  account  be  interfered  with  before  his  arrival. 

Before  explaining  the  mode  of  applying  the  dressings 
necessary  to  restrain  haemorrhage  of  an  ordinary  kind,  it 
will  be  advisable  to  say  a  few  words  about  bandages.  A 
bandage  or  roller  is  simply  a  strip  of  calico,  six  yards  in 
length,  and  from  two  to  three  inches  in  width.  Soft  un- 
bleached calico  or  coarse  cambric  is  the  best  for  this 
purpose,  but  on  an  emergency  any  suitable  material  may 
be  employed  ;  and  for  binding  up  fingers  broad  tape  or 
narrow  ribbon  is  very  convenient.  In  order  to  use  a 
bandage  properly  it  must  be  rolled  neatly  and  tightly 
from  one  or  both  ends,  as  seen  in  Fig.  2  ;  but  it  is 
only  the  "  single-headed  roller,"  or  that  rolled  from  one 
end,  which  can  be  required  in  domestic  surgery.  A 
bandage  may  either  be  rolled  by  keeping  it  tight  with  the 
thumb  and  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  whilst  being  rolled. 


Fig.  6 


4P^' 


size  will  give  rise  to  the  most  serious  form  of  bleeding, 
and  as  the  blood  in  this  case  is  flowing  from  the  heart  to 
the  circumference,  we  must  arrest  it  between  the  trunk 
and  the  wound  by  compressing  the  main  artery.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  bleeding  is  from  the  wound  or  rupture 
of  a  large  vein,  the  point  for  the  application  of  the 
pressure  will  be  either  upon  or  below  the  wound.  In  the 
case  of  the  upper  arm  the  principal  artery  runs  along  the 
inner  side  of  the  limb,  where  it  may  easily  be  felt  beating, 
and  in  the  case  of  arterial  bleeding  from  the  hand  or  arm, 
pressure  can  be  efficiently  obtained  by  tying  a  strong 
tape  or  handkerchief  around  the  arm  and  tightening  it  by 
twisting  a  stick  in  it  on  the  outer  side  of  the  limb,  as 
shown  in  the  cut.  Fig.  i.  In  the  thigh  the  main  artery 
runs  down  the  middle  of  the-front  of  the  limb,  and  can  be 
controlled  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  arm.  In  both  cases 
the  introduction  of  a  wine  cork  beneath  the  handkerchief 
in  the  situation  of  the  vessel  will  lead  to  more  efficient 
pressure  upon  it,  and  without  so  much  tightening  of  the 
bandage  as  would  be  otherwise  necessary. 

This  mode  of  extemporising  what  is  surgically  called  a 
tourniquet,  is  of  course  only  for  temporary  employment, 
and  any  case  in  which  the  bleeding  has  been  severe 
enough   to   require  its  use  should  be  seen  as   soon   as 


with  the  right,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3  ;  or  this  may  be 
more  conveniently  and  rapidly  done  by  using  both  hands 
for  rolling,  whilst  the  bandage  is  kept  on  the  stretch  by 
an  assistant,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

In  bleeding  from  slight  cuts  about  the  fingers  and 
hand,  plaister  (cither  court  or  adhesive)  may  be  con- 
veniently employed  if  a  bandage  is  used  over  it  at  first, 
and  until  the  plaister  has  become  firmly  fixed  ;  but  when 
the  wound  is  considerable  it  is  better  to  use  other  means. 
A  piece  of  lint  or  soft  linen  should  be  placed  over  the 
wound,  and  over  this  a  bandage  should  be  firmly  applied, 
and  should  extend  if  possible  a  little  above  and  below  the 
seat  of  the  injury.  In  the  case  of  a  finger  a  roll  of  tape 
may  be  taken,  and  ten  or  twelve  inches  being  drawn  out 
and  left  loose,  the  finger  should  be  rolled  in  a  series  of 
spiral  turns  from  the  web  to  the  nail,  where  the  spiral 
arrangement  being  reversed,  the  tape  can  be  carried  back 
again  and  across  the  back  of  the  hand,  and  tied  round 
the  wrist  with  the  end  left  out  as  in  Fig.  5.  If  the 
wound  is  in  the  ball  of  the  thumb  the  bleeding  is  often 
sufficiently  severe  to  require  medical  attendance,  and  this 
should  be  obtained,  if  possible  ;  though  the  vulgar  fear  of 
"  lock-jaw "  from  an  injury  of  this  kind  is  unfounded. 
When  it  is  necessary  to  bind  up  the  thumb  the  broad  t.".pe 


THE  REARIiNG  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  CHILDREN. 


may  be  conveniently  used,  and  a  turn  having  been  taken 
round  the  wrist  to  fix  the  bandage,  a  series  of  figure  of 
eight  loops  around  the  thumb  and  wrist  should  be  made, 
beginning  as  low  down  on  the  thumb  as  may  be  neces- 
sary, and  making  each  fold  of  the  bandage  overlap  that 
•which  preceded  it,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Fig.  6. 

Wounds  of  the  palm  of  the  hand,  if  severe,  should  be 
immediately  seen  by  a  surgeon,  but  as  a  temporary 
.measure  a  slice  of  cork  wrapped  up  in  a  piece  of  linen 
may  be  firmly  bound  upon  the  bleeding  point  with  a 
bandage.  This  should  be  applied  in  figure  of  eight  loops 
around  the  wrist  and  hand,  being  made  to  cross  at  tlae 
point  where  the  pressure  is  required,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  Fig.  8,  and  this  should  be  repeated  a  few  times 
so  as  to  control  the  bleeding.  It  may  be  advisable  where 
■assistance  is  not  readily  obtainable,  to  bandage  the  fore- 
arm in  addition,  and  this  may  be  done  by  carrying  the 
bandage  once  or  twice  round  the  wrist  alone,  and  then 
proceeding  up  the  arm,  turning  down  the  bandage  in  the 
manner  shown  in  the  illustration.  Fig.  8,  when  the  shape 
of  the  arm  does  not  allow  it  to  lie  flat  and  close  upon  the 
injured  limb. 


THE  REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF 
CHILDREN. 

I. — THE    MOTHER    AND    CABV. 

When  a  woman  is  about  to  become  a  mother,  she  ought 
to  remember  that  another  life  of  health  or  delicacy  is 
dependent  upon  the  care  she  can  take  of  herself;  that 
all  she  does  will  inevitably  affect  her  child,  and  that  men- 
tally as  well  as  physically. 

We  know  that  it  is  utterly  impossible  for  the  wife  of 
the  labouring  man  to  give  up  work,  and,  what  is  called, 
"  take  care  of  herself,"  as  others  can.  Nor  is  it  necessary. 
The  "  back  is  made  for  its  burthen."  It  would  be  just  as 
injurious  for  the  labourer's  wife  to  give  up  her  daily  work 
and  exercise,  as  for  the  lady  to  take  to  sweeping  her  own 
carpets  or  cooking  the  dinner.  Habit  becomes  second 
nature.     We  know 

"  Use  almost  can  change  tlie  stamp  of  nature." 

So  that,  although  naturally  the  delicacy  of  the  womanly 
frame  might  seem  to  demand  rest  at  such  a  time,  the 
nature  acquired  by  habit  or  use  demands,  for  health's 
sake,  the  same  routine  of  exercise  and  exertion.  He  who 
placed  one  woman  in  a  position  where  labour  and  exertion 
are  parts  of  her  existence,  gives  her  a  stronger  state  of  body 
than  her  more  luxurious  sisters.  To  one  inured  to  toil  from 
childhood,  ordinary  work  is  merely  exercise,  and,  as  such, 
necessary  to  keep  up  her  physical  powers,  though  extra 
work  should  be,  of  course,  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 
Lifting  heavy  weights,  taking  long  walks,  stooping  for 
many  hours  over  a  washing-tub — all  these  things  might 
be  avoided  or  done  in  moderation  even  by  the  cottager's 
wife. 

At  such  a  time,  too,  the  woman  ought  to  be  as  careful 
as  she  can  of  her  diet,  and  eat  regularly,  and  in  moderate 
quantity.  Over-loading  the  stomach  increases  the  sick- 
ness so  often  attendant  upon  her  state.  The  vulgar 
notion  of  what  is  called  "longing"  for  unusual  food 
should  be  discouraged  as  inconsistent  and  ridiculous. 

Country  women  very  seldom  send  for  the  doctor 
until  it  is  too  late,  and  are  therefore  subjected  to  the 
treatment  of  an  amateur,  and  often  utterly  ignorant, 
nurse,  who  acts  with  the  best  intentions  in  the  world,  and 
saves  her  neighbour  a  few  shillings,  but  will  often  lay  the 
foundation  of  many  years  of  debility  and  suffering. 

Good  and  correct  nursing  is  indispensable  to  future 
health  and  strength,  and  the  importance  of  this  people 
are  beginning  to  recognise  ;  and  ere  long,  we  may  hope 
that  every  village  will  be   supplied  with  a  trained  and 


certificated  nurse — an  invaluable  boon  to  the  cottager, 
and  the  saving  of  many  a  valuable  life. 

It  is  a  fatal  error,  very  prevalent,  however,  in  some 
classes  of  society,  that  to  get  up  soon  is  the  sign  of  a 
"clever  woman  ;"  and  a  sort  of  rivalry  exists  upon  the 
point — the  mother  who  can  soonest  "  feel  her  feet,"  and 
get  to  her  usual  work  or  business,  being  looked  up  to 
and  envied  by  her  neighbours. 

There  can  scarcely  ever  be  any  necessity  why  a  woman 
should  get  up  and  work  under  nine  days,  at  least.  Neigh- 
bours are  always  ready  to  come  in  and  set  the  house  to 
rights,  or  see  to  the  children  and  husband.  Therefore, 
by  all  means,  rest  the  prescribed  nine  days.  Let  Nature 
perform  her  work  her  own  way,  and  you  will  find  your 
reward  in  an  after-time  of  strength  and  comfort.  We 
do  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  the 
rash  and  indecently  early  rising  from  childbed  is  not  from 
a  sense  of  duty  or  necessity,  but  simply  out  of  bravado. 
This  period  of  after-repose  is  particularly  required  at  a 
first  confinement,  the  strength  and  health  of  the  mother's 
whole  life  depending  upon  judicious  treatment  at  such  a 
critical  time. 

The  great  thing  for  the  nurse  to  observe,  after  the  baby 
is  born,  is  to  keep  the  mother's  mind  free  from  excitement 
or  anxiety,  and  to  preserve  as  much  quiet  in  the  house  as 
possible.  In  a  healthy  woman.  Nature  will  do  her  own 
doctoring,  and  do  it  thoroughly ;  but  when  there  is  ill- 
health  or  debility,  the  nurse  or  doctor  must  help  Dame 
Nature,  and  be  in  their  turn  attended  to  and  assisted  by 
those  immediately  connected  v/ith  the  patient. 

For  a  few  days,  weak  tea  and  bread,  or  gruel,  is  the 
proper  food.  After  that,  gradually  increase  the  strength 
as  well  as  the  quantity  of  the  diet.  During  nursing  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  support  is  required.  So  much,  then, 
for  the  mother.  Let  us  see  to  the  cause  and  consequence 
of  all  this  trouble  and  anxiety — the  Baby. 

The  first  thing,  after  washing  and  dressing,  is  to  feed 
the  child.  Most  babies  make  a  sucking  motion  with 
their  lips  almost  directly  they  come  into  the  world, 
and  ought  to  have  their  hunger  gratified  within  a  few 
hours.  If  the  mother  is  not  in  a  state  to  do  this  (as  is 
very  seldom  the  case  under  thirty-six  hours),  give  the 
baby  a  little  oatmeal  gruel,  very  thin  and  smooth.  Most 
nurses  administer  a  couple  of  drops  of  castor-oil  with 
this  first  meal. 

A  baby  for  the  first  week  requires  to  be  very  often  fed 
— in  fact,  its  existence  consists  of  eating  and  sleeping. 
A  healthy  baby  will  generally,  therefore,  be  a  quiet  one. 
If  it  fidgets  and  whimpers,  there  is  something  the  matter. 
Screaming  as  often  proceeds  from  temper  as  from  pain  ; 
babies  learning  wonderfully  soon  to  assert  their  rights ; 
and,  finding  out  that  by  crying  they  can  get  their 
desires  gratified,  crying  is  resorted  to  whenever  they  are 
thwarted.  Never  dose  a  baby  with  narcotics.  Laudanum 
has  a  poisonous  effect  upon  some  infants — one  drop 
having  been  known  to  produce  death.  The  safest  remedy 
for  a  pain  in  the  stomach  is  a  few  drops  of  peppermint 
in  water  and  sugar,  and  a  hot  flannel  laid  upon  the 
stomach  or  across  the  back.  If  this  does  not  stop  the 
pain  and  quiet  the  fretting,  give  a  few  drops,  or  half  a 
teaspoonful,  of  castor-oil,  apportioning  your  dose  to  the 
age  of  the  child.  In  our  articles  on  Domestic  Medicine 
ample  directions  will  be  found  for  the  treatment  of  all 
more  important  symptoms. 

Generally  the  baby  sleeps  with  its  mother  ;  and  this  is 
a  good  plan,  as  warmth  is  of  great  importance  to  its 
well-being ;  and  having  very  little  power  to  generate 
heat  itself,  the  warmth  derived  from  the  mother  is  a 
great  source  of  comfort  and  health.  During  the  day  the 
cradle  should  be  near  the  fire  ;  and  if  the  weather  is 
very  cold,  put  a  hot  brick  wrapped  in  flannel,  or  a 
bottle  of  hot  water,  into  the  cradle,  at  the  child's  feet. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


II 


Be  very  careful  that  the  bed  and  bedding  arc  perfectly 
dry. 

And  the  mother  should  remember  that  she  cannot  too 
soon  bej^in  to  teach  order  and  punctuality.  This  must  be 
especially  observed  if  the  child  gets  any  feeding  except 
its  mother's  milk.  The  hours  for  this  extra  diet  must  be 
regular.  For  the  purpose  of  feeding,  rusks,  tops  and 
bottoms,  and  biscuits  arc  used,  soaked  in  hot  water,  and 
then  beaten  to  a  pulp,  and  sweetened.  A  teaspoonful  of 
cream  should  be  added  when  the  food  is  given,  but  it 
should  not  be  left  standing  about,  or  the  whole  will 
sour,  and  disorder  the  child's  stomach.  For  our  part, 
we  have  found  patent  barley  the  best  infantile  food. 
It  can  be  procured  from  any  /grocer  ;  and  is  prepared, 
like  gruel,  with  half  skim-milk,  half  water,  boiled  for 
twenty  minutes,  a  little  sugar  added,  then  put  into  a  jug, 
and  poured  into  the  feeding-bottle  when  required.  Tiie 
quantity  of  meal  used  will  of  course  vary  according  to 
the  nurnber  of  times  you  feed  the  child;  but  a  very  short - 
experience  will  show  the  right  proportions. 

For  a  delicate  child,  or  one  inclined  to  be  what  is 
known  as  "  rickety,"  no  recipe  can  be  better  than  the 
following  : — 

Buy  two  pounds  of  shin  of  beef  bone,  without  meat 
or  gristle  upon  it — purely  and  simply  bone.  Chop  it  up 
into  very  small  pieces,  not  larger  than  a  farthing-piece. 
Wash,  and  put  these  into  a  saucepan,  with  a  quart  of 
Avater  and  a  pinch  of  salt.  Boil  very  gently  for  six  or 
eight  hours — the  object  being  to  extract  the  lime  from 
the  bones  ;  then  strain  and  set  aside  in  a  basin.  When 
cool,  take  the  fat  off,  and  you  will  find  a  clear,  hard, 
white,  tasteless  jelly — a  table-spoonful  of  which,  melted 
in  half  a  teacupful  of  hot  water,  will  pulp  a  small  piece 
of  toast  or  biscuit,  and  make  a  meal  for  the  child. 
Twice,  or  even  once  a  day  is  sufficient  for  an  infant. 
As  the  age  increases,  increase  the  quantity  gradually. 

Many  new  inventions  in  feeding-bottles  have  lately 
been  introduced,  few  of  whidh,  in  our  opinion,  can  vie 
with  the  old-fashioned  bottle,  provided  with  an  india- 
rubber  nipple,  or  one  formed  of  the  calf's  teat.  This 
last  requires  more  attention  on  the  mother's  part.  She 
ought,  in  fact,  to  have  two,  and  use  them  on  alternate  days, 
keeping  that  not  in  use  in  a  little  gin  or  whisky,  and 
washing  in  warni  water  before  putting  it  upon  the  bottle, 
where  it  must  be  very  firmly  tied  with  a  piece  of  fine 
tape.  The  bottle  so  frequently  used  now,  with  the  long 
gutta-percha  tube,  no  doubt  saves  the  nurse  a  certain 
amount  of  trouble,  but  requires  too  strong  a  pull  and 
strain  from  the  tongue  ;  besides,  the  food  is  apt  to  get 
cold,  and  cold  food  always  gives  an  infant  wind,  and 
causes  it  to  torment  the  mother  by  a  fit  of  crying. 

Careful  washing  night  and  morning  is  all  important. 
The  whole  body  must  be  well  rubbed  and  soaped.  Then 
put  the  child  into  the  water,  supporting  its  back  with 
your  left  hand,  having  your  fingers  well  spread  out ;  rub 
off  the  soap  with  the  right,  and  lave  the  water  over  the 
back  and  head  ;  taking  care  never  to  frighten  or  force 
the  child  into  the  water  ;  but,  if  on  any  occasion  it  shows 
an  aversion  to  the  "  ducking,"  coax  it  in,  or  even  give  it  a 
wash  only  upon  your  knee,  rather  than  risk  exciting  its 
fears. 

Every  part  must  be  carefully  dried,  especially  the  folds 
of  the  skin,  as  these,  if  left  wet,  are  sure  to  chafe  and 
become  sores,  often  very  difficult  to  heal.  Violet-powder 
is  used  to  dust  into  these  folds,  but  is  worse  than  nothing 
unless  the  skin  is  perfectly  free  from  damp.  When 
Avashed,  let  the  child  stretch  well,  and,  lying  flat  upon 
your  knees,  enjoy  its  fieedom  from  the  trammels  of 
clothing.  A  healthy  child  will  always  stretch  and  use 
its  small  limbs  in  a  most  energetic  manner  when 
naked  ;  nor  does  it  at  all  relish  having  itself  dressed 
again. 

Always  use  rain  or  soft  water,  if  you  can  get  it,  curd 


soap,  and  a  bit  of  flannel  made  into  a  fingerlcss  glove. 
Rub  till  the  skin  is  in  a  glow,  taking  care  nu  to  ruffle 
or  chafe  it.  In  winter  weather,  a  few  drops  of  glycerine 
in  the  water  will  prevent  frost-roughness  or  chapping, 
both  entailing  much  suffering  upon  the  little  one,  and 
at  the  same  time  capable  of  being  avoided  by  proper  care 
and  attention. 

The  garments  heaped  upon  infants  seem  incongruous, 
but  are  much  the  same,  as  regards  quantity,  in  all  ranks  ; 
quality,  of  course,  depending  upon  the  parents'  purse, 
and  accordingly  the  outlay  in  baby-linen  will  vary  very 
consideral)ly. 

In  our  next  paper  we  shall  begin  the  consideration  of 
the  question  of  clothing  for  children,  commencing  with  full 
instructions  for  making  idl  the  most  necessary  articles  of 
baby  linen. 

ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PLEASURE. 

I, — THE  DOG  :  ORIGIN  AND  PRINCIPAL  VARIETIES. 
It  is  impossible  now  to  determine  with  certainty  the 
origin  of  the  dog.  It  seems  generally  agreed  (there  are 
a  few  exceptions)  that  all  the  varieties  now  known  have 
had  some  common  ancestor ;  but  about  the  character  of 
that  ancestry  very  different  opinions  prevail.  Perhaps 
the  most  popular  view  amongst  naturalists  is  that  which 
considers  the  zc/o//  as  the  original  type ;  and  there  certainly 
are  strong  reasons  to  be  urged  for  the  belief,  absurd  as  at 
first  sight  it  may  seem.  That  the  wolf  and  the  dog  will 
breed  together,  and  that  the  progeny  is  fertile,  has  often 
been  proved  ;  and  Arctic  travellers  have  again  and  again 
remarked  that  the  Esquimaux  dog  and  the  wolf  can 
hardly  be  distinguished.  In  his  account  of  the  well- 
known  expedition  led  by  him  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franldin,  Dr.  Kane  relates  that  on  one  occasion  a  wolf 
was  reported  at  the  meat-house,  that  he  went  out  to  shoot 
it,  and  shot — "  one  of  our  {^ogs.  I  could  have  sworn  he 
was  a  wolf."  Many  of  them  have  all  a  wolfs  ferocity  ; 
and  Hayes,  in  his  "Arctic  Boat  Journey,"  gives  a 
thrilling  narrative  of  his  narrow  escape  from  being 
devoured  alive  by  them.  Having  on  one  occasion,  when 
they  were  hungry,  incautiously  come  near  them  with 
nothing  in  his  hand,  they  lost  their  instinctive  feehng  of 
dread,  and  he  only  saved  his  life  by  providentially 
perceiving  one  of  the  dreaded  Esquimaux  whips  a  few 
feet  distant,  before  which  the  gaunt  animals  retreated. 
He  also  relates  how,  at  Proven,  where  many  of  these 
dogs  were  kept,  the  grandson  of  the  governor  was  actually 
devoured  by  them  before  his  mother's  eyes,  while  walking 
from  one  house  to  another  only  twenty  yards  distant. 

Most  of  these  Arctic  dogs  have  lost  the  wag  of  the  tail 
when  pleased,  which  is  so  distinct  a  peculiarity  of  the 
dog  family ;  but  some  of  the  finest  individuals  retain  it, 
and,  in  fact,  in  some  part  of  the  world  or  other  it  is  indis- 
putable that  almost  every  conceivable  gradation  between 
the  dog  and  the  wolf  may  be  found,  both  in  zoological 
character  and  mental  disposition.  We  cannot  therefore 
deny,  as  some  have  done,  that  the  wolf  maf  have  been 
developed  into  the  dog  ;  and  yet  we  think  there  are  still 
stronger  reasons  for  holding  the  contrary  opinion — 
reasons  which  cold  science  little  considers,  but  which 
really  ought  to  have  as  much  weight  as  those  which  she 
herself  relies  upon. 

The  wolf  has  been  bred  in  captivity  for  /our  ^genera- 
tions, with  scarcely  any  abatement  in  its  ferocity  and 
wildness  of  character.  Now  men  do  not  take  a  great 
amount  of  trouble  for  no  return  ;  and  is  it  likely  that  the 
earlier  races  of  men  would  or  could  have  had  such  faith 
in  the  ultimate  reward  as  to  persevere  age  after  age  in  the 
attempt  to  reclaim  the  untamable  beast  ?  Such  questions 
may  be  unscientific,  but  they  are  reasonable  ;  and  there 
is  another  case  which  bears  so  strong  an  analogy,  tliat  we 
cannct  forbear  quoting  it  in  point.     There  is  not,  and. 


ANIMALS    KEPT   FOR   PLEASURE. 


back  to  the  farthest  period  which  we  can  trace,  there  has 
not  been,  a  %vild  camel  on  the  face  of  the  earth :  it  is 
only  known  in  its  subjection  to  man's  use.  Further,  it  is 
wonderfully  adapted  to  his  use,  and  it  has  on  its  knees 
callosities  which  iit  it  for  the  constant  kneeling  dozun 
which  is  required  to  receive  the  burden  or  the  rider,  but 
which,  in  a  state  of  nature,  it  would  never  require.  Well, 
the  reader  may  think,  there  seems  nothing  strange  in 
this  ;  we  all  know  how  constant  use  will  harden  our  own 
bodies,  as  is  proved  by  the  horny  hand  of  the  mechanic. 
Yes,  this  is  true  ;  but  while  the  hand  of  the  mechanic's 
infant  is  soft  and  delicate  as  that  of  the  imperial 
prince's,  it  is  not  so  with  the  callosities  on  the.  knees  of 
the  camel:  the  young  camel  is  borji  with  them;  and  to 
those  who  are  not  too  proud  to  receive  it,  the  conclusion 
seems  irresistible,  that  the  animal  was  created  by  a 
gracious  Providence  expressly  for  the  use  of  man.  And 
when  we  consider  the  matchless  sagacity  of  the  dog, 
his  bodily  strength  and  power  of  attack,  which  make 
him  so  formidable,  but  combined  with  that  marvellous 
affection  and  disposition  to  obedience,  which  put  all  at 
the  service  of  the  human  race,  we  find  it  far  easier  to 
believe  that    he   also   was   received  at  the   hand  of   a 


white,  or  black  and  tan.  The  muzzle  is  fine  and  sharp, 
with  a  "  foxy  "  look  about  it,  the  eye  bright  and  sparkling 
with  intelligence,  the  ears  nicely  rounded,  and  well  falling 
over — we  hate  to  see  them  cropped  or  the  tail  cut.  The 
tail  is  fine,  the  limbs  graceful  but  muscular,  and  the  whole 
animal  "  tight  "  and  well  made 

The  black  and  tan  smooth  terrier  is  often  bred  very 
small  under  the  name  of  the  "toy"  terrier,  and  some 
animals  have  fetched  extraordinary  prices.  We  cannot 
say  we  admire  these  little  beasts.  They  are  excessi\ely 
delicate,  and  difticult  to  rear,  often  having  not  even  strength 
to  "  grow  their  own  hair  "  till  nearly  at  maturity,  and  con- 
sequently growing  up  in  a  state  of  miserable  nudity  it  is 
painful  to  witness. 

The  Scotch  or  rough  terrier  is  a  hardier  animal,  and  the 
hair  makes  the  body  and  muzzle  appear  of  very  different 
shape,  but  if  this  be  put  back,  the  muzzle,  as  in  all  the 
varieties,  will  be  found  fine,  though  the  dog  is  rather  more 
robustly  made  altogether.  This  breed  is  not  quite  so 
lively  as  the  preceding,  but  of  dauntless  courage.  Our 
illustration  shows  a  specimen  of  this  very  favourite  variety 
of  dog. 

The    broken-haired   terrier   is   mid-way  between   the 


"W^^^^^^^^m 


THE   BUM. -TERRIER. 


THE  SCOTCH   TERRIER. 


Creator,  than  that  man,  in  the  course  of  a  century  or  two, 
made  him  out  of  a  wolf !  and  that  if  the  two  be  identical, 
it  is  more  likely  that  the  wolf  is  a  feral  dog,  than  that  our 
faithful  guardians  are  wolves  reclaimed.  The  plan  which 
we  propose  to  pursue  in  these  papers  is,  first  to  describe 
the  different  varieties  of  dogs,  noticing  their  special  pecu- 
liarities and  the  use  for  which  each  is  best  fitted,  and 
pointing  out  clearly  what  are  the  "points"  to  be  specially 
attended  to  in  the  choice  of  an  animal  of  each  individual 
species.  We  shall  then  proceed  to  give  instructions  as  to 
their  rearing  and  feeding,  both  as  regards  the  sort  of  food 
to  be  given,  and  the  system  of  giving  it,  as  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  information  on  these  subjects  is  very  much 
needed  ;  and  we  shall  also  describe  fully  what  have  been 
found  to  be  the  best  methods  of  "breaking"  dogs  and 
training  them  for  the  special  purposes  for  which  they  may 
be  intended. 

And  first  must  be  named  the  terriers  as  being  a  class 
of  universally  popular  dogs,  while  the  hereditary  enmity 
of  the  whole  race  to  vermin  makes  them  very  useful. 
They  all  share  this  feeling,  but  while  the  smooth  English 
terrier  will  always  pursue  a  flying  rat,  he  often  declines  a 
real  fight.  This  is  not,  however,  the  case  with  well-bred 
dogs,  which,  as  an  old  rat-catcher  said,  "never  die  in 
debt." 

The  smooth  English  terrier  is  most  prized  when  pure 


two,  the  coat  being  moderately  long,  and  of  hard,  wiry- 
texture,  yet  close  to  the  body.  This  is  a  splendid 
vermin  dog. 

The  Skye  is  well  known  as  the  longest  in  proportion 
and  hairiest  of  all  dogs.  He  is  always  kept  as  a  pet, 
though  possessing  a  good  share,  when  well  bred,  of  the 
courage  of  his  race.  The  delicate,  white,  woolly-coated 
dogs,  often  called  Skyes,  are  nothing  but  mongrels,  the 
coat  of  the  true  Skye  being  always  of  a  hairy  character. 
This  species  is  more  or  less  good  at  vermin,  though  his 
long  hair  hindering  his  sight,  gives  him  less  chance  than 
other  dogs. 

There  is  a  Scotch  breed  known  as  the  "  Dandie  Din- 
mont,"  celebrated  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  which  somewhat 
resembles  the  Skye  "in  length  of  body,  but  has  a  shorter 
coat,  and  the  legs  are  without  "  feather,"  while  the  Skye  is 
covered  to  the  toes.  It  has  the  squarcst  muzzle  of  all  the 
terriers,  and  is  also  characterised  by  a  downward  curve  in 
the  middle  of  the  back.  This  terrier,  as  described  by  Sir 
Walter,  is  perhaps  the  "  gamest "  of  the  lot,  and  certain 
death  to  anything  "  that  ever  cam'  wi'  a  hairy  skin  on't." 

All  the  terriers  are  good-tempered,  faithful,  companion- 
able dogs,  and  from  their  *' wide-awake "  qualities,  very 
serviceable  to  awake  a  larger,  but  more  sleepy  animal. 

The  bull-terrier  is  a  larger  and  more  powerful  dog, 
obtained  by  crossing  the  bull-dog  with  the  old  English 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


13 


terrier.  When  there  is  too  much  bull  blood,  or  the  animal 
is  carelessly  bred,  the  temper  is  apt  to  be  ferocious  and 
quarrelsome.  Such  a  dog  is  absolutely  worthless,  and 
highly  dangerous  from  his  great  power.  But  well-bred 
animals  are  generally  good-tempered,  civil,  and  obedient, 
and  as  vermin  dogs,  have  no  equal.  The  jaws  should 
show  great  power  from  the  buU-dog  blood,  but  the  loins 
and  back  are  also  strong,  and  the  general  shape  very 
nearly  approaching  that  of  the  smooth  terrier,  but  rather 
more  massive. 

Where  a  large  dog  cannot  be  kept  or  is  not  desirable, 
the  bull-terrier  is  a  splendid  watch  dog,  or  protector  for  a 
lady,  provided  his  disposition  be  trustworthy,  a  point 
Avhich  is  easily  ascertained.  His  fidelity  and  courage 
cannot  be  surpassed.  The  illustration  given  of  the  bull- 
terrier  is  taken  from  a  very  finely-formed  and  well-bred 
specimen  of  this  variety. 

The  poodle  is  par  excellence  the  "  clever  dog."  Nearly 
all  the  learned  dogs  which  know  the  alphabet,  or  play' 
dominoes,  &c.,  are  French  poodles.  Everywhere  this 
breed  shows  an  extraordinary  aptitude  for  learning  tricks, 
and  hence  is  a  great  favourite  with  children.  Their 
affection  and  fidelity  are  also  exemplary ;  but  they  belong 
rather  to  the  class  of  pets  than  useful  dogs. 


INMATES  OF   THE   PIOUSE. 

I.— LAW  OF  MASTER   (OR  MISTRESS)  AND  StRVAXT. 

The  relation  of  master  and  servant  arises  out  of  the 
necessity  under  which  a  man  labours  to  call  in  the  assist- 
ance of  others,  where  his  own  skill  and  capacity  are 
insufficient  to  answer  the  cares  incumbent  on  him. 

In  the  following  remarks,  what  may  be  said  of  master 
and  man  will  be  equally  applicable  to  mistress  and 
maid. 

Domestic  Servants. — These  are  also  called  mental  ser- 
vants, because  their  service  lies  intra  ma'nia,  within  the 
walls  of  a  house.  They  may  be  of  several  kinds,  as  butler, 
footman,  nurse,  cook,  housemaid,  &c. ;  and  the  nature  of 
their  service,  its  limits  and  its  obligations,  may  vary 
according  to  the  terms  agreed  upon  at  the  time  of  the 
hiring.  But  there  are  certain  duties  which  are  generally 
required  of  such  servants,  and  in  the  absence  of  any 
express  agreement  it  will  be  understood  that  it  was  for 
such  general  and  customary  service  that  the  hiring  took 
place.  Whenever  anything  unusual  or  special  is  to  be 
required  of  a  servant,  it  should  form  the  subject  of  an 
express  stipulation  previously  to  engagement.  Otherwise, 
after  the  trouble  taken  to  get  character,  and  trouble  caused 
to  the  servant  by  coming  in,  the  master  or  mistress  will 
be  liable  to  be  told,  "  I  was  not  engaged  to  do  this."  So 
that  if  the  coachman  is  intended  to  wait  at  table,  in  addi- 
tion to  his  duties  in  the  stable ;  the  nurse  to  do  part  of  the 
house-work  ;  the  cook  to  assist  the  housemaid  in  doing 
what  is  commonly  understood  to  be  "  housemaid's  work," 
the  intention  should  be  made  clear  at  the  time  of  hiring  ; 
and  though  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  it  vrill  be  found 
for  every  purpose  most  convenient  if  the  conditions  of 
the  service,  that  is  to  say,  the  work  to  be  done  and  the 
wages  to  be  paid,  be  reduced  into  a  memorandum  and 
signed  or  "  marked  "  by  the  servant.  What  is  the  regular 
duty  commonly  required  of  servants  with  whom  no  express 
contract  has  been  made  is  matter  of  common  fame  to 
which  any  one  can  testify  in  the  event  of  a  dispute.  It  is, 
however,  too  universally  known,  often  to  form  the  subject 
of  a  quarrel. 

Duration  of  the  Service. — It  is  customar>'  in  this  coun- 
try to  hire  domestic  servants  at  so  much  a  year,  but  there 
is  not  generally  any  agreement  as  to  the  time  the  service 
is  to  last.  Unless  any  express  agreement  be  made  on  the 
subject,  the  law  understands  that  either  party  may  de- 


termine the  service  at  will,  upon  giving  a  month's  warning, 
or  upon  payment  or  forfeiture  of  a  month's  wages.  With 
clerks,  governesses,  or  others  holding  posts  not  menial,  it 
is  otherwise— a  quarter's  notice  or  a  quarter's  salary  is  the 
condition  of  leaving. 

Summary  Dismissal.— This  power  is  reserved  to  a 
master  or  mistress,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  being 
saddled  with  what  might  be  an  intolerable  nuisance.  It 
must,  however,  be  exercised,  if  at  all,  under  such  circum- 
stances only  as  the  law  would  approve,  else  servants 
would  be  liable  to  be  cast  forth  suddenly  upon  the  world 
at  the  caprice  of  their  employers,  who  might  do  injustice 
in  a  moment  of  passion,  or  under  the  influence  of  mistaken 
judgment.  When  a  domestic  servant  is  guihy  of  immoral 
conduct,  wilfully  refuses  to  obey  orders,  gets  intoxicated, 
stays  out  all  night  without  being  able  to  give  a  satisfactory 
reason  for  so  doing,  or  habitually  neglects  to  carry  out  his 
or  her  master's  (or  mistress's)  lawful  commands,  such 
domestic  servant  may  be  summarily  dismissed,  without 
any  more  wages  being  paid  than  are  actually  due.  Of 
course  in  cases  of  detected  theft,  summar>-  dismissal  is 
allowed  ;  and  dismissal  is  generally  accompanied  by  de- 
livery into  the  hands  of  the  poHce.  A  master  or  mistress 
has  the  right,  in  the  case  of  loss  through  theft,  to  cause 
the  servants'  rooms  and  boxes  to  be  examined.  The  act 
of  giving  into  custody  on  mere  suspicion,  however,  is 
attended  with  the  responsibilities  which  attach  to  the  act 
when  done  towards  anyone  whatever.  In  the  event  of 
any  mistake,  or  failure  to  show  reasonable  ground  for 
suspicion,  the  employer  will  be  liable  to  an  action  for 
false  imprisonment,  and  possibly  also  for  defamation  of 
character. 

IVarninir. — A  clear  month's  warning  is  all  that  is  re- 
quired. So  that  this  be  given,  it  does  not  matter  whether 
it  be  a  month  from  the  last  pay-day,  or,  indeed,  from  any 
other  particular  date.  It  generally  is  a  month  from  the 
date  of  the  act  committed,  or  omitted,  which  induced  the 
employer  to  give  warning.  This  is  true  also  of  warning 
gi\-en  by  the  servant. 

Duties  of  Employers  to  Senmnts. — It  is  the  duty  of  an 
employer  to  pay  hi-s  servant  the  wages  agreed  upon,  and 
to  house  and  to  feed  him  in  a  suitable  manner.  What  is 
a  "  suitable"  manner  must  depend  upon  the  class  of  ser- 
vant, the  nature  of  ,his  service,  and  the  means  of  the 
employer  ;  but  it  may  be  understood  to  be  required  by 
law,  that  the  lodging  must  be  such  as  would  be  approved 
for  size,  cleanliness,  ventilation,  and  power  of  shelter 
from  the  weather,  by  the  health  officer  of  the  district.  As 
to  diet,  that  is  very  much  a  matter  of  agreement ;  and  it  is 
well,  in  all  cases,  to  settle  it  at  the  time  of  hiring,  when 
the  allowance  of  beer  (if  any),  of  tea,  the  number  of  meat 
meals  per  diem,  and  other  matters,  can  be  arranged.  The 
law  would  simply  require  that  sufficiency  of  good  and 
wholesome  food  for  a  man  or  woman  of  the  ser\ant's  age 
should  be  supplied.  Custom  has  much  control  in  the 
matter,  however,  the  law  seldom  being  invoked  except  in 
cases  of  brutality,  malicious  ill-feeding,  or  stinting  on 
starvation  allowance.  A  servant  who  is  at  all  dissatis- 
fied with  his  meat,  has  the  remedy  in  his  own  hands  by 
leaving  it. 

Though  wc  do  not  profess  to  write  for  persons  who 
would  be  guilty  of  malicious  ill-trcatmcnt  of  their  servants, 
it  may  be  useful  to  mention,  for  the  information  of  whom- 
soever it  may  concern,  that  an  Act  of  Parliament,  passed 
in  the  present  reign,  provides  for  the  better  protection  of 
persons  under  the  care  and  control  of  others  as  appren- 
tices or  servants,  by  declaring  that  where  the  master  or 
mistress  of  any  person  shall  be  legally  bound  to  provide 
for  such  apprentice  or  servant  necessar>'  food,  clothing, 
or  lodging,  and  shall  wilfully  refuse  or  neglect  to  provide 
the  same  ;  or  where  the  master  or  mistress  shall  unlaw- 
fully and  maliciously  assault  such  apprentice  or  scr\ant, 
whereby  the  life  of  such  person  shall  be  endangered,  or 


14 


THE  HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 


the  health  of  such  person  permanently  injured,  or  likely 
to  be  so,  such  master  or  mistress  shall  be  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanour,  and  punishable  with  imprisonment  for  a 
term  not  exceeding  three  years,  with  or  .  without  hard 
labour. 

An  employer  is  not  bound  to  provide  a  servant  with 
medicine  or  medical  attendance,  but  he  must  not  dis- 
charge him  (or  her)  without  a  month's  warning  or  a  month's 
wages,  in  the  event  of  his  (or  her)  becoming  disabled  by 
sickness  or  other  accident  from  performing  duty.  He 
cannot  refuse  admittance  to  a  medical  attendant  called  in 
by  the  servant  at  his  own  expense,  during  the  time  the 
servant  is  in  the  house.  If  he  be  annoyed  by  the  visits 
of  such  medical  man,  or  suspect  him  of  misconduct,  he 
can  give  his  servant  warning,  and  so  get  rid  of  the  invalid 
aftd  doctor  together. 

Giving  "  Characters." — The  law  does  not  oblige  any 
one  to  give  a  "  character "  to  a  servant.  It  is  perfectly 
competent  to  a  master  or  mistress  to  refuse  one  without 
assigning  any  reason  for  the  refusal.  If,  however,  a 
character  be  given,  the  law  prescribes  the  circumstances 
under  which  it  shall  be  given.  The  conversation  or  letter 
in  which  the  character  is  given  is  a  privileged  communi- 
cation, and  is  exempt  from  the  operation  of  the  law  of 
libel  and  slander,  if  the  information  be  given  in  good 
faith,  and  without  a  malicious  intent  to  injure  the  cha- 
racter of  the  servant.  Proof  of  malice  does  away  with 
the  privilege,  and  lays  the  injurious  character  given  open 
to  an  action  for  defamation.  Short  of  covering  malice, 
the  law  protects  those  who  give  characters  honestly,  that 
is  to  say,  in  accordance  with  what  they  know,  and  in 
accordance,  also,  with  what  they  suspect ;  and  even  if 
what  they  say  be  untrue  in  fact,  but  yet  honestly  said,  the 
law  holds  them  excused.  It  may  often  happen  that  a 
mistress  has  good  reason  to  suspect  that  her  late  servant 
was  not  in  some  particular  what  she  should  have  been, 
though  she  may  not  have  been  able  to  bring  an  accu- 
sation home  to  her.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
character  giver  is  warranted  in  disclosing  to  the  character 
seeker  what  she  really  thinks. 

A  statute  of  George  III.  provides  that  if  any  person 
shall  personate  a  master  and  give  a  false  character  to  a 
servant,  or  assert  in  writing  that  a  servant  has  been  hired 
for  a  period  of  time  or  in  a  station,  or  was  discharged  at 
any  time,  or  had  not  been  hired  in  any  previous  service, 
contrary  to  truth  ;  or  if  any  one  shall  offer  himself  as  a 
servant,  pretending  to  have  served  where  he  has  not 
served,  or  with  a  false  certificate  of  character,  or  shall 
alter  a  certificate,  or  shall  pretend  not  to  have  been  in 
any  previous  service,  contrary  to  truth,  the  offenders  in 
such  cases  are  liable,  on  conviction  before  two  justices  of 
the  peace,  to  be  fined  twenty  pounds,  or  in  default,  to  be 
imprisoned,  with  hard  labour,  for  from  one  to  three  months. 

Liability  of  Master  {or .  Mistress)  for  a  Servant. — A 
master  may  justify  an  assault  committed  in  defence  of  his 
servant,  as  a  servant  may  justify  an  assault  committed  in 
defence  of  his  master.  If  any  one  cause  or  procure  a 
servant  to  quit  his  master's  service,  or  hire  him  at  the 
time  he  is  in  that  service,  so  that  he  leave  it  before  he  be 
legally  entitled  to  do  so,  the  master  can  bring  an  action 
for  damages  against  the  new  master  and  the  servant. 

For  all  acts  of  a  servant  done  by  command  of  the 
master,  that  master  is  responsible,  as  he  is  also  for 
certain  acts  not  done  by  his  command,  but  done  under 
circumstances  that  seem  to  warrant  the  idea  that  the 
master  has  consented  to  be  responsible.  If  a  servant,  in 
pursuance  of  direct  orders,  shoots  a  neighbour's  dog,  the 
master  of  the  servant  will  be  clearly  responsible  to  the 
owner  of  the  dog ;  and  if  a  man  has  a  coachman  who 
drives  badly  and  runs  into  a  carriage,  that  man,  by  trust- 
ing such  a  driver  with  the  reins,  is  assumed  to  have 
undertaken  the  responsibility  of  his  acts.  Some  one  must 
suffer  loss  ;  who  so  worthy  as  the  man  who  caused  it,  by 


employing  an  unskilful  servant.?  If  a  blacksmith's  servant 
lame  a  horse  in  shoeing  him,  the  blacksmith  must  make 
good  the  damage  caused  to  the  owner.  It  is  at  the  same 
time  no  excuse  to  the  servant  who  does  an  unlawful  act, 
such  as  shooting  the  dog,  that  he  did  it  by  order  of  his 
master.  He  is  not  bound  to  obey  any  unlawful  com- 
mand. 

If  a  servant  commit  an  injury  without  the  authority  of 
his  master,  the  master  is  not  liable.  So  that  if  the 
laundry- maid  at  Mrs.  A's,  having  a  quarrel  with  the 
laundry-maid  at  Mrs.  B's,  destroys  Mrs.  B's  clothes-lines, 
or  throws  lighted  lucifer  matches  among  the  clothes  hang- 
ing out  to  dry,  so  that  the  clothes  are  burned,  Mrs.  A  is 
not  liable.  If  the  cook  at  Mrs.  A's  come  into  Mrs.  B's 
house  and  says  that  her  mistress  is  in  need  of  change  for 
a  five-pound  note,  and  that  if  Mrs.  B  will  give  the  cook 
the  change,  she  will  herself  presently  bring  the  note,  in 
such  a  case,  if  the  cook,  unauthorised  to  say  what  she  did, 
goes  off  with  the  money,  her  mistress  is  not  liable  to  make 
good  the  loss  to  the  deceived  person. 

If  a  servant  procure  articles  on  credit  from  a  trades- 
man with  whom  her  mistress  has  been  in  the  habit  of 
dealing  for  cash  payments,  it  is  the  tradesman's  loss  if  the 
servant  prove  a  cheat.  If,  however,  the  mistress  has  had 
articles  sometimes  for  cash,  sometimes  on  credit,  it  is  her 
loss  ;  for  the  tradesman  cannot  know  whether  she  has 
really  ordered  the  goods  or  not.  But  by  far  the  most 
preferable  system  is  that  now  adopted  by  most  respect- 
able tradesmen — namely,  to  have  every  order  entered  in 
a  book,  the  tradesman  undertaking  not  to  supply  any- 
thing without  a  written  order  from  the  customer. 


THE  HOUSEHOLD  MECHANIC. 

INTRODUCTION. 
In  commencing  a  series  of  papers  upon  the  subject  we 
have  before  us,  it  is  satisfactory  to  know,  that  while 
comparatively  few  people  possess  more  than  a  very  slight 
knowledge  of  the  mode  of  construction  of  the  cominonest 
articles  of  doniestic  use,  yet  there  are  a  vast  number  of 
persons  who,  either  from  motives  of  economy,  or  for  the 
sake  of  having  an  unfailing  means  of  recreation,  desire 
and  seek  after  assistance  and  instruction  on  this  subject. 
In  writing  these  articles  our  aim  will  be,  first  to  incite  a 
taste  for  the  constructive  and  mechanical  arts,  and  then, 
by  a  series  of  familiar  examples,  beginning  with  the  most 
simple  forms,  and  gradually  getting  up  to  the  more  com- 
plex and  difficult,  to  put  the  would-be  learner  in  the  way 
of  educating  himself,  sufficiently  at  least  for  him  to  be 
able  to  accomplish  any  ordinary  task  likely  to  be  re- 
quired in  a  moderate  household.  We  shall  also  take  it 
for  granted  that  our  readers  are  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
smallest  knowledge  in  handling  a  tool,  and  Ave  must, 
therefore,  ask  those  who  have  attained  some  slight  pro- 
ficiency to  bear  with  us  if,  in  the  first  chapter  or  two, 
we  enter  rather  more  minutely  into  details  than  they 
might  consider  necessary. 

We  shall  first  introduce  to  our  readers  the  principal 
tools  with  which  they  will  have  to  become  acquainted, 
explaining  briefly  their  separate  uses  and  the  principles 
which  should  govern  their  application,  in  order  to  produce 
the  greatest  effect  with  the  least  amount  of  labour,  and 
also  the  means  to  be  taken  to  preserA'e  their  effective- 
ness. Next  we  intend  describing  the  nature  and  mode 
of  treatment  of  the  different  woods  and  other  materials 
likely  to  be  required  by  the  beginner,  giving  some  idea  of 
their  different  qualities ;  and  having  thus  brought  to- 
gether the  objects  to  be  worked  upon  and  the  means 
of  working  them,  we  shall  proceed  to  give  practical 
directions  for  the  construction  of  some  common  object 
found  in  every  house,  such  as  a  door  or  window  frame, 


CASSiaa.^    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDfe, 


&c.  ;  judging  that  having  once  learned  to  handle  tools 
well,  our  readers  will  find  no  difficulty  in  adapting  their 
knowledge  to  each  particular  piece  of  work.  We  intend 
to  "ive,  in  detail,  instructions  whereby  the  householder 
who  is  fortunate  enough  to  possess  out-door  space,  may 
he  enabled  to  erect  sheds  or  fowl-houses  and  cucumber 
frames,  and,  if  necessary,  small  greenhouses,  not  forgetting 
that  if  he  gets  these,  he  will  most  likely  want  some  such 
thing  as  a  wheelbarrow,  and  other  conveniences,  which 
he  may  be  enabled,  by  our  directions,  to  construct  for 
himself. 

In-doors,  the  details  of  window-blinds,  curtain-poles, 
shutters,  door  locks,  and  springs,  will  be  explained  ;  and 
as  now-a-days  almost  every  house  contains  some  specimen 
of  patent  machine,  we  shall  devote  a  chapter  to  the  ex- 
planation of  the  w^orking  of  a  few  of  these  labour-saving 
contrivances.  Then  again,  it  is  necessary,  and  in  many 
cases  indispensable,  that 
every  occupant  of  a  house 
should  be  familiar  with 
the  arrangement  of  his 
j^as  and  water  apparatus  ; 
lor  every  one  knows  how 
many  serious  gas  explo- 
sions and  expensive  over- 
flows of  water  might  have 
been  prevented  by  a  ver>' 
slight  knowledge  of  these 
matters. 

In  all  our  instructions 
Ave  shall  aim  at  being 
rather  practical  than  theo- 
retical, though  not  for- 
getting that  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  theory 
if  not  indispensable  is 
certainly  a  great  assist- 
ance to  the  attainment 
of  perfection  in  practice. 

We  give  the  following 
list  of  tools  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  do  not  intend 
getting  a  complete  set,  so 
that  each  may  pick  out 
what  he  most  requii-es, 
either  as  his  convenience 

may  dictate  or  his  pocket  admit.  The  prices  are  of  course 
only  approximate,  and  will  vary  with  the  degree  of  ex- 
cellence sousrht. 


The  above  are  almost  indispensable,  and  the  following 

will  be  found  useful. 


Keyhole-saw  in  pad  , 
Table-vice    . 
Axe  . 

Spokeshave  . 
Mortice-gauge 
Blowpipe  (common  bent) 
Grindstone    . 


TOOL-CHEST. 


s. 

d. 

s. 

d. 

Hammer       .             .             .              i 

0  to 

'> 

0 

Mallet           .             .             .             o 

8  „ 

I 

0 

Hand-saw     ...             4 

6  „ 

6 

0 

Tenon-saw,  with  iron  back 

S 

0 

Jack-plane  with  double  iron 

4 

6 

Smoothing-plane     ,,         ,, 

3 

6 

6  Chisels,  various  widths,  @  8d. 

4 

0 

2  Mortice-chisels  (.Jin.  &:  ^in.)  @  is. 

2 

0 

I  Screw-driver 

I 

0 

2  Gouges  @  lod. 

I 

8 

4  Gimlets  (patent  twisted  are  best)  ®  4d.     . 

I 

4 

6  Brad-awls  @,  2d.    . 

I 

0 

Pair  of  Pincers 

0 

9 

,,     ,,  Pliers 

0 

9 

Pair  of  Compasses  (with  wing) 

0 

0 

Square           .... 

0 

0 

Mitre  Bevel  .... 

2 

6 

Rule              .... 

I 

6 

Marking-gauge 

I 

0 

Brace  &  Bits  (according  to  number)  10 

0  to 

30 

0 

6  Files  and  Rasps  @  8d.       . 

4 

0 

Oilstone  (Turkey)     . 

I 

b 

Oil-can          .... 

0 

b 

Glue-pot  and  Brush 

I 

0 

Nail-punch  . 

0 

2 

5     o  and  upwards. 

As  the  above  prices  are  taken  from  the  catalogue  of  a 
noted  London  tool-maker,  we  do  not  fear  that  any  of  our 
readers  will  have  to  pay  more.  It  will  be  seen  that  for 
an  outlay  of  between  two  and  three  pounds  a  very  com- 
plete and  serviceable  set  of  tools  may  be  obtained  ;  but 
do  not  let  any  with  short  purses  get  the  idea  that  they 
cannot  do  with  a  much  smaller  quantity  than  named  here, 

while  at  the  same  time 
we  certainly  advise  those 
who  can  afford  it  to  start 
with  some  such  assort- 
ment. From  time  to 
time,  as  we  enter  into 
the  different  branches 
mentioned  in  our  intro- 
duction, we  shall  need  to 
make  additions  to  our 
stock. 

THE  TOOL-CHEST. 
In  cases  where  the  ex- 
penditure of  two  or  three 
l)ounds  is  possible  we 
should  advise  the  pur- 
chase, from  some  respect- 
able tool-maker,  of  a  com- 
plete set  in  a  chest,  which 
will  form  a  nucleus,  to 
which  additions  can  be 
made  as  they  are  re- 
quired. If,  however,  any 
of  our  readers  are  for- 
tunate enough  to  be  able 
to  set  aside  a  room  as  a 
workshop,  the  chest  will 
hardly  be  needed,  as  it 
will  be  found  much  more  convenient  to  hang  the  tools  in 
racks  or  perforated  shelves  fixed  by  brackets  to  the  walls 
over  the  bench.  This  saves  the  trouble  of  having  to 
replace  the  tools  in  their  box  each  time  after  using,  and 
also  facilitates  the  finding  of  them  when  wanted. 

The  engraving  (purposely  drawn  out  of  perspective 
so  as  to  show  the  interior  of  the  box  and  lid)  exhibits 
a  convenient  arrangement  for  a  chest,  supposing  our 
amateur  cannot  manage  to  devote  a  room  exclusively 
to  the  purpose.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  lid  is  tittetl 
with  narrow  contrivances  and  fastenings,  by  which 
the  tools  are  fixed,  so  that  the  lid  may  be  closed  with- 
out their  falling  from  their  places.  The  tray  rests  on 
slides  in  the  sides  of  the  box,  so  as  to  admit  of  its  being 
pushed  backwards  and  forwards  for  greater  convenience 
in  getting  at  the  articles  underneath.  Sometimes  two 
trays  are  used  instead  of  one.  These  trays  generally 
contain  partitions  or  divisions  at  either  end,  to  keep  the 
nails,  screws,  &c.,  distinct,  the  centre  space  holding  the 
lighter  tools,  such  as  brad-awls  and  gimlets.  For  the 
chisels  and  screw-drivers,  a  rack  made  of  two  slips  of 
wood  the  whole  length  of  the  box,  screwed  at  about 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  apart,  fastened  inside  the  front  at 
just  such  a  distance  from  the  bottom  as  to  prevent  the 
hanging  tools  from  touching  it,  will  be  found  handy.  The 
planes,  oilstone,  and  heavier  tools  will  go  best  underneath. 
Any  strongly-made  bo.\  may  be  easily  fitted  up  for  a  tool- 


i6 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 


chest  in  this  manner,  and  the  work  will  be  found  capital 
practice  for  a  beginner. 

We  now  proceed  to  explain  fully  the  different  varieties 
of  the  tools,  and  the  uses  for  which  the  various  forms 
are  specially  contrived. 

In  so  doing  we  shall  doubtless  have  to  place  before  our 
readers  many  that  they  will  not  be  likely  to  require,  but 
in  order  that  those  who  are  intending  to  purchase  tools 
should  not  be  put  to  unnecessary  expense,  it  is  important 
they  should  rightly  understand  what  they  need  and  what 
they  need  not  have.  We  shall,  therefore,  at  once  proceed 
to  "the  description  of  the  different  contents  of  our  tool- 
chest,  explaining  as  simply  as  possible  the  way  of  using 
each  tool,  and  the  work  for  which  it  is  adapted,  and  adding 
instructions  as  to  the  proper  way  for  keeping  it  in  order. 

Brad-mvls. — These  are  merely  pieces  of  steel  wire 
ground  with  two  faces  at  the  point,  which  faces  meet  and 
iform  a  cutting  edge.  In  use,  however,  this  tool  does  not 
cut,  but  wedges  the  fibres  of  wood  on  either  side.  The 
upper  end  is  sharpened  and  driven  into  a  wooden  handle, 
which  has  a  brass  ring  or  ferule  to  prevent  it  splitting. 
Some  awls  are  square  wires  sharpened  to  a  point. 
Coopers'  awls  have  curved  blades.  Sets  of  brad-awls 
which  all  fit  into  one  socket,  and  store  away  in  the 
handle,  which  is  hollow,  and  unscrews,  may  be  met  with ; 
but  being  mostly  got  up  cheaply  they  are  seldom  satis- 
factory. 

Brace  and  Bits.—Y\g.  i.  is  a  diagram  of  an  ordinary 
carpentei-'s  brace  made  of  wood  with  brass  mountings. 


n 


n 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig.  3- 


Fig.  4 


It  is  in  principle  a  simple  crank  handle.  The  top.  A, 
which  swivels  loose,  is  rested  against  the  chest  ;  and  in 
the  bottom,  B,  is  a  square  hole,  into  which  the  bit  is 
inserted,  and  held  either  by  a  spring  catch,  or  a  screw. 
There  are  various  forms  and  varieties  of  this  instrument, 
but  the  principle  and  action  are  the  same.  The  brace  is 
turned  by  the  right  hand,  which  grasps  the  part  C  ;  the 
handle,  a,  being  kept  in  position  on  the  chest  by  the  left 
hand. 

Fig.  2  is  a  centre-bit.  It  consists  of  a  central  tri- 
angular point.  A,  which  enters  the  wood  first  and  guides 
the  tool  ;  an  arm  or  knife,  B,  which  regulates  the  diameter 
of  the  hole,  cutting  the  edge  cleanly,  and  a  cutter  or 
chisel,  C,  set  obliquely,  which  follows  and  pares  up  the 
wood  into  shavings.  Centre-bits  are  of  various  fixed 
sizes,  but  may  also  be  obtained  with  movable  blades,  so 
that  by  shifting  this  blade,  holes  of  different  diameters 


may  be  made  with  the  same  cutter.  For  small  holes 
a  gimlet-bit,  which  is  only  an  ordinary  gimlet  with  a 
square  end  made  to  fit  the  hole  in  the  brace,  and  pin  and 
nose-bits,  are  used.  The  pin-bit.  Fig.  3,  is  a  fluted  wire, 
sharpened  at  the  end  like  a  small  gouge  ;  the  nose-bit  is 
like  a  pin-bit  with  a  small  blade  turned  under,  which  cuts 
out  the  wood  ;  Fig.  4  is  a  countersink-bit,  used  for  en- 
larging holes,  or  to  sink  a  depression  to  allow  the  heads 
of  screws  to  be  buried  level  with  the  surface.  Augers 
and  screw-drivers  are  also  fitted  as  bits,  and  rymers  or 
broaches,  for  enlarging  or  making  holes  taper,  are  used 
in  the  same  way.  Of  drills  and  the  more  powerful  forms 
of  ratchet  braces,  we  shall  have  to  treat  when  we  arrive 
at  metal  work. 

Chisels.— A.  common  chisel,  Fig.  5,  is  a  flat  blade  of 
steel  sharpened  from  one  side  at  an  angle  of  about  thirty 
degrees.  It  is  driven  into  a  wooden  handle  up  to  the 
shoulder.  In  principle  all  chisels  are  wedges,  and  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  as  such  they  tend  to  split 
and  tear  up  the  fibre  of  wood  when  the  shaving  cut  is  too 
thick  to  bend  to  the  pressure  of  the  edge  of  the  tool. 
Paring  chisels  are  much  thinner  and  wider  than  ordinary 
ones,  and  are  used  for  clearing  out  deep  holes,  such  as 
mortices. 


Fig.  s- 

Alortice  Chisels,  Fig.  6,  are  much  stronger  and  thicker, 
and  are  sharpened  in  the  same  w-ay,  but  with  an  angle 
rather  less  acute.  Gouges  are  only  curved  chisels,  and 
are  used  in  the  same  manner.  Chisels  are  used  either  by 
the  pressure  of  the  hand,  or  by  blows  of  a  mallet,  the  flat 
side  being  always  kept  in  the  intended  path  of  the  blade. 
which  path  it  regulates  and  guides. 


c 


3 


t 


The  above  diagrams  show  the  chisel-blades  seen  on 
the  edge  and  from  the  back. 

In  sharpening  chisels  they  should  be  ground  on  the 
stone  slightly  more  acute  than  their  finished  edge  is 
intended  to  be  ;  this  is  in  order  to  reduce  the  surface, 
which  will  have  to  be  perfected  or  polished  upon  the  oil- 
stone. In  all  cases  after  sharpening  it  will  be  found  that 
there  is  a  slight  burred  or  wire  edge  upon  the  extreme  end 
of  the  flat  side  of  the  blade  which  must  be  removed  by 
rubbing  on  the  stone,  taking  care  to  keep  the  blade  down 
perfectly  flat  on  the  stone,  or  a  second  Ijevel  will  be  pro- 
duced, thereby  increasing  the  angle  of  the  edge,  and 
destroying  the  keenness  of  the  tool.  In  sharpening  on 
the  oilstone  the  tool  must  be  firmly  held  by  both  hands, 
and  rubbed  backwards  and  forwards,  always  being 
traversed  in  a  parallel  path,  as  any  approach  to  a  rocking 
motion  would  produce  a  thick  rounded  edge.  Gouges  are 
sharpened  in  the  same  way,  of  course  receiving  a  rol'ing 
motion  to  bring  all  parts  of  its  edge  into  contact  with  the 
stone.  This  motion  requires  some  little  practice  to  per- 
form satisfactorily.  The  wire  edge  on  the  inside  of  the 
gouge  is  removed  by  rubbing  a  small  round  slip  of  oil- 
stone against  it,  but  in  this  case  the  chisel  is  fixed  and 
the  stone  moved. 

In  large  workshops  stones  are  k-ept  having  hollow 
grooves  in  their  surfaces,  in  which  the  round  gouge  blades 
are  rubbed.  Both  chisels  and  gouges  are  made  of  various 
widths  and  strength ;  but  three  cr  four  of  each  will  be 
found  sufficient. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD  GUIDE. 


17 


THE  AQUARIUM. 

As  the  study  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  life  presents 
to  the  mind  a  special  and  elevating  influence  in  addition 
to  the  interest  it  excites,  it  is  a  subject  for  personal 
gratitude,  that  the  principles  upon  which  the  structure  of 
the  aquarium  is  founded  have  been  so  carried  out  and 
simplified,  that  this  little  world  in  miniature  may  be 
adapted  to  any  scale,  and  that  in  place  of  the  bowl 
in  which  gold-fish  were  formerly  imprisoned  and  doomed 
to  a  slow  consumptive  death,  we  can  adorn  the  parlour 
window  with  a  self- 
renovating,  self-sup- 
porting lake,  in  which 
the  denizens  of  the 
water  imbibe  their 
natural  food,  and 
breathe  the  gases 
necessary  to  their 
healthy  existence. 

To  the  hard-work- 
ing town  dweller, 
who  seldom  sees  the 
country,  or  has  an 
opportunity  of  wit- 
nessing the  interest- 
ing operations  of  na- 
ture, an  aqua-viva- 
rium must  be  espe- 
cially entertaining, 
and,  as  in  the  course 
of  our  papers  we 
hope  to  prove,  easily 
attainable,  being 
neither  expensive  to 
form  nor  difficult  to 
manage. 

The  first  matter 
essential  to  be  un- 
derstood is  the  prin- 
ciple upon  which  the 
aquarium  should  be 
managed.  To  sup- 
port animal  life  cer- 
tain natural  opera- 
tions must  be  car- 
ried on,  and  upon 
the  proper  provision 
for  these,  success  will 
depend.  If  ^  gold- 
fish be  placed  in  a 
"globe"  of  water,  it 
will  at  first  glide 
comfortably  round, 
about  half-way  be- 
tween the  surface 
and  the  bottom,  but 
after  a  few  hours  it 
will  become  languid, 

get  nearer  to  the  surface,  and  ultimately  raise  its  mouth 
out  of  the  water,  as  if  gasping  for  breath — a  sure  sign 
that  the  water  does  not  furnish  it  with  what  is  re- 
quired for  its  comfort.  No  animal  can  exist  without 
air,  and  fish,  hke  creatures  that  live  on  land,  need 
a  supply  of  oxygen,  which  is  the  gaseous  clement  in 
air  that  supports  life.  Besides  this,  animals  give  off 
by  respiration  a  poisonous  gas,  called  carbonic  acid, 
which  must  by  some  means  be  disposed  of,  or  it  will  im- 
pregnate the  surrounding  air  or  water,  and  ultimately 
destroy  the  creatures  within  reach  of  its  influence.  Now 
the  reason  that  the  gold-fish  becomes  uncomfortable  is 
that  it  has  by  breathing  exhausted  the  air  in  the  water, 
and  polluted  it  with  its  exhalations  ;  the  oxygen  has  been 

VOL.  I. 


consumed,  and  the  carbonic  acid  has  been  imported  into 
the  water,  although  to  all  appearances  it  remains  clean 
and  pure.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  what  is  required  to 
render  the  aquarium  self-supporting,  and  obviate  an 
otherwise  necessary  change  of  water,  is  that  something 
should  be  introduced  that  will  supply  air  and  at  the  same 
time  absorb  carbonic  acid.  To  ascertain  what  will 
perform  this  office,  we  have  only  to  kok  into  a  pond  or 
river,  or  peep  into  the  pools  among  the  rocks  at  the  sea- 
side, when  we  shall  discover  that  Nature's  own  mctliod  ' 
of  purifying   and    aerating    the   water    is    by   vegetable 

growth.  In  fact,  it 
may  be  laid  down 
as  a  principle,  that 
in  an  aquarium  the 
natural  condition  of 
its  inmates  should 
as  nearly  as  possible 
be  imitated  in  every 
particular.  There 
should  be  the  seme 
animals,  the  same 
kind  of  vegetation, 
the  same  amount  of 
light,  and  the  same 
temperature  as  if  the 
aquarium  were  a 
nook  in  the  comer 
of  a  natural  piece  of 
water. 

The  dimensions  of 
the  aquarium  must  ol 
course  depend  upon 
the  space  that  can 
be  afforded.  The 
simplest  and  least 
expensive  is  the  bell 
glass.  Fig.  I,  such 
as  confectioners  uee 
to  cover  cakes.  This 
being  inverted  and 
placed  upon  a  stand, 
forms  a  pretty  oma 
ment,  and  has  the 
advantage  of  being 
adaptable  to  any 
situation.  By  the 
arrangement  of  a  fe\v 
ferns  in  pots,  and  a 
basket  of  creeping 
plants  suspended 
irom  above,  a  win- 
dow may  be  made 
exceedingly  orna- 
mental. Where  space 
is  not  so  much  an 
object,  an  oblong 
tank  may  be  se- 
lected. This  may  be 
made  of  any  size.  For  fresh  water  the  framework  may 
be  of  wood,  zinc,  iron,  or  glass  pillars,  with  glass  sides, 
but  the  best  are  those  made  of  slate  with  a  glass  front, 
or  with  slate  ends  and  glass  at  the  front  and  back.  If  not 
made  of  slate,  the  bottom  should  be  lined  either  w'tii 
glass  or  slate,  which  can  be  embedded  in  a  thin  layer  of 
Portland  cement.  Wood  frames  are  undoubtedly  the 
least  durable  for  the  purpose,  for  they  soon  leak,  and 
cannot  be  satisfactorily  repaired. 

Tanks  for  fitting  on  the  outside  of  window-sills,  where 
much  weight  would  be  an  objection,  may  be  made  with  a 
sloping  back,  as  in  Fig.  2.  This  shape  has  also  the  ad- 
vantage of  presenting  a  large  surface  of  w-ater  to  the 
action  of  the  air,  but  it  is  most  suited  for  marine  aquaria. 


AQUARIUM   FOR  THE  WINDOW. 


3S 


FURNITURE. 


in  which  the  objects  do  not  require  so  much  space  to 
move  in.  When  it  is  intended  to  place*  the  aquarium 
some  distance  from  the  window,  the  hexagonal  shape, 
Fig.  3,  is  often  chosen  as  the  most  ornamental ;  but  this 
is  also  better  adapted  for  marine  than  fresh-water 
specimens. 
Having  selected  the  shape  of  the  aquarium,  the  next 


consideration  is  the  place  it  should  occupy,  which  in  most 
cases  will  be  in  front  of  a  window.  The  best  situation  is 
a  window  looking  towards  the  east,  where  it  will  get  the 
morning  sun  for  about  two  hours.  The  mid-day  sun  is 
too  hot.  If  you  have  not  a  window  looking  to  the  east, 
give  it  a  southern  aspect,  but  be  careful  to  shade  off  the 
noonday  sun ;  a  northern  aspect  is  never  good  for  an 
aquarium ;  a  western  is  seriously  bad.     The  great  point 


is  to  keep  up  an  equal  temperature  as  much  as  possible, 
the  range  being  from  45°  to  65''  Fahr.  This  may  be 
done  by  opening  the  window  in  summer,  and  by  drawing 
back  the  tank  from  the  window  on  winter  evenings.  On 
no  account  should  the  water  be  allowed  to  freeze.  Not 
only  do  you  risk  the  bursting  of  your  tank,  but  the  fish 
and  plants  will  droop  and  die. 

It  is  a  matter  of  importance  that  the  admission  of  light 
and  heat  should  be   properly  regulated,    and   that  they 


^imss.^.i^'^     - 


Fig.  3- 

should  be  admitted  only  through  the  surface  of  the 
water.  To  accomplish  this,  in  the  case  of  bell-glasses 
or  tanks  with  glass  ends  and  back,  thin  green  paper  should 
be  pasted  over  all  the  glass  except  the  front,  up  to  the 
water-line  ;  by  this  means  the  light  is  subdued,  besides 
which  the  objects  in  the  aquarium  will  always  present  a 
better  and  more  natural  appearance  if  the  light  is  ad- 
mitted at  the  top.  The  aquaria  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Paris  EKhibition — the  most  successful  experiment  of  the 
kind  yet  tried — were  all  constructed  on  this  principle, 
and  presented  an  exceedingly  beautiful  appearance.     The 


admission  of  light  through  the  opposite  side  or  end  of  a 
tank  will  produce  an  excessive  growth  of  vegetation,  and 
cause  the  accumulation  of  a  green  film  on  the  front,  that 
will,  in  a  short  time,  obscure  the  contents  of  the  aquarium 
from  view. 

Having  made  or  planned  your  aquarium,  you  must 
prepare  the  bed  of  your  pond.  The  first  thing  is  to  get 
some  river  sand,  or  fine  gravel,  cleanse  it  thoroughly 
till  the  water  runs  from  it  quite  clear,  and  then  lay  it  in 
the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  the  thickness  of  an  inch  at 
least ;  over  this,  in  places,  lay  small  pebbles ;  if  you 
want  a  rock-work  or  miniature  caverns,  pile  up  small 
blocks  of  granite,  fastening  them  together  with  the  best 
Portland  cement  ;  other  cements  are  liable  to  taint  the 
water  and  injure  the  fish,  and  even  this  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  water  for  a  week,  in  order  that  it 
may  part  with  any  soluble  matter  it  may  contain.  Having 
laid  your  sand  and  gravel,  and  built  your  rocker}^  let  the 
cement  get  firm,  then  add  the  water,  and  empty  and 
refill  it  till  the  water  is  perfectly  clear,  when  it  will  be 
in  a  proper  condition  to  receive  the  plants  intended  to  be 
introduced. 


FURNITURE. 

-GENERAL    REMARKS. 


On  the  correctness  of  the  taste  displayed  in  furnishing  a 
house,  or  only  a  few  rooms,  depends  altogether  the  air 
of  comfort  which  either  will  wear,  and  a  corresponding 
degree  of  pleasure  or  discomfort  in  those  who  live  in  them. 
Often  on  entering  a  strange  room  one  feels  a  sense  of 
indescribable  irritability,  aiising  either  from  the  incon- 
gruity of  the  furniture  as  regards  size,  style,  and  general 
ornamentation,  or  from  the  inharmonious  colouring  of  the 
draperies,  the  confusion  of  pattern  on  the  carpet,  or  the 
dazzling  design  of  tlxe  wall-paper,  not  dazzling  from  its 
brilliancy,  but  from  the  regular  and  close  recurrence  of 
stripes,  circles,  and  other  geometrical  forms,  which  be- 
wilder the  sight  as  if  the  pattern  were  in  motion. 

The  proper  furnishing  of  a  house  is  as  much  a  fine  art  as 
painting,  and  if  the  rules  do  not  come  by  an  intuitive  faculty 
they  may  be  acquired.  The  glaring  defects  in  modern 
house-furnishing  are,  first,  incongruity  of  form  and  size  of 
furniture  with  the  surroundings  and  means  of  the  pos- 
sessor, and  next,  an  elaborate  decoration  of  the  rooms  out 
of  keeping  with  the  position  of  the  owner.  And  the  third 
is  the  elaboration  of  ornament  on  the  furniture,  this  not 
being  superadded  to  utility,  but  subversive  of  it — ornament 
being  understood  to  mean  a  superfluity  above  utility — 
permanently  fixed  or  carved  upon  the  article.  Decoration 
means  something  portable,  as  vases,  glasses,  and  pictures. 
The  walls  of  a  room  covered  with  an  appropriate  wall- 
paper, a  ceiling  elaborately  worked  in  moulded  forms,  as 
well  as  its  cornices,  and  carved  or  beaded  doors,  are  said 
to  be  ornamental.  The  meanings  of  the  two  words  are  very 
distinct.  A  person  may  be  decorated  with  a  feather,  but 
is  not  thereby  rendered  more  ornamental.  A  man's  own 
fine  head  of  hair  is  an  ornament— it  is  irremovable  by 
ordinary  means — but  his  medals  and  jewellery  are 
decorations. 

Elaboration  of  ornament  and  decoration,  in  a  house  of 
great  pretension  but  with  small  means  to  support  it,  is 
not  a  mark  of  good  taste ;  neither  is  confusion  of  colour, 
for  when  blues  and  greens,  reds  and  violets,  are  rndis- 
criminately  mingled  in  large  masses,  the  eye  of  correct 
taste  is  thereby  offended. 

A  few  words  on  wall-papers  may  not  be  out  of  place — 
such  as  are  suitable  for  cottage  homes  or  houses  of  from 
;^20  to.  ^50  a  year.  In  the  suburbs  of  large  towns  the 
rooms  of  such  houses  are  generally  small.  A  large- 
patterned  paper  of  a  variety  of  colours  will  certainly 
cause  them  to  appear  much  smaller  than  they  really  are. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


J9 


and  whether  there  be  a  cornice  or  not  to  such  rooms,  there 
must  be  no  bordering-paper,  this  causing  an  apparent 
decrease  in  the  height.  Better  by  far  than  flowered  paper 
or  geometrical  design  is  the  "  bloom "  paper  recently 
come  into  fashion.  It  is  composed  of  different  shades  of 
grey,  of  pale  pink  and  pale  violet,  all  of  them  giving  an 
impression  of  the  beautiful  colour  "  French  white."  There 
is  a  blue-grey,  which  borders  on  a  pale  steel  tint,  or  a  very 
pale  smalt-blue.  There  is  a  pink-grey,  which  approaches 
either  a  very  light  blue-pink,  or  a  very  delicate  mauve  or 
lilac.  There  are  two  or  three  designs  on  the  ground  of  this 
paper,  but  all  in  outline  of  distinct  colours,  and  they  are 
sold  very  cheaply,  though  the  superior  kinds  of  the  same 
tints  are  expensive  enough,  and  closely  resemble  silk 
upon  a  satin  ground.  Sometimes  a  pale  hlac  outline 
covers  a  creamy-white  surface.  Whatever  be  the  patterns, 
the  tints  of  these  papers  give  an  exquisite  bloom  and 
freshness  to  the  room.  All  furniture,  if  it  be  selected  with 
taste,  looks  well  against  them  ;  and  a  great  merit  in  them 
is  that  they  can  readily  be  cleaned  with  bread. 

Striped  papers  on  low  walls  are  admissible,  but  these 
stripes  interfere  greatly  with  picture-frames.  It  is  often 
impossible  to  hang  the  pictures  at  equal  distances  on  the 
side  of  a  wall  so  striped,  so  that  the  lines  shall  not  inter- 
fere with  the  frames,  and  give  an  undue  breadth  on  one 
side  out  of  proportion  to  that  of  the  other. 

Ceilings,  too,  ought  to  have  an  individuality  of  their  own 
— a  requirement,  not  a  fancy,  which  is  but  little  attended 
to.  A  room  on  the  north  side  of  a  house  should  have  the 
ceiling  of  the  palest  tint  of  straw-colour,  not  yellow ;  or  of 
the  palest  pink,  either  of  which  will  diffuse  a  warm  tone 
as  of  reflected  sunlight.  If  the  walls  be  of  a  mauve  hue 
you  can  let  the  ceiling  be  a  straw-colour ;  if  of  pink  or 
smalt-blue,  then  the  ceiling  should  be  pink — but  only  of 
a  very  pale  tint. 

The  blinds  of  a  house  it  is  a  matter  of  elegance  and 
comfort  to  arrange  properly.  They  should  be  uniform  in 
material  in  the  front  of  a  house,  and  indeed  on  every  side. 
But  then  the  front  windows  may  have  the  Venetian  kind, 
and  if  it  be  a  southern  aspect  these  are  the  best,  while  if 
facing  the  north  they  may  be  made  of  buff  union  cloth, 
which  produces  a  mellow,  warm  tone  when  the  light  re- 
flects through  it. 

There  are  some  rules  for  furnishing  rooms  properly 
which  may  be  always  remembered.  As  regards  form,  the 
more  cultivated  and  refined  the  intellect  the  greater  is  the 
craving  for  correct  and  refined  forms.  It  is  truthfully 
said  that  "  the  eye  creates  its  own  beauty,"  but  on  the 
other  hand  the  eye  may  be  educated  not  to  select  forms 
of  ugliness  and  fancy  them  beautiful. 

In  small  rooms,  if  any  of  the  furniture  be  too  large, 
no  matter  how  good  its  quality,  how  handsome  its  shape, 
or  how  perfect  its  finish,  if  it  ;has  no  fitness  for  its  place 
it  will  exhibit  the  pretension  and  vulgar  ambition  of  its 
owner,  and  look  more  as  if  taken  in  payment  of  a  debt 
than  as  if  selected  by  an  educated  mind.  Costly  carved 
furniture,  or  imitation  of  such,  is  totally  out  of  place  under 
the  circumstances  of  small  means  and  limited  domestic 
service  ;  for  it  is  either  covered  to  keep  it  from  dust,  or  it 
is  not  kept  clean  and  bright,  as  carved  work  should  be  ; 
and  thus  it  gives  a  look  of  "  seediness "  to  the  whole 
place,  which  irritates  the  temper  of  an  observer,  but  is 
totally  unfelt  by  those  who  see  without  observing.  Plain 
btit  well-shaped  furniture,  without  angles  or  stiffness, 
shining  and  clean,  and  having  no  dust-holes,  gives  a  mar- 
*^llous  sense  of  repose  to  the  looker-on,  provided  such 
furniture  is  for  use  and  not  for  show. 

Almost  the  first  thing  to  be  done  towards  furnishing  is 
the  making  and  putting-up  of  blinds,  and  where  expense 
is  a  mattsr  of  consideration,  and  Venetian  blinds  not  to 
be  thought  of,  the  affair  is  not  one  of  trouble  or  much 
cost  Brass  blind-furniture,  requiring  only  fixing  with 
nails  or  screws,  can  be  obtained  at  most  ironmongers'.    It 


consists  of  the  wheel  and  pin  for  each  end  of  a  roller  ; 
also,  the  sockets  for  fixing  them  into  the  proper  place. 
The  wooden  rollers  and  laths  arc  usually  kept  by  car- 
penters ready  for  sale.  A  woman  may  manage  to  fix  all 
this  properly,  and  afterwards  make  the  blinds  and  put 
them  up. 

The  blind  must  not  be  nailed  close  to  the  ends  of  the 
roller,  but  a  space  of  half  an  inch  left  on  each  side.  Thus, 
if  the  roller  be  36  inches  long  from  end  to  end,  allow  35 
inches  for  the  space  the  calico  of  the  blind  is  to  fill,  and 
the  calico  for  this  blind  must  measure  37  mches  in  width 
— always  keeping  the  blind  material  one  inch  wider  than 
the  roller.  The  cloth  will  require  the  selvage  to  be  cut  off 
straight,  and  then  the  two  sides  folded  down  an  inch  in 
width.  To  do  this  accurately,  with  an  inch  measure  and 
black-lead  pencil  nick  the  width  of  an  inch  down  each 
side.  Then  fold  the  seam,  single-turned,  on  these  marks, 
and  herring-bone  them  down. 

For  the  seani  to  admit  the  lath,  turn  down  a  hem,  and 
work  in  the  centre  of  il  an  eyelet-hole  in  overcast  stitch  for 
the  purpose  of  admitting  the  ring-screw.  Then,  instead  of 
hemming  this,  sew  it.  Turn  down  once  the  remaining 
raw  edge  of  the  blind,  and  mark  the  centre  with  marking- 
ink  ;  write  on  it,  also,  the  name  of  the  room  in  which  it 
is  to  be  placed.  Mark  with  ink  the  centre  of  the  blind- 
roller,  and  the  lath  the  same,  and  also  with  the  name  of 
the  room  ;  so  that,  when  a  change  of  blinds  is  necessary, 
there  is  no  waste  of  time  or  trouble  in  measuring  them 
for  the  different  windows.  In  nailing  on  the  blind,  nail  it 
first  in  the  centre,  then  at  the  two  ends,  with  a  few  tin 
tacks,  not  driven  close  ;  then  try  with  the  two  hands 
whether  the  blind  will  roll  well.  If  not,  it  is  certain  that 
somewhere  it  is  not  straight,  and  will  require  to  be  put  so. 

After  the  blinds,  the  kitchen  requisites  should,  in  order 
of  priority,  be  first  mentioned.  The  matter  of  kitchen 
ranges  is  a  vexed  one.  Makers  recommend  different 
kinds  ;  but  a  truly  economical  anc.  serviceable  range — 
one  that  burns  little  fuel,  not  as  matter  of  choice,  but  of 
necessity,  and  gives  the  greatest  amount  of  heat  without 
waste — is  yet  to  be  found.  Many  of  them  are  wonderful 
contrivances,  apparently,  for  the  saving  of  labour,  but 
with  far  too  much  ingenuity  about  them  for  any  but 
an  engineer  to  manage  ;  being  also,  at  the  same  time,  the 
most  coal-consuming.  Under  a  person  with  thinking 
faculties,  no  doubt,  many  will  prove  all  that  their  makers 
profess  for  them;  but  in  the  hands  of  ignorant  girls— who 
are  thankless  pupils,  even  if  they  can  be  taught — these 
ranges  are  too  often  instruments  of  destruction,  rather  than 
labour-saving.  To  know  how  to  cook  with  simple  means 
and  moderate  appliances,  is  an  art  which  may  be  acquired 
and  never  be  forgotten,  and  to  this  object  our  papers  on. 
Cooking  will  be  especially  directed. 

There  is  one  thing  which  all  kitchens  may  have  at  a 
moderate  expense,  and  that  is  a  warm-plate,  made  in  the 
shape  of  a  tin  box,  a  quarter  of  a  yard  deep,  half  a  yard 
wide,  and  forty  inches  long,  similar  in  shape  to  those 
which  pastry-cooks  keep  filled  with  boiling  water  to  re- 
warm  their  pastry.  This  can  be  fixed  to  serve  as  a  table, 
and  forms,  with  the  aid  of  gas,  a  hot-plate  for  keeping  food 
in  dishes  warm  till  the  moment  of  serving.  The  top 
should  have  two  hinged  lids,  and  the  bottom  be  per- 
forated to  admit  of  two  jets  of  gas  underneath  the  lids, 
which  can  be  opened  for  the  purpose  of  lighting  it.  This 
same  contrivance  can  be  pflaced  in  the  cupboard  adjoining 
the  boiler ;  a  pipe  fitted  to  the  latter  will  conduct  the  steam, 
and  so  keep  it  always  hot,  without  the  expense  of  gas. 

Kitchen  cupboards  should  have  shelves  which,  unless 
the  landlord  places  them  in,  need  not  be  fixtures.  Mov- 
able shelves,  fitted  into  a  groove  like  the  sides  of  a  box, 
and  furnished  with  rollers,  can  be  drawn  in  and  out  at 
pleasure  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  them. 

It  is  not  often  that  laths  and  hooks  for  hanging  up 
dish-covers  are  found  in  houses  of  moderate  rental.     For 


HOME   GARDENING.- 


these,  two  uprights  require  to  be  driven  into  the  wall,  one 
at  each  end,  and  not  deeper  than  the  largest  dish-cover, 
and  upon  these  a  wooden  lattice-work  is  fixed,  with  also 
the  necessary  brass  hooks  screwed  in,  for  holding  the 
covers.  The  lattice-work  prevents  the  covers  from  greas- 
ing the  wall  when,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  a  careless 
servant  puts  them  up  without  wiping. 

In  dark  kitchens,  or  others  where  the  range  is  set  in  a 
dark  place,  one  of  the  greatest  comforts  to  a  cook  is  to 
have  a  gas-light  placed,  with  movable  joint,  on  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  range  when  facing  it,  but  high  up,  so 
that  a  light  may  be  thrown  on  the  saucepans  or  frying- 
pans  when  needed.  In  the  shelves  of  the  kitchen  dresser, 
and  in  all  shelves  of  cupboards,  there  should  be  a  sloping 
groove  in  the  centre,  terminating  in  a  raised  rim,  other- 
wise too  often  on  the  slamming  of  a  door  the  crockery 
will  clatter  down  and  be  broken.  A  beading  put  on  is  of 
little  use 

Every^  mistress,  no  matter  what  her  income,  has  ner 
own  ideas  about  the  kind  and  quantity  of  kitchen  fur- 
niture required.  A  young  bride  leaves  her  home,  where 
a  sufficient  number  of  servants  have  been  kept  for  all 
household  work,  where  the  kitchens  are  bright  with  tins 
and  coppers,  and  everything  looks  as  comfortable  as 
sufficient  time  for  labour  can  make  it.  This  same  young 
bride  has  no  idea  but  that  her  kitchen  must  look  nearly 
the  same,  and  therefore  provides  the  usual  adornments, 
though  having  but  one  servant,  perhaps,  to  perform  all  the 
duties  of  a  regular  staff. 

In  a  small  family  with  less  than  two  servants,  we  hold 
that  no  more  bright  articles  should  be  introduced  than  are 
needed  for  daily  use,  and  no  more  time  be  expended  upon 
the  polishing  of  them  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  A 
general  servant  cannot  do  more  in  the  kitchen  than  to 
keep  the  dish-covers,  kitchen  fender  and  fire-irons,  tin 
funnels,  tea  and  coffee  pots  bright ;  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  ample  requisites  in  the  way  of  saucepans,  strainers, 
and  things  of  the  kind  should  not  be  provided.  In  our 
Cookery  articles  our  readers  will  find  instructions  as  to 
the  various  culinary  utensils  which  are  requisite.  We 
here  only  suggest  the  kitchen  furniture  generally. 


HOME   GARDENING. 


It  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  signs  of  the  times  that  the 
love  of  gardening  and  its  practice,  in  and  around  our 
towns,  have  greatly  increased  within  the  last  few  years. 
Men  of  all  classes,  deeply  engaged  in  business,  from  the 
humblest  mechanic  upwards,  show  a  growing  disposition 
to  cultivate  what  Bacon  has  termed  "  the  purest  of  human 
pleasures,"  and  add  to  their  homes  that  adornment  which 
may  be  found  in  the  culture  of  such  a  piece  of  ground  as 
their  means  will  allow  them  to  secure.  Much  has  been 
written  to  assist  in  the  gratification  of  this  wholesome 
taste,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  people  generally  have 
still  a  great  deal  to  learn  as  to  the  principles  which  should 
guide  them  in  their  gardening  amusements,  and  the 
direction  in  which  their  time  and  outlay  might  be  ex- 
pended to  the  best  advantage.  In  the  present  paper  we 
shall  offer  a  few  hints  as  to  the  general  principles  which 
should  be  kept  in  view  in  suburban  gardening,  especially 
in  small  plots  of  ground,  leaving  gardening  upon  a  larger 
scale  for  future  consideration  ;  and  we  shall  follow  these 
hints  by  details  as  to  the  profitable  culture  of  flowers, 
vegetables,  and  fruit,  by  persons  whose  means  and  whose 
opportunity  for  gardening  are  alike  limited. 

CONDITIONS  OF  TOWN  GARDENING. 
It  is  often  supposed  that  the  conditions  of  soil,  at- 
mosphere, &c.,  under  which  gardening  is  pursued  in  the 
vicinity  of  towns,  render  it  difficult  to  meet  with  a  similar 
measure  of  success  to  that  found  in  country  gardens.  If 
any  proof  were  wanted  of  the  general  ignorance  which 


exists  on  gardening  subjects,  it  would  be  afforded  by  the 
prevalence  of  this  belief  The  fact  is  that,  rightly  followed, 
town  gardening  may  be  made  as  successful  and  as  pro- 
fitable as  gardening  in  the  country  ;  and  the  reason  why 
the  one  so  often  presents  an  unfavourable  contrast  to  the 
other  is  chiefly  that  suitable  subjects  are  not  employed, 
or,  if  used,  are  not  tended  with  proportionate  care. 
What  will  grow  well  in  the  country  will  often  not  thrive  well 
in  a  town,  and  the  attempt  to  rear  the  same  plants  and  the 
same  varieties  under  the  two  widely  different  conditions, 
frequently  results  in  conspicuous  failure.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  town  growth  is  peculiarly  suited  to  some 
classes  of  plants,  which  positively  flourish  better  in  the  more 
heavily-charged  air.  The  greater  quantity  of  ammonia  in  a 
town  atmosphere,  which  is  constantly  being  brought  dov.-n 
in  large  quantities  by  the  rains  and  absorbed  into  the 
ground,  is  precisely  what  many  vegetables  and  plants 
require  for  their  full  development ;  and  the  town  gardener 
has  therefore  in  this  case  a  constant  and  natural  supply  of 
that  which  the  country  farmer  is  at  considerable  expense 
to  procure  by  artificial  means. 

Again,  the  greater  warmth  which  is  found  in  towns  as 
compared  with  the  open  country  in  winter,  is  eminently 
favourable  to  many  of  the  forms  of  vegetable  life.  The 
superior  growth  and  condition  often  observed  in  many  of 
our  best  evergreens  in  town  as  compared  with  the  same 
objects  in  the  country,  is  an  instance  of  the  peculiar 
suitability  of  the  neighbourhood  of  town  to  a  certain  class 
of  plants  ;  and  in  other  classes  it  is  equally  favourable  to 
some  varieties,  although  it  may  be  injurious  to  others. 
What  these  varieties  are  we  shall  have  occasion  to  point 
out  under  their  several  headings,  when  we  come  to  touch 
upon  the  different  kinds  of  plants  cultivated  in  our  gardens. 

But,  while  the  gardener  in  town  or  suburb  should  bear 
these  facts  in  mind  for  his  encouragement,  he  must  also 
remember  not  only  that  it  is  necessary  to  choose  suitable 
plants  for  his  garden,  but  to  counteract  the  impurity  of 
a  town  atmosphere  by  greater  attention  to  the  cleanliness 
of  his  plants.  The  leaves  of  a  plant  are  its  air-vessels, 
through  which  impurity  will  be  conveyed  to  its  system  if 
it  exists  in  the  surrounding  air.  A  good  supply  of  water 
in  dry  and  dusty  weather  is  therefore  doubly  necessary 
to  plants  grown  in  town  ;  but  the  water  should  be  applied, 
not  to  the  roots  only,  as  is  the  general  practice,  but  by 
gentle  sprinkling  or  washing  as  in  a  rainfall,  over  the 
entire  surface  of  the  plant.  At  frequent  intervals  the  soot 
and  dust  which  are  sure  to  settle  more  or  less  on  the  leaves 
should  be  entirely  washed  away,  and  the  plants,  if  healthy, 
will  immediately  repay  the  attention  by  their  fresh 
appearance  and  vigorous  growth. 

These  two  principles  of  suitable  selection  of  plants  and 
constant  attention  to  cleanliness,  are  the  chief  points 
necessary  to  be  observed  to  enable  the  town  and  suburban 
gardener  to  compete  successfully  with  the  resident  in  the 
country.  But  now  as  to  other  matters  which  demand  his 
consideration. 

THE  SOIL,  AND  HOW  TO  IMPROVE    IT. 

The  first  is,  to  study  at  the  outset  the  character  of  the 
soil  with  which  he  has  to  deal.  This  must  be  his  guide 
as  to  the  class  of  plants  that  he  should  attempt  to  grow. 
Some  flourish  in  light  while  others  thrive  in  heavy  soils, 
and  his  choice  must  be  made  accordingly ;  but  it  is  always 
possible  in  a  small  garden,  by  a  little  judicious  outlay,  to 
do  much  to  alleviate  the  general  character  of  the  soil,, 
whether  of  the  one  kind  or  the  other.  Stiff  clayey  soil,  for 
instance,  may  be  lightened  by  the  addition  of  sand,  road- 
scrapings,  and  vegetable  manure ;  while  too  light  a  soil  re- 
quires the  addition  of  clay  or  marl  and  rich  vegetable  earth. 

Many  suburban  gardens,  attached  to  newly-built  houses, 
are  formed  of  meadow  land  recently  broken  up  ;   and  the 
soil  in  these  is  generally  sufficiently  rich  and  fertile  to  form ' 
a  basis  for  operations  without  much  trouble  in  preparation. 
But  in  others  the  ground  which  the  gardener  has  to  cultivate 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


2T 


is  thickly  strewn  or  intermixed  with  brick  and  rubble, 
which  must  be  carefully  cleared  away  before  he  can  do 
any  good  with  it.  Even  this  rubbish,  however,  will  be 
useful  in  small  quantities,  as  a  little  of  it  interspersed  in 
the  subsoil  will  assist  in  the  drainage  of  the  ground.  It  is 
a  common  mistake  to  remove  all  stones  from  the  earth  or 
mould.  They  assist  in  keeping  the  ground  open  and 
making  it  porous,  preventing  it  from  caking  in  the  heat  of 
summer,  or  being  washed  out  of  the  beds  on  to  the  paths 
in  heavy  showers  of  rain.  Moreover,  in  hot  weather 
stones  are  highly  useful  in  preventing  the  loss  of  moisture 
from  the  plants  by  evaporation;  for,  if  you  remove  a  stone 
from  the  surface  of  the  mould,  you  will  generally  find  the 
earth  damp  underneath. 

Then,  again,  the  soil  may  be  shallow  in  depth,  and 
require  either  that  fresh  soil  should  be  imported  or  that 
the  subsoil  should  be  brought  up  by  trenching — an  opera- 
tion which  we  shall  hereafter  explain.  Lastly,  and  more 
commonly  still,  the  fruitfulness  of  the  ground  may  have 
been  quite  exhausted  by  previous  operations,  in  which 
case  plenty  of  manure  must  be  dug  well  into  it.  Rotted 
stable  manure  is  the  best  possible  material  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  many  others  are  easily  procured.  Road 
scrapings,  matter  gathered  from  ditch  bottoms,  all  kinds 
of  vegetable  refuse,  with  lime,  soot,  &c.,  are  all  useful  in 
their  way,  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil  and  its 
condition.  The  right  use  of  manures  will  form  the  subject 
of  a  future  chapter. 

ASPECT  OF  THE  GROUND. 
Other  considerations  to  which  proper  regard  must  be 
paid  are  the  aspect  and  the  surroundings  of  the  garden. 
If  the  general  aspect  be  south  or  south-west,  you  may 
attempt  to  grow  vines,  fruit  trees,  and  many  delicate 
vegetables  and  flowers  with  which  you  would  certainly 
fail  if  your  garden  were  exposed  chiefly  to  north  and  easterly 
winds.  It  may  be  that  your  plot  of  ground  is  so  situated 
that  you  have  two  entirely  different  aspects,  one  side  being 
fully  exposed  to  the  genial  influences  of  the  sun  and  the 
south-west  breezes,  and  the  other  lying  nearly  always  in  the 
shade,  and  meeting  only  the  keener  winds.  You  will  find 
both  sides  useful  for  different  purposes.  On  the  brighter 
side,  for  instance,  besides  planting  your  vines  and  fruit 
trees,  you  may  sow  your  seeds  in  spring,  and  the  rising 
plants  will  get  warmth  and  shelter  until  they  are  ready 
for  planting  out.  The  other  side  will  be  equally  valuable 
as  summer  advances  ;  for  many  of  your  vegetables  and 
tender  plants  which  would  be  burnt  up  by  the  heat,  will 
here  flourish  in  the  shade.  You  must  carefully  observe, 
then,  the  aspect  of  the  ground,  and  be  guided  by  this  in 
your  planting 

WALLS  AND  FENCES. 
The  next  point  for  consideration  is  the  manner  in  which 
the  garden  is  enclosed — whether  by  fence  or  wall.  Brick 
walls,  as  a  rule,  are  much  less  suited  to  gardening  purposes 
than  open  fences.  They  obstruct  the  light,  and  the  free 
passage  of  air  to  the  plants.  The  wind  and  the  rain  beat 
forcibly  against  them,  and  all  things  immediately  within 
their  shelter  suffer  in  consequence.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  have  their  occasional  advantages.  A  good  wall 
facing  the  sun  is  the  most  suitable  spot  in  the  garden  for 
a  vine  or  a  plum  tree,  as  it  retains  and  reflects  the  heat  to 
ripen  the  fruit.  If  fruit  is  not  desired,  many  of  the  climbing 
plants,  such  as  the  Virginian  creeper  and  the  blue  pas- 
sion-flower, common  in  the  southern  counties  of  England, 
may  be  used  as  a  covering  and  ornament.  For  a  damp 
wall,  ivy  is  the  best  thing,  as  it  will  keep  it  dry  ;  but  in  a 
yarden  it  should  be  kept  cut  close,  and  thinned  from  time 
lo  time,  othenvise  it  will  grow  unsightly,  and  form  a 
breeding  place  for  a  colony  of  vennin.  A  continuous 
wooden  fence  presents  the  disadvantages  of  a  wall  without 
its  advantages  ;  therefore  choose,  if  you  can,  a  garden 
enclosed  by  an  open  palisading,  which  will  admit  the  light 


freely  to  the  plants,  and  at  the  same  time  break  the  fore- 
of  strong  currents  of  wind,  while  it  allows  a  thorough  cir- 
culation of  air. 

LAYING  OUT  THE  GARDEN. 
Now  as  to  the  planning  out  and  arrangement  of  your 
garden.  If  you  have  an  open  fence,  this  will  require  less 
consideration,  and  the  usual  plan  of  a  narrow  bed  round 
the  sides,  with  others  in  the  centre,  will  do  very  well 
supposing  you  wish  to  grow  flowers  chiefly.  But  if  you 
aim  at  the  culture  of  vegetables,  it  is  preferable,  if  the 
garden  is  a  small  one,  to  have  the  sides  occupied  by 
wider  beds,  with  one  pathway  running  down  the  centre. 
Thus  you  get  more  available  space,  and  can  cultivate  your 
vegetables  in  larger  and  wider  strips,  which  will  be  much 
more  convenient  for  planting,  &c.,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
more  favourable  to  their  growth. 

If  a  small  garden  is  enclosed  by  a  wall,  the  best  arrange- 
rnent  is  to  have  the  paths  running  round  the  outer  sides, 
leaving  the  whole  of  the  central  space  for  your  plants  and 
flowers.  Thus  you  bring  them  out  of  the  shade  into  as 
much  light  and  air  as  can  find  their  way  into  the  enclo- 
sure. It  will  be  better  still  if  you  can  raise  the  bed  or 
beds  into  which  you  may  divide  this  central  space,  above 
the  general  level  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  give  them  still 
more  exposure,  and  at  the  same  time  a  better  drainage. 
In  many  cases  this  may  easily  be  done  when  you  are 
making  a  garden,  by  importing  a  quantity  of  broken  bricks 
and  similar  rubbish,  and  with  this  forming  a  foundation 
for  the  soil.  The  expense  is  trifling,  and  the  trouble  will 
be  amply  repaid  in  the  saving  of  labour  and  the  better 
condition  of  your  plants  at  a  future  time. 

In  all  cases  remember  to  lay  out  your  garden  and  place 
your  beds  so  that  the  plants  may  be  readily  got  at  m  aJl 
stages  of  their  growth.  And  when  you  come  to  plant,  do 
not  fall  into  the  common  error  of  planting  so  thickly  that 
the  subjects  choke  up  each  other,  and  you  have  a  difficulty 
in  attending  to  one  without  injury  to  the  rest.  The  air 
should  be  allowed  to  circulate  freely  around  the  stem,  and 
the  sun's  rays  and  the  rain  should  be  able  to  reach  all  the 
leaves  of  every  single  plant,  if  you  wish  to  have  a  collec- 
tion of  anything  more  than  weak  and  sickly  vegetation. 

SUCCESSION   OF  PLANTS. 

If  you  intend  to  devote  your  ground  to  the  culture  of 
vegetables,  you  will  not  need  to  be  reminded  that  it  is 
desirable  to  have  a  constant  succession  of  plants  in  the 
ground,  and  that  gardening  will  therefore  require  your 
attention  and  afford  you  amusement  throughout  the  year. 
But  if  you  think  of  growing  flowers  only,  avoid,  above  all 
things,  the  modern  practice  of  occupying  the  ground  in 
the  summer  months  alone  by  tender  and  showy  plants, 
geraniums,  calceolarias,  and  the  like, and  leaving  it  a  barren 
and  desolate  space  throughout  the  rest  of  the  year.  The 
smallest  piece  of  ground  is  capable  of  affording  you  a  new 
pleasure  in  every  month  from  January  to  December  in- 
clusive, as  we  shall  show  in  detail,  in  the  course  of  these 
papers,  if  you  will  plant  such  flowers  as  follow  each  other 
in  reaching  perfection  at  the  successive  seasons  of  the 
year. 

So  much  for  the  general  principles  which  should  be 
kept  in  view  in  setting  out.  We  now  come  to  the  practical 
details  of  the  subject ;  and  shall  treat  in  our  next  paper 
of  the  laying  out  of  the  small  suburban  tlower  garden. 


THE    TOILETTE. 

We  propose,  in  a  series  of  short  articles,  to  give  a  concise 
account  of  the  every  day  management  of  the  Skin,  the 
Hair,  and  the  Teeth,  when  these  are  generally  in  a 
healthy  stnte  ;  and.  moreover,  to  indicate  very  briefly  the 
nature  and  causes  of  the  more  common  disorders  which 


22' 


THE   TOILETTE. 


affect  these  parts  of  the  body,  and  the  means  which 
should  be  employed  to  prevent  and  to  remove  such  dis- 
orders. We  hope  to  afford  such  information  as  the 
reader  may  use  with  daily  advantage— such  as  will  often- 
times prevent  not  only  discomfort,  but  even  the  visit  of 
the  doctor,  conducing  also  in  some  degree  to  the  pre- 
servation of  a  good  exterior,  and  the  satisfying  therefore 
.  of  that  amount  of  personal  vanity,  the  existence  of  which 
in  the  individual  is  in  reality  essential  to  the  exhibition 
of  true  politeness.     The  first  subject  for  notice,  then,  is 

THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SKIN. 
Structure  and  Ficnctions. — A  few  words  may  suffice 
'to  describe  the  skin,  and  they,  are  necessary  for  the 
-simple  reason  that  it  is  manifestly  imperative  to  know 
the  construction  and  properties  of  an  organ,  in  order 
that  we  may  appreciate  how  best  to  use  it,  to  preserve  its 
proper  functions  from  irregularities,  and  to  prevent  the 
action  upon  it  of  injurious  influences.  The  skin  is  a  soft 
membrane  composed  of  cuticle  or  scarf-skin — the  part 
which  is  raised  on  the  application  of  a  blister — made  up 
of  small  cells  flattened  together,  and  of  the  true  skin,  or 
derma  beneath,  whose  structure  is  that  of  a  mass  of  fibres 
arranged  in  network  fashion,  projecting  at  the  upper  part 
into  little  finger-like  processes,  called  papillae,  which  we 
see  through  the  cuticle  on  looking  at  any  part  of  the  skin. 
The  true  skin  is  furnished  with  blood-vessels,  called 
capillaries,  which  form  a  horizontal  layer,  and  send 
offshoots  into  the  papillae.  The  nerves  are  distributed 
like  the  blood-vessels.  Besides  these  elements,  the 
whole  thickness  of  the  skin  is  perforated  by  the  ducts 
of  the  little  sweat  glands  and  by  the  hair  follicles,  into 
each  of  which  two  little  fat  glands  open  by  their  proper 
ducts.  The  scarf-skin  does  not  block  up  the  openings 
of  these  ducts,  but  opens  down  and  lines  their  interior. 
The  cells  of  which  it  is  composed  are  constantly  shed 
as  scurf,  and  it  is  the  tardiness  of  this  shedding  which 
blocks  up  the  pores  of  the  skin.  The  little  glands  secrete 
a  fatty  matter,  which  also  tends  to  choke  the  pores  of 
the  skin  ;  the  action  of  soap  is  to  soften  up  and  remove 
this  fatty  matter.  The  true  skin  or  derma  is  that  part 
which  is  made  into  leather.  The  little  projections  or 
papillae  each  contain  a  nerve  twig,  and  are  in  fact  the 
"feelers"  or  sensitive  organs  of  the  skin — the  parts  which 
constitute  the  organs  of  touch.  Beneath  the  skin  is  a 
layer  of  fat,  which  forms  an  admirable  "  cushion,"  breaks 
the  force  of  blows,  and  allows  the  movements  of  the  skin 
to  take  place  freely.  The  little  sweat  glands  are  tubes 
which  open  on  the  exterior,  and  run  down  in  a  spiral 
.  direction,  till  they  end  in  a  little  coil,  surrounded  by 
blood-vessels,  from  whence  the  fluid  sweat  is  derived. 
Now  it  is  very  important  to  be  aware  of  the  number  and 
length  of  sweat-tubes.  There  are  nearly  three  millions 
of  these  tubes  in  the  body,  and  it  is  calculated  that 
they  are  in  all  twenty-eight  miles  in  length.  It  will 
be  at  once  evident  how  important  it  is  to  keep  the  pores 
of  the  skin  open,  in  order  that  the  body  may  be  properly 
purified  by  allowing  these  sweat  glands  and  tubes  to 
perform  their  functions  properly.  This  may  suffice  for 
the  structure.  Then  what  useful  purpose  does  the  skin 
serve  ?  What  are  its  functions  ?  In  the  first  place  it  is 
the  organ  of  sensibility  ;  secondly,  it  is  a  protection  to 
the  body  ;  thirdly,  it  is  a  great  breathing  organ,  really  an 
extensive  lung.  The  dark  and  impure  blood  circulating 
through  its  veins  becomes  changed  by  the  action  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  and  fitted  to  nourish  the  tissues  more 
perfectly.  Hence  the  need  of  keeping  the  "pores  of  the 
skin  open"  by  proper  washing.  The  importance  of  the 
breathing  function  of  the  skin  can  be  easily  shown  by 
experiment,  for  if  we  varnish  over  the  skin  the  subject 
so  varnished  often  dies  of  what  is  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  suffocation.  Insects  breathe  entirely  through  their 
skin.     The   skin  does  about  one-thirtieth  of  the  work 


similar  to  that  performed  by  the  lungs,  and  in  disease 
of  the  latter  it  is  very  likely  much  more  active  in 
purifying  the  blood.  Then,  fourthly,  the  skin  carries  off 
by  the  sweat  much  solid  matter,  that  would  be,  if  retained 
in  the  body,  very  injurious.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances about  a  pound  and  a  half  of  sweat  is  given  off  by 
a  man  in  a  day.  The  body  is  also  kept  at  a  proper  tem- 
perature by  the  evaporation  of  the  sweat ;  hence  tiie 
importance  of  keeping  the  skin  in  order,  especially  in 
cleanliness,  in  order  that  nature  may  regulate  the  heat 
of  the  body.  Inattention  to  these  points  gives  rise 
to  various  disorders  of  the  system,  especially  colds, 
coughs,  and  the  like.  The  fluid  which  is  sweated 
out  of  the  body  comes  from  the  blood-vessels  in  the 
deeper  part  of  the  skin.  A  word  more  about  the  work 
of  the  little  fatty  glands,  and  this  part  of  the  subject  may 
be  left.  These  little  structures  give  exit  to  fatty  matter ; 
that  by  inducing  a  slightly  greasy  state  of  skin,  prevents 
too  great  evaporation  ;  it  acts  as  a  protection  to  the  skin 
against  irritants,  and  it  also  carries  off  certain  fatty  acids 
from  the  body.  In  an  inactive  skin  these  glands  get 
choked  up  by  the  retained  fatty  matter,  and  we  then  have 
pimples,  as  about  the  face. 

To  keep  the  Skin  in  Health. — It  is  necessary  that  it 
be  properly  nourished,  that  all  things  that  will  irritate  it 
be  avoided,  that  it  be  kept  in  a  proper  state  of  warmth, 
and  above  all  things  that  the  utmost  and  constant  clean- 
liness be  -observed.  Now,  in  the  first  place,  with  regard 
to  the  influence  of  food  on  the  health  of  the  skin,  it 
may  simply  be  said  that  in  proportion  as  plain  food  is 
regularly  taken  will  the  skin  be  preserved  in  health  in 
common  with  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  skin  of 
infants  is  very  liable  to  get  out  of  order  when  the  milk 
they  take  is  poor ;  and  it  is  very  important  that  mothers 
should  attend  to  this  matter,  and  see  that  the  milk  they 
give  infants  is  really  good ;  or  if  the  natural  food  which  their 
babies  get  from  them  is  poor,  that  means  be  taken  to 
improve  the  supply.  Fair  mothers  of  fair  children  should 
be  particular  in  this  respect.  If  parent  or  child  be 
weakly,  then  it  may  be  advisable  to  give  a  special  meal 
to  a  child — say  between  three  or  four  months  dl  age — of 
milk  with  a  little  water,  perhaps  thickened  with  bread, 
jelly,  or  a  little  fine  baked  flour.  A  child  at  seven  or 
eight  months  should  be  taking  two  pints  of  milk  a  day ; 
and  after  the  teeth  are  shown,  broths  and  the  like  may  be 
taken.  By  such  a  plan  as  this  there  is  the  best  chance 
of  keeping  the  skin  of  infants  firm  and  healthy,  so  far 
as  diet  is  concerned.  More  will  be  said  in  speaking  of 
bathing.  The  growing  girl  or  boy  of  five,  seven,  or  eleven 
years  of  age,  requires  a  full  supply  of  meat,  otherwise 
the  skin  is  liable  to  be  deranged,  and  such  abominations 
as  scald  head,  ringworm,  and  the  like  are  likely  to  show 
themselves.  Such  young  persons  as  are  here  indicated  re- 
quire enough  food  not  only  to  repair  the  ordinary  wear  and 
tear  of  their  bodies,  but  to  provide  for  the  actual  increase 
in  growth  from  day  to  day.  The  dietary  of  schools 
should  be  much  improved.  The  following  is  a  capital 
meal  chart,  Ave  believe  suggested  by  Soyer,  for  those  in 
charge  of  boys  and  girls  : — "  Bread  and  milk  at  eight ; 
dinner  at  one  :  roast  mutton  and  apple  pudding ;  roast 
beef  and  currant  puddmg  ;.  boiled  mutton  with  turnips, 
after  rice  or  vermicelli  pudding  ;  occasionally  a  little  salt 
beef  with  suet  dumplings,  plain  or  with  currants  in  them, 
or  pease  pudding  f  and  to  these  we  should  add  bread 
and  butter  and  milk  and  water  for  tea,  and  a  fair  meal 
of  bread  and  cheese  or  butter  for  supper.  In  the  case  of 
those  youngsters  who  look  under-fed,  a  piece  of  meat  at 
night  and  a  glass  of  beer  or  milk  in  the  day  time  should  be 
added.  There  is  one  other  point  in  reference  to  young 
persons  worth  notice.  It  is  the  importance  of  eating  a 
certain  amount  of  fat  with  the  food.  Children  who  have 
unhealthy  skins  are  often  those  who  seem  to  avoid  eating 
fat.     This  is  a  point   which   parents  would  do  well   to 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


33 


notice.      Fat  is  a  very  influential  itenn  in  the  food  as 

regards  the  skin,  and  if  it  cannot  be  taken  in  the  ordinary 

.ay,  it  is  just  a  question  whether  it  should  not  be  given 

i\\  an  artificial  form,  by  way  of  cod-liver  oil,  which  has 

great  effect  for  good  on  the  skin.     The  dose  for  a  child 

of  a  year  old  is  ten  to  twenty  drops ;  for  those  of  five, 

half  a  teaspoonful.     With  regard  to  adults,  the  guide  to 

what  is  best  to  be  taken  for  the  good  of  the  skin,  is  the 

I  feet  of  food  upon  the  stomach.     If  there  be  any  article 

vhich   in    being   taken    does    not    sit   lightly   upon   the 

lomach,  or  flushes  the  face,  that  should  be  avoided,  for 

:s  use  will  very  likely  lead  to  the  development  of  pimples 

md  red  blotches.     It  has  been  said  that  tea  and  coffee 

;ct  injuriously  upon  the   skin.     There  is  no  foundation 

for   this   opinion,   but    this    is    certain  that  a  very  close 

sympathy  exists  between  the  face  and  the  stomach,  and 

Avhen  there  is  a  feeling  of  heat,  or  the  appearance  of  a 

red    flush   after  taking  beer    or  wine,  or   any  particular 

article  of  diet,  in   young   persons,  we    may  expect   the 

face  to  become  disordered,  and  blotches  and  pimples  to 

appear. 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 

THE  TOOL-CHEST  {C07ltinued). 

Files  and  Rasps. — Files  are  flat  blades  of  steel  fixed  by 
a  tang  into  a  wooden  handle,  and  cut  all  over  with  a  series 
of  teeth  more  or  less  minute,  the  various  sizes  of  which 
are  known  as  rough  cut,  bastard  cut,  second  cut,  smooth, 
and  superfine,  and  they  are  of  various  shapes  and  sections, 
such  as  round,  half-round,  square,  oblong,  triangular,  oval, 
&c.,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  required. 
The  square  and  oblong  shapes  often  have  one  edge  not 
cut.  This  is  called  a  "  safe  edge,"  and  is  used  as  a  guide 
in  filing  up  shoulders,  &c.  Usually  files  are  of  fully 
hardened  steel,  and  are  therefore  capable  of  attacking  any 
metal  which  is  not  equal  to  themselves  in  hardness.  A 
large  proportion  are  made  rather  thicker  in  the  middle 
than  at  either  end,  in  order  to  in  some  degree  counteract 
the  rolling  motion  of  the  hands,  which  it  is  very  difficult 
altogether  to  prevent  in  the  filing  of  flat  surfaces.  They 
are,  however,  sometimes  made  with  parallel  surfaces  and 
edges.  For  the  purposes  of  cutting  thin  slits,  such  as  the 
nicks  on  the  heads  of  screws,  thin  blades,  cut  only  on  the 
edge,  are  used.     These  are  called  slitting  files. 

In  all  cases  where  from  use  on  material  of  adhesive 
nature  files  have  become  clogged  up,  the  teeth  should  be 
brushed  out  with  a  file-card,  for  which  purpose  a  piece  of 
worn  out  cotton  combing-card,  a  kind  of  thick  fustian 
woven  with  steel  wires,  answers  admirably.  As  files  are  a 
somewhat  large  item  of  expenditure  in  a  workshop,  from 
the  speedy  wear  to  which  they  are  subject,  many  methods 
have  been  tried  for  recutting  the  teeth,  when  worn  away, 
by  means  of  acid.  The  following  method  we  have  found 
very  effective  for  fine  files,  but  of  little  use  with  coarse 
ones.  After  being  brushed  clean,  an  old  file  is  dipped 
into  a  mixture  of  three  parts  sulphuric  acid,  one  part 
nitric  acid,  and  seven  parts  water  for  a  time  varying  from 
ive  to  twenty  minutes,  according  to  the  freshness  of  the 
aixture,  and  the  depth  of  cut  required  ;  it  is  then  washed 
ii  water,  and  dipped  in  lime-water  to  prevent  any  further 
ction  of  the  acid,  again  washed,  and  dried  by  heat,  and 
orushed  over  with  a  mixture  of  oil  and  turpentine  to 
prevent  it  from  rusting.  Whether  this  process  acts  only 
by  clearing  out  dirt  and  dust,  or  really  cuts  into  the 
surface,  we  cannot  say,  but  we  know  from  experieru:e  that 
it  is  certainly  effective,  although  not  quite  so  good  as  re- 
cutting,  a  process  we  do  not  advise  our  readers  to  attempt. 
The  acid  process  should  be  performed  out  of  doors,  as  the 
fumes  given  off  are  rather  unpleasant. 

Considerable  practice  is  necessary  to  attain  much  pro- 
ficiency in  hand  filing,  especially  of  flat  surfaces,  as,  from  ' 
the  motions  of  the  elbow  and  shoulder  joints,  the  hands  [ 


naturally  tend  to  move  the  tool  in  curved  lines,  thereby, 
making  the  work  convex  or  rounded.  The  same  fault  is 
further  induced  by  the  fact  that  in  sweeping  a  file  of 
moderate  length  across  a  narrow  surface,  one  hand  being 
at  each  end,  the  blade  becomes  a  l;-;ver,  the  fulcrum  of 
which  is  continually  shifting  in  position ;  and  if  the 
pressure  at  each  hand  is  kept  constant,  the  ends  will 
alternately  be  raised  or  depressed,  and  will,  of  course,  pro- 
duce a  convex  surface,  instead  of  a  square  and  true  one. 
As  before  explained,  it  is  in  some  degree  to  counteract 
this  tendency  that  files  are  made  thicker  in  the  middle 
than  at  the  ends,  or  ''bellied,"  as  it  is  termed.  In  finish- 
ing and  smoothing  filed  works  the  files  are  slid  along 
sideways  or  laterally.  This  motion  is  called  draw  filing, 
the  teeth  only  scratch,  and  do  not  cut.  Rasps  are  the 
same  in  action  as  files,  but,  being  used  for  wood,  the 
teeth  are  larger,  being  produced  one  at  a  time  by  blows  of 
a  small  chisel  or  punch.  The  teeth  are  always  in  lines, 
ranged  diagonalh*,  or  in  curved  rows  across  the  blade. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9, 


Gimlets  and  An^e^crs. — Fig.  7  shows  the  ordinary  form 
of  gimlet,  which  is  simply  a  piece  of  steel  wire  fastened 
into  a  handle  at  right  angles  to  it,  the  lower  or  cutting 
part  of  which  is  grooved  and  fluted  out  so  as  to  leave 
sharp  edges.  At  the  extreme  end  is  a  small  taper  screw, 
by  which  the  tool  is  kept  continually  forcing  its  way  into 
the  wood,  the  edges  of  the  flute  cutting  out  the  shavings 
which  escape  out  up  the  groove.  Twisted  gimlets.  Fig.  8, 
are  by  far  the  best,  the  effect  being  exactly  the  same,  for 
as  the  flute  is  twisted  round  the  barrel  the  wire  is  not  so 


Fig.   lo. 

much  weakened,  and  the  groove  being  in  the  form  of  n 
screw,  the  shavings  are  lifted  out,  instead  of  having  to 
force  their  way  up  the  groove.  Augers,  Fig.  9,  are  like 
twisted  gimlets',  but  in  place  of  one  groove  they  have  two 
wound  round  the  rod  ;  the  bottom  edges  of  the  metal  left 
by  the  two  grooves  are  sharpened  into  a  cutting  edge,  and 
consequently  their  action  is  very  easy,  smooth,  and  rapid. 
The  largest  augers  are  not  fixed  into  handles,  but  have 
their  tops  expanded  into  rings,  into  which  a  movable 
handle  is  thrust. 


24 


THE   HOUSEHOLD   MECHANIC. 


G anises. — Fig.  lo,  page  23,  shows  a  common  marking- 
gauge,  in  which  the  rod  A  shdcs  backwards  and  forwards 
m  the  block  B,  but  capable  of  being  fixed  at  any  required 
place  by  the  screw  E  ;  near  one  end  is  a  hole  through 
which  the  steel  point  D  is  driven.  In  using  this  tool  the 
right  end  is  grasped  by  the  right  hand,  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  of  which  take  hold  round  the  block.  In  gaug- 
ing a  piece  of  wood,  one  edge,  previously  planed,  is  used 
as  a  guide,  the  left  of  the  block  being  kept  close  up  to  it, 
the  point  of  course  marking  a  line  parallel  to  the  edge  of 
the  wood  at  any  required  distance  from  it.  In  cutting 
thin  parallel  laths,  a  knife  is  used  instead  of  the  point  D  ; 


^sO 


Fig.   II. 

this  is  called  a  cutting-gauge.  Fig.  1 1  shows  a  mortice- 
gauge,  which  is  used  for  marking  two  parallel  lines  at 
once,  as  in  marking  mortices  and  tenons.  The  point  A  is 
driven  through  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  common 
gauge,  but  a  second  point,  B,  is  fixed  on  the  piece  of  brass 
sliding  in  a  groove  in  the  rod,  which  slide  is  moved  by  the 
screw  c.  The  screw  c  works  in  a  box  or  nut  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines  at  D.  The  method  of  using  is  the  same 
as  with  common  gauges.  The  rod  is  fi.xed  by  the 
screw  E. 
Hannncrs  and  Mallets. — It  would  seem  almost  absurd 


"^^nr^ 


!i — J 

Fig.   12. 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


to  trouble  our  readers  with  a  description  of  tools  so  uni- 
versally known,  but  as  no  tool-chest  would  be  complete 
in  their  absence,  we  should  not  feel  altogether  justified  in 
passing  them  over.  Fig.  12  shows  the  head  of  an  ordinary 
claw-hammer,  the  claw  of  which  is  useful  in  taking  out 
nails  wrongly  driven,  &c.  Fig.  13  shows  the  head  of  a 
tang  hammer,  the  tang  being  convenient  for  slight  blows 


Fig.  IS- 


Fig.  16. 


Fig.  17. 


on  nails,  just  for  fixing  them  in  a  position  to  be  driven  in. 
Fig.  14  is  a  smith's  chipping-hammer,  the  weight  of  which 
is  nearly  all  in  the  lower  end,  the  tang  being  usually 
rounded.  Of  mallets  we  need  say  nothing,  except  to 
-ecommend  the  square-headed  ones  for  morticing  and 


carpenters'  work,  and  the  cylindrical  ones  for  more 
domestic  purposes,  such  as  tapping  beer-barrels,  &c. 

Pincers  and  Pliers. — Fig.  1 5  is  a  diagram  of  a  pair  of 
ordinary  pincers,  which  are  contrivances  for  obtaining  a 
firm  grasp  on  small  objects,  such  as  nails  or  pieces  of 
wire,  &c.  Common  pliers.  Fig.  16,  are  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  pincers,  but  being  smaller,  do  not  grasp  quite 
so  firmly  ;  and  Fig.  17,  a  pair  of  cutting-pliers,  used  for 
severing  small  wires.  The  cutting  edges  arc  sometimes 
on  the  side,  and  sometimes  on  the  top  edges  of  the  tool. 
In  the  former  case  the  ends  are  prolonged  into  regular 
pinching  surfaces,  thereby  serving  the  twofold  purpose  of 
cutting  and  holding. 

Planes. — Fig.  18  is  a  section  showing  the  construction 
and  arrangement  of  an  ordinary  plane.     The  body.  A,  is  of 


rig.  is. 

wood,  usually  beech,  the  bottom  of  which  is  called  the 
sole.  The  line  B,  on  which  the  iron  rests,  is  the  bed^  and 
for  carpenters'  planes  is  mostly  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees.  The  iron  is  kept  firmly  fastened  down 
to  the  bed  by  the  wedge  C,  which  fits  into  grooves  on  each 
side  of  the  mouth  D.  The  angle  of  the  wedge  is  about 
ten  degrees,  and  it  is  cut  away  in  the  middle  so  as  to  leave 
room  for  the  screw  which  holds  the  two  irons  together. 
The  plane  is  pushed  forward  by  the  handle  E,  which  is  let 
into  the  top.  Fig.  19  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  double 
iron  found  in  most  planes.  A  is  the  bottom  iron,  which  is 
the  cutting  part,  and  B  is  the  top  iron  or  break,  as  it  is 
termed,  which  is  intended  to  throw  off  the  shavings  from 
the   cutting  edge.      It   is   set  with  its   edge  about  one- 


Z2\ 


twentieth  of  an  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  cutting-iron,  to 
which  it  is  held  by  the  screw  c.  The  adjustment  is 
allowed  by  the  long  slot  in  the  bottom  iron  in  which  the 
screw  slides.  The  top  iron  is  curved  in  the  direction  of 
its  length,  in  order  to  keep  its  edge  in  more  complete 
contact  with  the  lower  iron,  and  so  to  allow  no  shavings 
to  pass  between. 

In  setting  a  plane  the  two  irons  are  screwed  together, 
and  placed  on  the  bed  with  the  wedge  lightly  pressed 
in  its  place ;  the  edge  will  then  be  felt  underneath  by  th» 
hand,  and  can  be  adjusted.  Should  it  be  too  far  out,  a 
tap  with  a  hammer  on  the  fore-part  of  the  plane  will  bring^ 
it  up,  or  should  it  not  project  enough  a  slight  blow  on  the 
top  of  the  iron  will  be  necessary;  when  in  its  place  a 
sharp  blow  on  the  top  of  the  wedge  will  fix  it  there.  The 
diagram,  P'ig.  18,  shows  about  the  proportion  of  a  jack- 
plane,  the  length  of  which  is  from  fourteen  to  sixteen 
inches.  The  smoothing-plane  is  smaller,  about  seven  or 
eight  inches.  The  trying-plane  is  much  longer,  about 
twenty  inches,  the  greater  length  giving  greater  accuracy 
in  the  surface  to  he  operated  on.  The  order  of  using 
is  generally  jack,  trying,  and  smoothing.  Plane-irons 
are  sharpened  in  the  same  way  as  directed  for  chisels, 
but  from  the  greater  width  of  the  blade,  three  inches,  the 
operation  is  more  difficult- 


CASSELLS    llUUbEHOLD    GUIDE. 


25 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 

I.— DRAINAGE. 

Cottage  farming,  to  be  profitable,  must  be  very  carefully 
done ;  and  where  there  are  only  a  few  acres,  these  few 
acres  must  be  kept  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation  to 
render  them  profitable.  This  applies  especially  to  the 
section  we  shall  deal  with  in  the  first  place — namely, 
grass-land. 

To  be  farmed  profitably,  grass-land  must  be   in   the 
greatest  state  of  fertility.    No  matter  upon  what  tenure  the 


land  is  held — long  or  short  leases,  copyholds  or  freeholds — 
the  rule  applies  equally  and  to  all.  The  smaller  the  farm, 
the  more  strongly  does  it  demand  attention.  Land,  if 
neglected,  deteriorates  rapidly;  and  it  stands  to  reason 
that,  where  a  man  has  only  a  few  acres  to  depend  upon, 
he  must  get  the  very  best  he  can  out  of  the  land  by  treat- 
ing it  liberally  and  carefully. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  cottage  farms  in  every 
county,  and  it  is  now  the  fashion  to  devote  the  spare 
land  adjoining  railway-stations  to  cottage  farming.  In 
Wales  and  Ireland  the  system  of  farming  a  few  acres 
prevails  largely.  Now,  although 
most  of  these  small  farms  com- 
bine arable  with  grass-land,  there 
always  exists  a  strong  desire  to 
keep  a  portion  in  grass,  which,  in 
many  instances,  suits  the  farmer 
better.  It  may  be  that  the  land 
is  at  a  distance  from  his  house  or  his  trade — of,  say, 
butcher  or  dairyman — which  makes  grass-land  the  most 
profitable  ;  and,  moreover,  the  farming  of  grass-land  does 
not  require  any  team-work,  which  is  one  of  the  farmer's 
greatest  expenses. 

It  is  our  intention  to  go  minutely  into  the  detail  of  grass 
farming  on  this  small  scale,  and  in  the  first  case  to  give  our 
attention  to  the  roads,  fences,  drainage,  and  other  per- 
manent improvements,  which  form  the  basis  of  successful 
practice. 

The  ground  taken  up  by  a  cart  or  carriage  road  is  a 
serious  loss  upon  a  farm  of  a  few  acres  ;  therefore,  if 


attended  to  in  the  farming  of  grass-land.  If  the  drainage 
is  defective,  the  grass  will  be  poor  and  sour,  so  that  cattle 
will  not  feed  upon  it.  It  will  also  be  full  of  rushes  and 
rank  weeds.  And  there  are  four  ways  of  draining  grass- 
lands : — I,  by  rivers  and  ditches;  2,  by  tapping;   3,  by 


Fig.  2. 


t"'S-  3- 


absolutely  necessary  for  farming  purposes,  it  should  be  as 
narrow  and  as  short  as  possible.  If,  however,  the  ground 
is  only  grass,  a  permanent  road  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
for  mere  farming  traffic  ;  carts  can  go  over  the  grass  as 
easily  as  along  a  made  road.  The  only  road  necessary 
then,  in  this  case,  is  the  outlet  or  approach  to  the  cottage. 
Still,  even  in  this  case  it  will  be  found  the  best  economy 
to  make  a  road.  We  have  seen  good  grass-lands  sadly  I 
spoiled  by  carts  being  driven  in  all  directions  over  them. 
Drainage  is  one  of  the  most  necessary  points  to  be  , 


cutting  off  springs  ;  4,  by  parallel  draining.  Rivers  and 
their  tributaries  are  the  main  drains  of  the  countrj-, 
carrying  off  the  waters  from  open  -ditches,  while  open 
ditches  carry  off  the  waters  collected  in  covered  drains. 

Industrious,  in- 
telligent cottagers, 
whose  farms  are 
bounded  on  one 
side  by  a  river,  often 
turn  the  land  out- 
side the  embank- 
ment to  profitable 
account  by  planting 
osiers,  &c.  Thus, 
in  the  annexed  dia- 
gram, Fig.  I,  a 
is  the  surface  of 
the  meadow  inside 
the  embankment,  i", 
and  the  dotted  lines, 
d,  represent  the  na- 
tural level  of  the  out- 
side, and  e  the  sur- 
face level  of  the  river'  at  ordinary  occasions,  the  soil 
within  the  dotted  lines  having  been  dug  out  down  to  ef, 
a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  above  <?,  to  form  the  embank- 
ment c.     The  slope,   c  d,   is   turfed  over  or  sown  with 


Fig.   6, 


X\ 


IL 


-y 


grass  seeds  adapted  for  occasional  floodings,  and  the 
level  space  at  the  bottom,  d,  planted  with  osiers,  &c.  In 
some  cases  basket-makers  rent  this  space  at  so  much 
annually  ;  in  others,  the  cottager  farms  it  himself,  and 
sends  the  produce  to  market.    The  slope,  c  J,  grows  as 


36 


COTTAGE  FARMING. 


much  grass  and  often  more  than  is  done  by  the  land 
when  left  on  the  level  of  the  dotted  line,  bj  and  the  grass 
on  the  slope  is  not  much  more  liable  to  be  silted  during 
the  floods  of  summer  than  the  grass  on. the  level,  b.  But, 
about  the  time  of  floods,  the  grass  should  be  frequently 
cut,  so  as  to  keep  it  short  and  avoid  loss  by  silting. 
Sometimes  an  open  ditch,  /,  inside  the  embankment,  is 
necessary  in  the  winter  time,  and  the  water  from  it  is 
drawn  off  under  the  embankment  by  means  of  a  pipe 
or  trunk  with  a  weighted  sluice  on  its  mouth  at  the 
water's  edge. 

In  open  ditches,  where  there  is  a  continuous  flow  of 
water  during  the  greater  portion  of  the  year,  the  sides 
may  receive  a  greater  slope  than  they  generally  have,  so 
as  to  prevent  falling  in  ;  and  a  row  of  osiers,  »S:c.,  may  be 
planted,  to  protect  the  bottom  by  means  of  their  spreading 
roots.  Thus,  if  a,  Fig.  2,  is  the  surface  of  the  meadow,  and 
e  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  ditch,  the  side  a  ^may  be 
sloped  down,  so  as  to  produce  several  mowings  of  grass. 
The  space,  d,  may  be  a  foot  in  breadth,  and  on  this  plant 
closely  a  row  of  osiers  or  willows,  whichever  is  best  adapted 
for  the  soil ;  the  roots  of  these  will  keep  the  water-way 
below  in  a  proper  state.  In  the  summer-time  a  sluice  put 
across  at  short  distances  will  form  dams  to  retain  thunder 
showers. 

When  an  open  ditch  has  no  more  water  to  remove  than 
what  falls  upon  the  small  farm,  it  may,  in  most  cases,  be 
converted  into  a  covered  drain. 

Tapping. — A  large  area  of  land  is  often  found  to  be 
wet,  owing  to  the  collection  of  stagnant  water  below. 
Subterranean  pools  of  this  kind  are  common  in  many  of 
our  clay  formations,  as  the  Oxford  and  London  clays. 
Thus  in  the  section.  Fig.  3,  a  large  basin,  x  z  y,  has  been 
scooped  out  by  the  action  of  the  water,  gravel  and  sand 
are  drifted  into  it,  as  represented  by  <',  and  over  this  porous 
material  clay  is  again  drifted,  forming  a  tenacious  soil. 
Through  this  the  water  in  course  of  time  filters,  and  fills 
the  interior  of  c  full  to  the  top.  Then,  by  capillary  action, 
this  water  keeps  the  surface  above  wet,  and  adapted  for 
the  growth  of  rushes,  rt,  b,  c,  which  send  down  their  roots 
to  the  water  below.  By  boring  at  d  the  Avater  may  be 
drawn  off  to  the  level  of  the  dotted  line,  x  y,  so  as  to 
drain  effectually  the  land  above.  This  operation  is 
termed  tapping.  A  covered  drain  not  shown  on  the 
diagram  removes  the  water  from  d  x. 

Draining  Springs. — When  soils  lie  on  rock,  springs 
frequently  break  out  to  the  surface,  and  by  spreading 
far  and  wide  keep  much  land  wet.  When  the  spring  I 
bursts  out  in  the  bottom  of  a  small  basin,  so  as  to  form  a 
lake,  in  a  soil  naturally  adapted  to  produce  bog  moss, 
a  "live  bog"  is  formed;  and  in  Ireland  such  are  very 
common,  and  owe  their  existence  to  this,  that  as  the 
moss  grows  the  bog  rises  above  the  surface  level  many 
feet  in  height,  and  the  strength  of  the  moss  to  retain  the 
water  having  a  limit,  when  the  weight  of  water  and  moss 
exceeds  this,  the  bog  breaks  from  its  moorings  and 
slides  away,  carrying  everything  before  it.  Had  the 
.small  spring  been  cut  off  by  a  drain  before  the  formation 
of  the  bog  began,  or  while  the  spring  was  accessible  to 
the  tools  of  the  drainer,  such  a  catastrophe  would  have 
been  prevented,  and  healthy  meadow  or  pasture-land 
found  in  the  place  of  the  live  bog. 

Something  similar  to  live  bogs  takes  place  wherever 
springs  pipe  out  to  the  surface.  Thus,  let  the  section 
a  c  e  b,  Fig.  4,  be  the  surface  of  the  meadow,  lying  at  a 
small  inclination  with  the  horizon,  and  let  the  rocky  sub- 
soil form  three  beds  or  strata,  x  y  z,  two  of  which,  ^'^'j  crop 
out  to  the  staple,  or  top  soil — that  is  to  say,  they  have 
the  fissures  of  the  strata  so  tilted  as  to  receive  the  water 
collected  in  the  top  soil — the  lower  one  at  c  e,  and  the 
upper  one  at  e  b.  The  fissures  c  f  and  e  i  sometimes 
run  right  across  the  field  ;  at  other  times  obliquely  ;  but 
wlien  they  ccwitain   water,  as   they  invariably  do,    and 


that  water  is  not  drained  off  naturally  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  dips  /  and  /,  it  will  rise  and  burst  out  in  one  or 
more  springs  along  the  surface,  as  at  c  and  e.  The 
spring  e  receives  its  supply  of  water  from  higher  ground, 
by  the  cleft  or  fissure  d,  and  c  by  that  oif. 

In  this  case  the  spring  at  e  keeps  the  ground  between 
it  and  c  wet ;  and  the  spring  c  does  the  same  with  the 
ground  below  it ;  so  that  the  work  of  drainage  consists 
in  cutting  a  single  drain  right  up  to  each  spring,  or 
through  both,  so  as  to  drain  the  ground.  If,  however, 
there  are  a  series  of  springs  along  each  fissure,  viz., 
c  and  (?,  then  a  deep  drain  along  each  fissure  will  be 
necessary. 

By  far  the  largest  area  of  land  requires  to  be  drained 
by  parallel  drains  placed  at  short  distances  from  each 
other.  Even  in  examples  of  rocky  grounds,  as  Fig.  4, 
and  when  the  soil  is  of  considerable  depth  over  the  rock, 
it  cannot  be  eftectually  drained  otherwise ;  for  although  a 
single  drain  will  remove  the  flow  of  water  from  a  spring, 
the  water  across  .the  fissures,  from  their  irregular  direc- 
tion, oozes  out  so  imperceptibly  that  the  eye  of  the  spring 
cannot  be  detected,  while  in  other  cases  the  eye  is  too 
deep  to  be  reached  by  a  drain. 

At  one  time  the  pipes  used  in  parallel  draining  were  of 
a  horseshoe  form,  but  now  round  ones  are  generally  used. 
The  most  popular  are  those  represented  by  Fig.  5,  without 
sockets,  or  with  sockets,  as  in  Fig.  6.  They  are  placed 
as  in  Fig.  7,  which  also  gives  the  section  of  a  common 
drain,  showing  the  pipe  as  it  lies  in  the  ground.  In  this 
case  X y  is  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

In  draining  land  lying  in  grass,  the  surface  spit  a' 
requires  to  be  carefully  dug  out,  turned  over,  and  laid 
at  the  side,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  a,  the  grassy 
side  undermost.  The  object  of  this  is  that  it  may  be 
replaced  with  the  grassy  side  uppermost  when  the  pipe  has 
been  laid  and  the  earth  filled  in.  Sometimes  burnt  earth, 
gravel,  and  the  like,  is  put  over  the  pipe  as  high  as  z. 

The  earth  should  be  trampled  in  as  closely  as  prac- 
ticable, and  if  a  water  barrow  or  cart  be  drawn  along  the 
drain  before  the  sod  a'  is  replaced,  the  water  will  both 
consolidate  the  earth  below,  and  assist  the  roots  of  the 
grass  above  to  strike  and  recover  life. 

The  depth  of  drains  varies  from  three  to  four  feet; 
the  pipe  being  seldom  placed  at  a  less  depth  below  the 
surface  than  three  feet,  and  seldom  at  a  greater  depth 
than  four  feet ;  but  to  both  these  extremes  there  are 
exceptions,  which  experience  and  intelligence  can  direct. 

The  distance  between  parallel  drainings  is  even  more 
varied  than  their  depth — 15,  18,  24,  30,  40,  and  even  60 
feet  asunder  being  common.  In  practice  the  depth  of 
the  drain  and  the  distance  asunder  are  determined  by 
the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  general  error  fallen  into  in 
clay  soils  is  to  place  the  drains  too  far  asunder,  under  the 
fallacious  notion  that  the  greater  depth  will  draw  the 
greater  distance  ;  but  the  pipe  in  the  bottom  of  the  drain, 
Fig.  7,  has  no  active  function  of  this  kind — i.e.,  it  does 
not  draw.  The  water  merely  percolates  through  the  soil 
by  gravitation,  and  as  the  density  of  soils  generally 
increases  with  their  depth,  the  opposite  is  the  practical 
conclusion.  If,  therefore,  the  density  thus  increases — for 
this  is  the  true  question — drains  three  feet  in  depth,  and 
12  and  15  feet  asunder,  must  act  upon  tenacious  clays 
more  effectually  than  if  laid  four  feet  in  depth  and  18 
to  24  feet  asunder. 

Draining  pipes  are  about  13^  inches  long,  and  from 
one  to  six  inches  and  upwards  in  diameter.  In  practice, 
the  size  is  regulated,  first,  by  the  distance  asunder  at 
which  you  put  the  drains  ;  secondly,  the  climate  ;  thirdly, 
by  the  inclination  of  the  ground.  The  small  bore  is 
liable  to  be  closed  if  the  pipes  are  not  laid — and  continue 
to  lie — closely  in  a  line. 

It  generally  answers  better  to  divide  the  field  into  two 
or  more  lengths  of,  say.  five  chains  each.     If,  therefore, 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


the  drains  are  fifteen  chains  in  length,  lay  the  upper  five 
chains  with  i^-inch  pipes,  the  middle  five  chains  with 
2-inch  pipes,  and  the  lower  five  chains  with  2.i-inch  pipes  ; 
the  distance  between  the  drains  being  15  feet,  and  the 
inclination  uniform  and  sufficient  to  keep  a  smart  flow 
through  the  pipes. 

Sometimes  it  is  found  easier  and  more  advisable  to  run 
a  main  drain  across  the  field  than  to  increase  the  diameter 
of  the  pipes  towards  the  bottom  headland.  At  the 
bottom  headland  there  requires  to  be  a  main  drain  into 
which  the  common  drains  discharge  themselves.  This 
main  drain,  if  of  considerable  length,  and  running  parallel 
to  the  open  ditch,  may  discharge  itself  in  two  or  more 
places  ;  but  without  special  provision  being  made,  the 
common  drains  should  not  flow  directly  into  an  open 
watercourse. 


COOKING. 
II. — SIMPLE  RECIPES  {continued). 

Potato  Bread.  —  Boil  the  required  quantity  of  mealy 
potatoes  in  their  skins  ;  drain,  dry,  and  then  peel  them. 
Crush  them  on  a  board  with  a  rolling-pin,  till  they  are  a 
stiff  paste  without  lumps.  Then  mix  your  yeast  with 
them,  and  flour  equal  in  quantity  to  the  potatoes.  Add 
water  enough  to  make  the  whole  into  dough,  and  knead 
the  mass  well.  When  risen,  set  into  a  gentle  oven.  Do 
not  close  the  door  immediately,  but  bake  a  little  longer 
than  for  ordinary  bread.  Without  these  precautions  the 
crust  will  be  hard  and  brittle,  while  the  inside  still  re- 
mains moist  and  pasty.  Other  flours  can  be  in  like 
manner  made  into  bread  with  a  mixture  of  potatoes, 
but  they  are  best  cooked  as  cakes  on  the  hearth,  or 
in  the  way  given  below  for  potato  cake.  In  Scotland 
oatmeal  is  frequently  mixed  with  wheaten  flour  in  making 
fakes,  and  in  the  west  of  Ireland  with  maize  flour  in 
making  stirabout. 

Potato  Cake. — Very  acceptable  to  children  at  supper, 
especially  if  they  have  had  the  fun  of  seeing  it  made. 
Cold  potatoes,  if  dry  and  floury,  will  serve  for  this.  If 
you  have  none,  boil  some,  as  for  potato  bread.  Crush 
them  with  butter  and  salt ;  mix  in  a  small  proportion  of 
floyr  (wheaten,  oaten,  rye,  or  maize)  and  a  little  yeast  (the 
last  may  be  omitted  at  pleasure),  and  with  milk  work  the 
whole  to  the  consistency  of  very  firm  dough.  Roll  it  out 
to  the  thickness  of  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches.  Cut 
it  out  the  size  of  your  frying-pan,  the  bottom  of  which  you 
smear  with  grease,  and  in  it  lay  your  cake,  after  flouring 
it  all  over.  Bake,  covered  with  a  plate,  on  the  trivet  of 
your  stove,  over  a  gentle,  fire,  or  better  on  the  hearth, 
when  turf  or  wood  is  burnt.  Shake  and  shift  it  a  little 
from  time  to  time,  to  prevent  burning.  When  half  done, 
turn  it,  and  cover  with  a  plate  again.  Other  cakes  of 
unfermented  pastes  may  be  baked  in  the  same  way. 

Light  Dumplings,  steamed. — These,  as  well  as  light 
dumplings  boiled,  are,  in  reality,  nothing  but  bread  boiled 
or  steamed  instead  of  being  baked.  In  light  dumpling 
countries,  housewives  buy,  in  the  course  of  the  morning, 
so  many  penny^vorths  of  dough  at  the  baker's,  and  keep 
it  warm  and  covered  till  wanted,  which  saves  their  having 
to  make  bread  themselves.  Steaming  dumplings  is  by 
far  the  neatest  way,  besides  saving  an  extra  saucepan. 
The  dumpling  is  cooked  in  the  steamer  on  the  top  of 
the  saucepan,  while  the  bit  of  meat  and  the  vegetables 
are  boiled  below.  The  dough  receives  a  little  extra 
kneading,  is  rolled  into  the  shape  of  a  good-sized  apple, 
is  dusted  all  over  with  flour,  and  then  put  into  the 
steamer.  As  the  dumplings  swell  in  cooking,  they 
should  neither  touch  each  other  nor  the  sides  of  the 
steamer.  The  water  must  be  kept  boiling  all  the  while. 
When  done,  their  outsides  are  smooth  and  dry.  Set 
them  on  the  table  the  minute  they  are  taken  out  of  the 


steamer.  Cold  light  dumpling,  steamed,  sliced  across, 
toasted,  and  buttered,  is  not  a  bad  substitute  for  muffins. 
Boiled  light  dumplings  are  prepared  in  the  same  manner, 
and  are  thrown  into  boiling  water,  which  must  be  kept 
boiling  all  the  while.  They  take  less  time  to  cook — 
from  twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour— than  steamed  ones 
do.  The  outside  of  boiled  dumplings  is  apt  to  be  a  little 
sloppy. 

The  best  sauce  to  eat  with  these  is  good  roast-meat 
dripping,  with  the  fat  and  the  brown  gravy  mixed 
together.  Treacle  is  also  used.  A  nice  way  of  serving 
it  is  to  put  a  bit  of  butter  into  the  treacle,  and  then  pour 
a  little  boiling  water  over  them,  stirring  till  they  are 
mixed  together.     Equally  approved  is 

Matrimony  Sauce. — Put  a  bit  of  butter  into  cold  water 
in  a  saucepan  ;  dust  in  a  little  flour,  stirring  one  way  till 
they  are  completely  mixed  ;  then  add  some  brown  sugar 
and  a  table-spoonful  or  so  of  vinegar.  Continue  stirring 
till  it  boils  ;  pour  into  a  basin,  and  serve  with  your 
dumplings. 

Hard,  or  Suffolk,  Dumplings  are  unleavened  dumplings, 
and  as  indigestible  as  unleavened  bread.  They  are 
nothing  but  flour  and  water  made  into  a  stiff  paste,  with 
a  little  salt.  This  is  rolled  into  balls  as  big  as  one's  fist, 
floured  outside,  thrown  into  boiling  water,  and  boiled 
three-quarters  of  an  hour.  Some  housewives  (when  there 
is  no  gravy  to  eat  with  them)  put  a  little  bit  of  butter 
in  the  middle.  They  make  a  dish  of  eatable  cannon- 
balls,  each  enclosing  a  spoonful  of  oil. 

DroJ)  Dntnplings.—lslvike.  a  thick  batter  with  flour, 
milk,  salt,  eggs,  and  yeast.  Set  it  for  an  hour  in  a  warm 
place,  to  rise.  Throw  table-spoonfuls  of  this,  one  by  one, 
into  a  saucepan  of  water  boiling  galloping.  When  done, 
let  them  drain  on  your  slice  an  instant  as  you  take  them 
up,  and  serve  with  gravy,  matrimony  sauce,  or  sugar  and 
butter.  They  are  nearly,  if  not  quite,  the  same  as  the 
popular  Bavarian  Dampf  Knudeln. 

Gingerbread. — Mix  well  together  two  pounds  of  flour, 
half  a  pound  of  butter  oiled,  one  ounce  of  ground  ginger, 
and  a  table-spoonful  of  baking-powder  ;  then  stir  in  two 
pounds  of  treacle.  Bake  in  a  slow  oven,  putting  it  in 
as  soon  as  made,  and  watching  it  carefully  afterwards. 

Airs.  Smithes  Gingerbread. — Beat  up  well  together  one 
pound  of  treacle,  one  pound  of  flour,  half  a  pound  of  oiled 
butter,  two  ounces  of  cahdied  citron-peel,  and  one  ounce 
of  powdered  ginger.  Put  it  into  shallow  tins,  and  set  it 
into  the  oven  immediately.  The  addition  of  powdered 
cinnamon  and  a  little  honey  to  the  above  ingredients 
makes  a  very  nice  and  striking  variety  of  gingerbread. 

Egg-Powder  Cake. — Egg-powder,  as  it  is  called,  is  a 
vegetable  compound,  intended  to  ser\'e  as  a  substitute  for 
eggs,  to  four  of  which  one  penny  packet  professes  to  be 
equivalent  in  cake-making,  and  sufficient  to  add  to  two 
pounds  of  flour.  Some  cooks,  however,  think  it  best  to 
use  it  in  addition  to  eggs.  The  powder  is  first  mixed 
with  the  flour,  and  then  water  or  milk  is  added,  for 
plum,  batter,  and  other  puddings,  cakes,  pancakes,  &c 
For  a  cake :  mix  well  together  one  quartern  of  flour,  half 
a  pound  of  butter,  two  ounces  of  sweet  pork  lard,  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  of  well-washed  currants,  half  a  pound 
of  sugar,  two  packets  of  egg-powder,  and  three  eggs. 
You  may  add  mixed  spices,  grated  nutmeg,  and  candied 
citron-peel,  to  your  taste.  When  these  are  thoroughly 
stirred  up  together,  with  enough  milk  to  bring  the  whole 
to  a  proper  consistency,  butter  the  inside  of  your  cakc-tir^ 
put  the  cake  in,  and  bake  immediately.  The  top  of  the 
cake  may  be  glazed  with  beat-up  egg. 

Cheap  Cake. — While  making  bread,  take  some  01  the 
dough  after  it  has  begun  tp  rise.  To  ever)-  pound  of 
dough  knead  in  an  ounce  or  more  of  butter  or  dripping, 
a  quarter  of  a  {>ound  of  coarse  sugar,  some  grated  nut- 
meg, and  either  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  currants  and 
chopped  raisins  or  a  few  caraway  seeds.     When  your 


28 


COOKING. 


cake  is  thus  made  up,  dust  it  with  flour'  cover  it  with  a 
cloth,  and  set  it  in  a  warm  place  to  rise  again.  When 
well  risen,  set  it  into  the  oven  immediately.  Bake 
thoroughly,  but  not  too  fast,  and  it  will  turn  out  firm  and 
light. 

Sally  Lunn  Cakes. — Make  a  soft  dough  with  flour,  a 

little  salt  and  butter,  two  or  three  eggs,  yeast,  and  milk 

and  water.      After  kneading  well,  let  it  rise  before  the 

.    fire.     Then  make  it  into  cakes  of  a   size  convenient  to 

slice  across  and  toast.      Bake   slightly,  but  in  an  oven 

sharp  enough  to  make  them  rise.     When  wanted,  slice, 

toast,  and  butter  your  Sally  Lunns,  and  serve  piping  hot 

* '     on  a  plate  which  you  cannot  hold  with  your  naked  fingers. 

_^,,^    .    There  are  two  objections  to  these  and  the  following— 

— -f-        they   are    indigestible,    and   are   also    terrible    "  'stroys " 

■1  (destroyers,  consumers)  for  butter. 

Muffins.—^'iih.  warm  milk,  a  liberal  allowance  of  yeast, 
flour,  a  little  salt,  and  an  egg  or  two,  make  dough  still 
softer  in  its  consistence  than  the  above.  After  kneading 
or  beating,  get  it  to  rise  well.  Then  make  your  muffins 
as  you  would  small  dumplings  ;  dust  them  with  flour, 
flatten  them,  and  bake  them  slightly  on  a  hot  iron  plate, 
or  in  tin  rings,  turning  them  to  bake  the  upper  side  when 
the  under  side  is  done.  The  great  object  is  to  keep  them 
light,  moist,  and  full  of  eyes.  Muffin-making  is  a  profes- 
sion, but  its  secrets  are  not  inscrutable.  Once  possessed 
of  the  iron  plate  (which  you  will  be  able  to  obtain 
without  difficulty  from  any  ironmonger),  a  few  trials 
will  put  you  in  the  way  ;  and  if  you  have  one  or  two 
failures  at  first,  they  will  be  eaten  with  the  greater  relish 
because  they  are  your  f  tilures.  Before  toasting  a  muffin, 
cut  it  nearly  in  two,  leaving  it  slightly  attached  in  the 
middle.  When  toasted  brown  and  crisp  on  both  sides, 
slip  the  butter  into  the  gaping  slit,  and  serve  on  a  plate 
not  quite  red-hot. 

Crumpets  are  made  in  the  same  way  as  muffins,  only 
the  paste  is  still  softer,  approaching  batter  in  its  con- 
sistency. Let  them  also  rise  well.  Bake  slightly  in  like 
manner  on  an  iron  plate  made  for  the  purpose.  The 
usual  size  and  thickness  of  crumpets  you  learn  from  the 
specimens  sold  in  the  shops.  After  toasting,  muffins 
should  be  crisp  ;  crumpets,  soft  and  woolly.  It  is  like 
eating  a  bit  of  blanket  soaked  in  butter.  If  you  are 
pining  for  crumpets,  and  have  no  iron  plate,  you  may 
bake  them  in  the  frying-pan,  which  the  Americans  often 
use  for  cake-making. 

Raised  Buckwheat  Cakes  {American). — Warm  a  quart 
of  water.  Stir  into  it  a  good  table-spoonful  of  treacle, 
and  a  leaspoonful  of  salt.  Mix  in  enough  buckwheat- 
flour  'or  oatmeal  or  Indian  corn-flour)  to  make  a  stiff 
batter,  together  with  a  table-spoonful  of  good  yeast.  Let 
it  stand  to  rise  before  the  fire.  Then  bake  on  a  hot  plate, 
in  iron  rings,  like  muffins,  or  in  a  slack  oven.  Toast  and 
eat  it  hot  with  butter. 

Fried  Bread  Cakes  {American). — To  a  quantity  of  light 
dough  equal  to  five  tea-cupfuls,  add  half  a  cupful  of 
butter,  three  of  brown  sugar,  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  four 
eggs,  and  a  little  grated  nutmeg.  Knead  these  well 
together  with  flour  ;  let  them  rise  before  the  fire  until 
very  light.  Knead  the  dough  again  after  it  rises  ;  cut  it 
into  diamond-shaped  cakes  ;  let  them  rise ;  and  fry  in 
lard  or  dripping,  as  soon  as  light.  These  cakes  are  best 
eaten  fresh. 

Jolniny  or  "Journey  Cake  {Atnerican). — Boil  a  pint  of 
sweet  milk;  pour  it  over  a  tea-cupful  and  a  half  of  Indian 
corn-meal,  and  beat  it  for  fifteen  minutes.  Unless  well 
beaten,  it  will  not  be  light.  Add  a  little  salt,  half  a  tea- 
cupful  of  sour  milk,  one  beaten  egg,  a  table-spoonful  of 
oiled  butter,  a  table-spoonful  of  flour,  and  a  tea-spoonful 
of  carbonate  of  soda.  Beat  well  together  again.  This 
cake  is  best  baked  in  a  spider  (a  deep  iron  pan)  on  the 
stove.  When  browned  on  the  bottom,  turn  it  into  another 
spider,  or  finish  it  off  on  the  griddle. 


Plum-Pudding  {Economical  and  Excellent). — Mix  to- 
gether in  a  bowl  one  pound  of  flour;  one  pound  of  beef 
or  veal  suet,  chopped  fine;  half  a  pound  of  currants,  pre- 
viously washed  ;  half  a  pound  of  raisins,  stoned  ;  two 
eggs,  a  little  salt,  grated  nutmeg,  and  finely  minced  lemon- 
peel,  with  enough  new  milk  to  bring  the  pudding  to  a 
proper  consistence.  You  may  boil  it  either  in  a  cloth 
floured  inside,  tying  it  up  not  too  tightly,  but  allowing  a 
little  room  for  it  to  swell ;  or  in  a  pudding-basin  buttered 
inside.  In  the  latter  way,  it  will  look  handsomer  when 
turned  out  on  the  dish,  and  will  be  less  liable  to  loss  of 
sweetness  from  the  water  getting  in  ;  but  it  will  take 
somewhat  longer  to  boil.  In  either  case,  the  boiling 
should  be  maintained  continually.  The  pudding  may  be 
increased  in  size,  by  adding  bread  crumbs  and  a  little 
sugar,  with  one  more  egg  and  a  little  more  flour,  to  bind 
the  whole  together. 

If  pudding  sauce  is  wanted  to  eat  with  this,  put  a  little 
flour  and  water  into  a  saucepan,  stir  in  a  lump  of  butter 
and  a  little  brown  sugar,  and  when  they  are  blended 
smoothly,  throw  in  a  glass  of  orange,  ginger,  or  other 
home-made  wine.  An  elegant  sauce  for  boiled  puddings 
is  made  by  mixing  with  the  above  a  dessert-spoonful  of 
red  currant  jelly. 

Plum-pudding  may  be  "  lengthened  -'  (some  would  call 
it  "  adulterated")  with  carrots  chopped  very  fine  ;  it  may 
be  enriched  with,  sultana  (stoneless)  raisins,  candied  citron- 
peel,  blanched  almonds,  crushed  macaroons,  brandy,  white 
wne,  and  a  variety  of  other  good  things.  But  we  have 
eaten  plum-puddings  with  too  many  ingredients.  Enough 
is  as  good  as  a  feast. 

Baked  Apple-Pudding. — Peel  the  required  quantity  of 
apples  ;  quarter  them  ;  take  out  the  cores  ;  set  them  on 
the  fire  in  a  stewpan  with  a  little  sugar  and  water,  and 
the  rind  of  a  lemon  chopped  exceedingly  fine.  Boil 
them,  closely  covered  with  the  lid,  till  they  are  soft 
enough  to  be  mashed  with  a  fork.  While  mashing  them, 
add  the  juice  of  your  lemon.  Turn  them  out  of  the  stew- 
pan,  and  set  them  aside  to  cool.  Butter  or  grease  the 
inside  of  a  rather  shallow  pie-dish ;  line  it  throughout 
with  good  ordinary  pie-crust.  Beat  up  (not  to  a  froth) 
two  or  three  eggs  ;  mix  them  well  with  your  apple-pulp, 
and  put  the  mixture  into  your  pie-dish  ;  smooth  the  top 
with  the  back  of  a  spoon,  and  grate  a  little  nutmeg  over 
it.  Bake  it  in  a  moderate  oven.  The  pudding  is  good 
either  hot  or  cold.  For  stylish  dinners,  bake  the  pudding 
in  a  dish  or  tin  with  upright,  instead  of  slanting  sides. 
Use  puff-paste,  instead  of  ordinary  pie-crust  ;  mix  orange- 
flower  or  rose-water,  or  some  liqueur,  as  noyau,  with  the 
eggs  when  you  beat  them  up  ;  when  the  pudding  is  cold, 
take  out  of  the  tin,  and  dust  the  top  with  pounded  lump 
sugar. 

Sausage  Dumpling. — Bend  one  sausage  neck  and  heels 
together  ;  enclose  it  in  crust  as  you  did  with  apple- 
dumpling,  taking  care  to  prevent  all  leakage.  Tie  it 
in  a  cloth,  and  boil.  Making  one  large  sausage-dumpling, 
or  boiling  several  sausages  in  a  crust  in  a  pudding-basin, 
does  not  produce  half  the  fun  nor  half  the  enjoyment  as 
when  each  child  has  a  dumpling  to  itself,  full  of  savoury, 
steaming  gravy.  It  is  good,  sound,  substantial  fare, 
and  at  the  same  time  wholesome,  but  it  should  be  pre- 
pared with  some  care,  and  it  is  not  often  that  one  can 
buy  good  hot  sausage-dumplings  with  crusts  that  keep 
the  gravy  in. 

Mincemeat  or  Bacon  Pudding. — After  pig-killing  and 
the  like,  there  are  often  sundry  scraps  too  small  to  put  in 
store,  and  too  good  to  waste.  Chop  them  up  with  a  little 
salt  bacon,  season  with  pepper  and  all-spice,  and  make 
into  dumplings  like  sausage-dumplings. 

Mincemeat  or  Bacon  Roll. —  Prepare  the  meat  as  for 
dumplings  of  the  same,  and  with  it  make  rolls  like  sau- 
sage-rolls, only  on  a  larger  scale,  so  as  to  be  able  to  stop 
a  fittle  gap  in  the  stomach  of  a  hungry  man. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


29 


DOMESTIC  SURGERY. 
II.  —  H iE M  o  R  R  H  A ( )  R  {continued). 
In  aU  cases  of  bleeding  from  the  hand  or  arm  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  limb  should  be  kept  quiet,  and  in  a  raised 
position.  For  this  purpose,  and  for  many  others,  a  sling 
is  most  conveniently  made  of  a  silk  handkerchief,  which 
should  be  folded  like  a  cravat,  and  of  a  convenient  width. 
The  limb  being  placed  in  the  loop  of  the  sling,  the  front 
end  is  to  be  brought  forward  over  the  opposite  shoulder, 
and  the  other  end  over  the  shoulder  of  the  same  side  to 
meet  it  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  as  seen  in  the  illustration. 
In  this  way  the  arm  will  be  drawn  forward,  and  can  be 
easily  raised  to  any  height,  and  the  sling  will  not  slip  as  it 
always  does  if  tied  in  the  opposite  way  (Fig.  9)- 

Bleeding  from  cuts  about  the  face  is  seldom  serious, 


and  a  strip  of  plaister  should  be  put  across  the  wound  on 
each  side.  Stitches  should  not  be  left  in  the  skin  of  the 
face  more  than  two  days,  and  should  then  be  cut  close  to 
the  knot  with  a  sharp  pair  of  scissors,  and  drawn  out 
gently.  Narrow  strips  of  plaister  applied  across  a  wound, 
and  slightly  overlapping  one  another,  will,  in  many  cases, 
obviate  the  necessity  for  stitches. 

In  wounds  about  the  head,  a  little  of  the  hair  on  each 
edge  of  the  wound  should  be  cut  away,  and  a  pad  of  lint 
be  placed  over  it,  and  be  bound  on  firmly  with  a  bandage. 
This  will  of  course  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  cut,  but  will  consist  essentially  of  one  or  two 
turns  round  the  front  and  back  of  the  head,  which  should 
be  secured  with  a  pin,  followed  by  a  turn  beneath  the 
chin  and  over  the  top  of  the  head,  which  will  keep  the 
other  tight,  as  in  the  illustration. 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  12. 


unless  the  lip  should  be  divided  by  a  blow  upon  the 
mouth,  in  which  case  a  surgeon  should  be  immediately 
consulted,  or  the  resulting  deformity  may  be  great. 
Collodion  is  a  very  useful  application  to  cuts  about  the 
face,  and  in  applying  it  the  part  should  be  firmly  pinched 
with  the  fingers  for  a  few  moments,  so  as  to  stop  the 
bleeding,  then  having  been  wiped  dry,  the  collodion  may 
be  painted  on,  and  after  a  few  minutes,  when  it  has  dried, 
the  part  may  be  released  from  the  fingers.  Court  plaister 
may  be  applied  with  the  same  precautions,  care  being 
taken  that  both  sides  of  the  plaister  are  thoroughly  wetted, 
without  removing  the  adhesive  material.  In  extensive 
cuts  upon  the  face,  it  is  advisable  to  have  recourse  to 
stitches  of  silk,  in  order  to  reduce  the  resulting  scars  to  a 
minimum.  In  cases  when  the  assistance  of  a  medical 
man  cannot  be  obtained,  an  ordinary  stout  sewing  needle, 
with  purse-silk  or  stout  cotton,  may  be  pushed  through 
the  whole  thickness  of  the  skin  on  each  side  of  the  cut, 
and  an  eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  margin,  and  the  silk  be 
tied  in  a  double  knot  when  the  loop  has  been  drawn  tight, 
so  as  to  bring  the  edges  together.  One  stitch  will  be 
required  for  a  cut  an  inch  lon^,  and  so  on  in  proportion  ; 


The  trunk  and  lower  limbs  are  seldom  wounded,  unless 
the  injury  is  a  severe  one,  which  would  necessitate  im- 
mediate medical  attendance.  Before  this  arrives,  the  only 
assistance  bystanders  can  give  is  to  stop  any  bleeding, 
either  by  making  pressure  upon  the  bleeding  spot,  or  by 
encircling  the  limb  with  a  handkerchief  tourniquet  as 
already  described. 

A  burst  varicose  vein  in  the  leg  gives  rise  to  serious 
bleeding,  which  will  be  dangerous  if  not  rapidly  checked. 
As  the  accident  ordinarily  happens  when  the  patient  is 
standing,  she  (for  it  is  usually  women  who  sufi'er  from 
varicose  veins)  should  immediately  lie  down,  and  the  leg 
should  be  raised,  whilst  a  bystander  presses  the  finger  upon 
the  bleeding  point.  A  pad  of  lint  and  a  firm  bandage 
should  then  be  applied,  and  the  patient  should  rest  the  leg 
for  a  few  days,  and  continue  the  use  of  the  bandage  as  long 
as  the  veins  are  swollen. 

To  bandage  a  leg  properly  the  foot  must  be  raised  and 
the  bandage  secured  round  the  ankle  by  crossing  the  ends 
in  front  of  it,  as  seen  in  the  illustration.  The  bandage  is 
then  carried  beneath  the  foot,  and  again  around  the  ankle 
once  or  twice,  and  then  round  the  leg,  each  turn  over- 


30 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR   PROFIT. 


lapping  the  preceding  one.  When  the  galf  is  reached,  it 
will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  make  the  bandage  fit  pro- 
perly, to  turn  it  down  on  the  outer  side  of  the  limb  each 
time  it  surrounds  it  ;  and  in  order  to  do  this  neatly,  the 
bandage  should  not  be  drawn  tight  until  after  the  "  turn" 
has  been  made.  It  will  assist  in  doing  this  neatly  if  the 
finger  is  laid  upon  the  bandage  to  fix  it  at  the  point  where 
the  turn  is  to  be  made,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Bleeding  Piles  may  depend  upon  plethora,  and  be  salu- 
tary, if  slight ;  but  if  severe,  and  much  blood  is  habituall;,- 
lost,  medical  advice  should  be  sought,  in  order  that  the\- 
may  be  permanently  relieved.  To  check  the  bleeding 
temporarily,  the  injection  of  cold  water,  or  cold  decoction 
of  oak-bark,  is  the  best  remedy. 

Wounds. — The  immediate  treatment  of  ordinary  wounds 
of  a  slight  character  has  been  sufficiently  indicated  in  the 
sections  relating  to  haemorrhage.  The  after-treatment  of 
a  wound  cannot  be  of  too  simple  a  character.  Where 
there  is  no  pain  or  discomfort  about  the  wounded  part, 
there  can  be  no  object  in  disturbing  the  first  dressing 
applied,  and  this  should  be  left  undisturbed  for  from  two 
to  four  days,  according  to  the  severity  of  the  injury.  It 
all  has  gone  well,  it  is  quite  possible  that  a  skin-wound 
may  heal  at  once,  and  merely  require  the  application  of  a 
piece  of  plaster  over  it,  to  protect  it  for  a  few  additional 
days.  If,  however,  it  is  found  on  carefully  soaking  off  the 
original  dressing  that  the  wound  is  open  and  discharging, 
the  best  application  will  be  the  "  water-dressing."  This 
consists  simply  of  a  double  fold  of  lint  or  soft  linen  suited 
to  the  size  of  the  wound,  and  wetted  with  warm  water, 
over  which  a  piece  of  oiled  silk,  slightly  larger  than  the 
lint  itself,  is  secured  with  a  strap  of  adhesive  plaister  or  a 
bandage.  The  lint  should  be  changed  twice  a  day,  but 
the  oiled  silk  will  serve  for  many  days  in  succession.  If 
a  simple  wound  fails  to  heal  in  a  few  days  under  this 
treatment,  medical  advice  should  be  had  recourse  to.  If 
on  removing  the  first  dressing,  a  wound  is  found  to  have 
its  edges  red  and  tender,  and  the  part  is  painful,  a  poultice 
of  bread  or  linseed-meal  may  be  applied  for  a  day  or  two 
before  the  water-dressing  is  laegun.  The  vulgar  dread  of 
what  is  termed  "  proud  flesh "  may  be  mentioned  here, 
simply  for  the  purpose  of  stating  that  the  so-called  proud 
flesh  is  only  a  slight  exaggeration  of  the  ordinary  process 
of  healing  and  is  of  no  moment  unless  it  rises  high  above 
the  general  surface,  in  which  case  the  occasional  applica- 
tion of  a  piece  of  blue-vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper)  will  soon 
reduce  it  to  proper  dimensions. 


ANIMALS   KEPT  FOR   PROFIT. 

I. — POULTRY. 

Houses  and  Runs. — The  first  essential  requisite  to 
success  in  poultry-keeping  is  a  thoroughly  good  house  for 
the  birds.  This  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  large  one  or 
a  costly:  we  once  knew  a  young  man  who  kept  fowls  most 
profitably,  with  only  a  house  of  his  own  construction  not 
more  than  three  feet  square,  and  a  run  of  the  same  width, 
under  twelve  feet  long.  It  means  simply  that  the  fowl- 
house  must  combine  two  absolute  essentials — be  both 
perfectly  weatherproof,  and  well  ventilated.  With  regard 
to  the  first  point,  it  is  not  only  necessary  to  keep  out  the 
rain,  but  also  the  wind — a  matter  very  seldom  attended 
to,  but  which  has  great  influence  on  the  health  and  laying 
■of  the  inmates.  The  cheapest  material  is  wood,  of  which 
an  inch  thick  will  answer  very  well  in  any  ordinary 
English  climate  ;  but  if  so  built,  the  boards  should  either 
be  tongued  together,  or  all  the  cracks  between  them  care- 
fiilly  caulked  by  driving  in  string  with  a  blunt  chisel. 
Care  should  also  be  taken  that  the  door  fits  well,  admit- 
ting no  air  except  under  the  bottom  ;  and,  in  short,  every 
precaution  taken  to  prevent  draught.     The  hole  by  which 


the  fowls  enter,  even  when  its  loose  trap-door  is  closed, 
should  admit  enough  air  to  supply  the  inmates,  and  the 
object  is  to  have  but  this  one  source  of  supply,  and  to 
keep  the  fowls  out  of  all  direct  draught  from  it.  For 
the  roof,  tiles  alone  are  not  sufficient,  and  if  employed, 
there  should  be  either  boarding  or  ceiling  under  them  ; 
otherwise  all  the  heat  will  escape  through  the  numerous 
interstices,  and  in  winter  it  will  be  impossible  to  keep 
the  house  warm.  Planks  alone  make  a  good  roofing. 
They  may  either  be  laid  horizontally,  one  plank  over- 
lapping the  other,  and  the  whole  well  tarred  two  or  three 
times  first  of  all,  and  every  autumn  afterwards  ;  or  per- 
pendicularly, fitting  close  edge  to  edge,  and  tarred,  then 
covered  with  large  sheets  of  brown  paper,  which  should 
receive  two  coats  of  tar  more.  This  last  makes  a  very 
smooth,  waterproof,  and  durable  roofing,  which  throws 
off  the  water  well.  But,  on  the  whole,  we  prefer  board 
covered  with  patent  felt,  which  should  be  tarred  once  a 
year. 

In  the  north  of  England,  a  house  built  of  wood,  unless 
artificially  warmed,  requires  some  sort  of  lining.  Matting 
is  often  used,  and  answers  perfectly  for  warmth,  but  un- 
fortunately makes  a  capital  harbour  for  vermin.  When 
used,  it  should  only  be  slightly  affbced  to  the  walls,  and 
at  frequent  inter^'als  be  removed  and  well  beaten.  Felt 
is  the  best  material,  the  strong  smell  of  tar  repelling  most 
insects  from  taking  up  their  residence  therein. 

If  a  tight  brick  shed  offers,  it  will,  of  course,  be 
secured  for  the  poultry  habitation.  But  let  all  dilapida- 
tions be  well  repaired. 

Ventilation  is  scarcely  ever  provided  for  as  it  should 
be,  and  the  want  of  it  is  a  fruitful  source  of  failure  and 
disease.  An  ill-ventilated  fowl-house  must  cause  sickly 
inmates  ;  and  such  will  never  repay  the  proprietor.  This 
great  desideratum  must,  however,  as  already  observed,  be 
secured  without  exposing  the  fowls  to  any  direct  draught ; 
and  for  the  ordinary  detached  fowl-houses,  the  best  plan 
is  to  have  an  opening  at  the  highest  point  of  the  roof, 
surmounted  by  a  "lantern"  of  boards,  put  together  in 
■  the  well-known  fashion  of  Venetian  blinds.  A  south  or 
south-east  aspect  is  desirable,  where  it  can  be  had  ;  and 
to  have  the  house  at  the  back  either  of  a  fire-place  or  a 
stable  is  a  great  advantage  in  winter ;  but  we  have 
proved  by  long  experience  that  both  can  be  successfully 
dispensed  with  if  only  the  two  essentials  are  combined, 
of  good  ventilation  with  perfect  shelter. 

We  do  not  approve  of  too  large  a  house.  For  half  a 
dozen  fowls,  a  very  good  size  is  five  feet  square,  and  sloping 
from  six  to  eight  feet  high.  The  nests  may  then  be  placed 
on  the  ground  at  the  back,  where  any  eggs  can  be  readily 
seen ;  and  one  perch  will  roost  all  the  birds.  This 
perch,  unless  the  breed  kept  is  small,  had  better  not 
iDe  more  than  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground,  and 
should  be  about  four  inches  in  diameter.  A  rough  pole 
with  the  bark  on  answers  best  :  the  claws  cling  to  it 
nicely,  and  bark  is  not  so  hard  as  planed  wood.  By 
far  the  greater  number  of  perches  are  much  too  high 
and  small ;  the  one  fault  causing  heavy  fowls  to  lame 
themselves  in  flying  down,  and  the  other  producing 
deformed  breastbones  in  the  chickens — an  occurrence 
disgraceful  to  any  poultr)'-yard.  The  air  at  the  top  of 
any  room  or  house  is,  moreover,  much  more  impure 
than  that  nearer  the  floor.  Many  prefer  a  movable 
perch  fixed  on  trestles.  In  large  houses  they  are  useful, 
but  in  a  smaller  they  are  needless.  If  the  perch  be  placed 
at  the  height  indicated,  and  a  little  in  advance  of  the 
front  edge  of  the  nests,  placed  at  the  back,  no  hen- 
ladder  will  be  required  ;  and  the  floor  being  left  quite 
clear,  will  be  cleaned  with  the  greatest  ease,  while  the 
fowls  will  feel  no  draught  from  the  door. 

Besides  the  house  for  roosting  and  laying,  a  shed  is 
necessary,  to  which  the  birds  may  resort  in  rainy  weather. 
Should  the  house,  indeed,  be  very  large,  and  have  a  good 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


31 


window,  this  is  not  absolutely  needed ;  otherwise  it  must 
be  provided,  and  is  better  separate  in  any  case.  If  this 
shed  be  fenced  in  with  wirC;  so  that  the  fowls  may  be 
strictly  confined  during  wet  weather,  so  much  the  better  ; 
for  next  to  bad  air,  wet  is  by  for  the  most  fruitful  source, 
not  only  of  barrenness,  but  of  illness  and  death  in  the 
poultry-yard.  If  the  space  available  be  very  limited — 
say  five  or  six  feet  by  twelve  or  sixteen  —  t'le  whole 
should  be  roofed  over ;  when  the  house  will  occupy  one 
end  of  the  space,  and  the  rest  will  form  a  covered  "  run." 
Jiut  in  this  case  the  shed  should  be  so  arranged  that 
sun-light  may  reach  the  birds  during  some  part  of  the 
day.  They  not  only  enjoy  it,  but  without  it,  although 
adult  fowls  may  be  kept  for  a  time  in  tolerable  health, 
the>-  droop  sooner  or  later,  and  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  rear  healthy  chickens. 

Should  the  range  be  wider,  a  shed  from  six  to  twenty 
feet  long  and  four  to  eight  wide  may  be  reared  against 
the  wall.  Next  the  fowl-house  will  still,  for  obvious 
reasons,  be  the  most  convenient  arrangement,  and  it  is 
also  best  fenced  in,  as  before  recommended.  The  whole 
roof  should  be  in  one  to  look  neat,  and  should  project 
about  a  foot  beyond  the  enclosed  space,  to  throw  the 
water  well  off.  To  save  the  roof  drippings  from  splash- 
ing in,  a  gutter-shoot  will  of  course  be  provided,  and  the 
wire  should  be  boarded  up  a  foot  from  the  ground.  All 
this  being  carried  out  properly,  the  covered  "run"  ought 
at  all  times  to  be  perfectly  dry. 


0/ 


Fiff.  I. 

a  Broad  shelf,  eighteen  inches  high, 

b  Perch,  four  inches  above. 

c  Nests,  open  at  top  and  in  front. 


The  best  flooring  for  the  fowl-house  is  concrete  made 
with  strong,  fresh-slaked  hydraulic  lime  and  pounded 
"  clinkers,"  put  down  hot,  well  trodden  once  a  day  for  a 
week,  and  finally  smoothed.  The  process  is  trouble- 
some, but  the  result  is  a  floor  which  is  not  only  very 
clean  in  itself,  but  easily  kept  so.  Trodden  earth  will 
also  answer  very  well.  The  floor  of  the  shed  may  be 
the  same,  but,  on  the  whole,  it  is  preferable  there  to 
leave  the  natural  loose  earth,  or  cover  it  with  sand, 
which  the  fowls  delight  to  scratch  in. 

Cleanliness  must  be  attended  to.  In  the  house  it  is 
easily  secured  by  laying  a  board  under  the  perch,  which 
can  be  scraped  clean  every  morning  in  a  moment,  and 
the  air  the  fowl  breathes  thus  kept  perfectly  pure.  Or 
the  droppings  may  be  taken  up  daily  with  a  small  hoe 
and  a  housemaid's  common  dustpan,  after  which  a 
handful  of  ashes  or  sand  lightly  sprinkled  will  make  the 
house  all  it  should  be. 

There  is  another  most  excellent  plan  for  preserving 


cleanliness  in  the  roosting-housc,  for  which  wc  are  in- 
debted to  "The  Canada  Farmer,"  and  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  I.  A  broad  shelf,  a,  is  fixed  at  the  back  of  the 
the  house,  and  the  perch,  b,  placed  four  or  five  inches 
above  it,  a  foot  from  the  wall.  The  nests,  c,  are  conve- 
niently placed  on  the  ground  underneath,  and  need  no 
top,  whilst  they  are  perfectly  protected  Jrom  defilement 
and  are  also  well  shaded,  to  the  great  delight  of  the 
hen.  The  shelf  is  scraped  clean  every  morning  with  the 
greatest  ease  and  comfort,  on  account  of  its  convenient 
height,  and  slightly  sanded  after^vards  ;  whilst  the  fioor 
of  the  house  is  never  polluted  at  all  by  the  roosting 
birds.  The  broad  shelf  has  yet  another  recommendation 
in  the  perfect  protection  it  affords  from  upward  draughts 
of  air. 

The  covered  "  run  "  should  be  raked  clean  two  or  three 
times  a  week,  and  d'ug  over  whenever  it  looks  sodden 
or  gives  any  offensive  smell.  Even  this  is  not  sufficient. 
Three  or  four  times  a  year,  two  or  three  inches  deep — 
in  fact,  the  whole  polluted  soil — must  be  removed,  and 
replaced  by  fresh  earth,  ashes,  or  sand,  as  the  case  may 
be.  If  the  floor  be  hard,  there  must  be  kept  under  the 
shed  a  heap  of  dry  dust  or  sifted  ashes,  for  the  fowls 
to  roll  in  and  cleanse  themselves  in  their  own  peculiar 
manner,  which  should  be  renewed  as  often  as  it  becomes 
damp  or  foul  from  use. 

If  chickens  be  a  part  of  the  intended  plan,  a  separate 
compartment  should  be  provided  for  the  sitting  hens ; 
but  this  will  be  further  treated  of  in  a  subsequent 
article. 

^lany  will  wish  to  know  what  space  is  necessarj'.  The 
"run  "for  the  fowls  should  certainly  be  as  large  as  can 
be  afforded  ;  an  extensive  range  is  not  only  better  for 
their  health,  but  saves  both  trouble  and  food,  as  they 
will  to  a  great  extent  forage  for  themselves.  Very  few, 
however,  can  command  this  ;  and  poultry  may  be  kept 
almost  anywhere  by  bearing  in  mind  the  one  important 
point,  that  the  smaller  the  space  in  which  they  are  con- 
fined, the  greater  and  more  constant  attention  must  be 
bestowed  upon  the  cleanliness  of  their  domain.  They 
decline  rapidly  in  health  and  produce  if  kept  on  foul 
ground.  If  daily  attention  be  given  to  this  matter,  a 
covered  shed,  ten  or  twelve  feet  long  by  six  feet  wide, 
may  be  made  to  suffice  for  half  a  dozen  fowls  without 
any  open  nm  at  all.  By  employing  a  layer  of  dry  earth 
as  a  deodoriser,  which  is  turned  over  ever)'  day  and 
renewed  once  a  week,  the  National  Poultr>'  Company 
kept  such  a  family  in  each  pen  of  their  late  large  esta- 
blishment at  Bromley.  These  pens  did  not  exceed  the 
size  mentioned,  yet  the  adult  fowls  were  in  the  highest 
health  and  condition  ;  and,  with  birds  thus  confined,  the 
company  took  many  prizes  at  first-class  shows. 

Poultry-keeping,  therefore,  is  within  the  reach  of  alL 
The  great  thing  is  purity,  which  must  be  secured,  either 
by  space,  or  in  default  of  that,  by  care :  hardy  fowls 
will  sometimes  thrive  in  spite  of  draughts,  exposure,  and 
scanty  food  ;  but  the  strongest  birds  speedily  succumb 
to  bad  management  in  this  particular,  which  is  perhaps 
the  most  frequent  cause  of  failure.  It  should  also  be 
remarked  that  poultry  thus  confined  will  require  a  diffe- 
rent diet  to  those  kept  more  at  liberty  ;  but  this  will  be 
more  fully  explained  by-and-bye. 

If  the  nm  be  on  the  limited  scale  described,  dry  earth 
is  decidedly  the  best  deodoriser.  It  is,  however,  seldom 
at  the  command  of  those  who  have  little  space  to  spare, 
and  sifted  ashes  an  inch  deep,  spread  over  the  floor  of " 
the  whole  shed,  will  answer  very  well.  The  ashes  should 
be  raked  ever>-  other  morning,  and  renewed  at  least 
every  fortnight,  or  oftener  if  possible.  Of  course,  the 
number  of  fowls  must  be  limited  ;  the\'  should  not  e.xceed. 
five  or  SIX  ;  and  unless  a  second  shed  of  the  same  size 
can  be  allowed,  the  rearing  of  chickens  should  not  be 
attempted. 


32 


ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PROFIT. 


To  those  who  can  give  up  a  portion,  of  their  garden, 
the  plan,  Fig.  2,  of  a  poultry-yard  can  be  confidently 
recommended.  It  represents,  with  very  slight  modifica- 
tion, our  own  present  accommodation  ;  and  having  tested 
it  by  experience,  we  ai^e  prepared  to  say  that  it  is  not 
only  more  convenient, .  more  simple,  and  more  cheaply 
erected  than  any  plan  on  a  similar  scale  we  have  seen, 
but,  with  the  addition  of  a  lawn  on  which  the  chickens 
may  be  cooped,  is  also  adapted  to  rearing  in  the 
highest  perfection  any 
single  variety  of  either 
ordinary  or  "fancy" 
fowls.  The  space  re- 
quired in  all  is  only 
twenty-five  by  thirty- 
five  feet.  If  more 
can  be  afforded,  give 
it,  by  all  means  ;  but 
we  have  found  this, 
with  very  moderate 
care,  amply  sufficient, 
and  we  believe  it  will 
meet  the  requirements 
of  a  larger  class  of 
readers  than  any  other 
we  are  acquainted 
with. 

This  plan,  as  will  be 
seen,  comprises  two 
distinct  houses,  sheds, 
and  runs,  with  a  sepa- 
rate compartment  for 
sitting  hens.  The 
nests  are  placed  on 
the  ground  at  the  back 
of  the  houses,  and  the 
perches,  as  before  re- 
commended, a  foot  in 
advance  of  them,  and 
eighteen  inches  high. 
The  holes  by  which  the 
fowls  enter  open  into 
the  sheds,  which  are 
netted  in,  so  that  in 
wet  weather  they  can 
be  altogether  con- 
fined. In  dry  weather 
the  shed  is  opened 
to  give  them  liberty. 
The  fencing  should 
be  boarded  up  a  foot 
high,  not  only  to  pre- 
vent rain  splashing 
in,  but  to  keep  in 
when  necessary  young 
chickens,  which  would 
otherwise  run  out  be- 
tween the  meshes. 

A  walk  in  front  of 
the  sheds  shouid  be  gravelled,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  open  runs  covered  with  sand,  or  they  may  be  laid 
down  in  grass,  which,  if  well  rooted  first,  will  bear  the 
fowls  upon  it  for  several  hours  each  day,  but  should  be 
renewed  in  the  spring  by  sowing  when  needed.  The 
runs  should  be  enclosed  with  wire  netting,  two  inches 
mesh,  which  may  be  conveniently  stretched  on  poles, 
I J  inch  square,  driven  two  feet  into  the  ground,  and 
placed  five  feet  apart.  The  height  of  the  fence  depends 
on  the  breed  chosen.  Cochins  or  Brahmas  are  easily 
retained  within  bounds  by  netting  a  yard  high ;  for 
moderate-sized  fowls  six  feet  will  do  ;  whilst  to  confine 
game,  Hamburgs,  or  bantams,  a  fence  of  eight  or  nine 
feet  will  be  found  necessary.      The  netting  should  be 


ELEVATION 


PLAN 


SCALE 


Fig. 

A  A  Roosting  and  laying  houses. 
B  B  Fenced-in  covered  runs. 
C  C  Shed  and  run  for  sitting  hens. 
D  D  Grass  runs. 


simply  stretched  from  post  to  post,  without  a  rail  at  the 
top,  as  the  inmates  are  then  far  less  likely  to  attempt 
flying  over. 

We  do  not  like  to  see  fowls  with  their  wings  cut.  If 
their  erratic  propensities  are  troublesome,  open  one  wing, 
and  pluck  out  all  the  first  or  flight  feathers,  usually  ten  in 
number.  This  will  effectually  prevent  the  birds  from 
flying,  and  as  the  primary  quills  are  always  tucked  under 
the  others  when  not  in  use,  there  is  no  external  sign  of  the 

operation. 

The  holes  by  which 
the  fowls  enter  the 
houses  should  be  fur- 
nished with  trap-doors, 
that  they  may  be  kept 
out  at  pleasure  whilst 
either  part  is  being 
cleaned.  Each  house 
must  also  have  a  small 
window.  Having  a 
shed  at  the  side,  ven- 
tilating lanterns  will 
not  be  necessary,  as 
the  end  will  be  at- 
tained by  boring  a  few 
holes  in  the  wall  be- 
tween the  house  and 
shed,  towards  the 
highest  part  of  the 
roof.  The  compart- 
ment for  the  sitting 
hen  may  be  walled  in 
at  the  front  or  not ;  for 
ourselves,  we  prefer  it 
open.  Her  run  may 
also  be  covered  over 
or  not,  at  pleasure.  To 
have  it  in  the  middle, 
as  here  shown,  we  con- 
sider most  convenient. 
Such  a  yard  pos- 
sesses many  advan- 
tages. Two  separate 
runs  are  almost  neces- 
sary if  the  rearing  of 
chickens  forms  part  of 
the  plan  of  proceeding. 
It  is  also  in  some  re- 
spects convenient  to 
keep  two  different 
breeds,  as  one  may 
supply  the  deficiencies 
of  the  other ;  and 
many  persons  consider 
it  advisable  to  separate 
the  cocks  and  hens,  ex- 
cept during  the  breed- 
ing season,  believing 
that  stronger  chickens 
are  obtained  thereby.  The  need  of  the  separate  compart- 
ment for  the  sitting  hens  is  further  insisted  on  hereafter, 
but  it  has  also  other  uses  ;  being,  when  not  so  cniployed, 
often  very  convenient  for  the  temporary  reception  of  a 
pen  of  strange  birds,  for  which  there  may  be  no  other 
accommodation. 

Each  run,  as  here  described,  will  accommodate  from 
six  to  ten  fowls,  according  to  their  size  and  habits  ;  and 
we  close  this  paper  with  one  very  simple  but  important 
stipulation,  which  is  a  sine  qua  non  in  rearing  poultry : 
fowls  should  not  be  kept  unless  proper  and  regular 
attention  can  be  given  to  them  ;  and  we  would  strongly 
urge  that  this  needful  attention  should  be  as  far  as 
possible  personal. 


2,0 


a  a  Nests. 

b  b  Perches. 

c  c  Holes  for  fowls  to  enter. 


CASSELUS   HOUSEHOLD  GUIDE. 


33 


THE   REARING   AND    MANAGEMENT  OF 
CHILDREN. 

II.— CLOTHING  FOR  INFANTS. 

Such  clothing  as  is  absolutely  necessary  for  a  baby  may 
be  supplied  at  a  small  cost,  if  the  mother  is  able  to  make 
up  the  materials  at  home.    Almost  any  amoun£  of  money 


do  well  to  remember  the  admirable  example  of  simplicity 
set  them  by  our  Royal  family,  whose  little  ones  are  clad 
without  finery  or  ostentation. 

Materials. — If  a  word  about  work  materials  is  necessary, 
we  would  suggest  the  following  :  Purchase  an  easy-fitting 
thimble  of  steel,  lined  with  silver ;  it  is  well  worth  what  it 
will  cost.  Have  two  good  pairs  of  scissors— one  pair  of 
large  ones,  worth  about  three  shillings,  and  a  fine  em^ 


A                            C                B       A 

c                   a 

Q  C 


Fig.  II, 


may  be  laid  out  upon  extra  fineness  of  texture  or  trim- 
ming. How  much  need  be  spent  on  the  superfluities  and 
luxuries  of  the  unconscious  child's  toilette  must  dep>end 
on  the  social  position  of  the  parents,  and  the  good  sense 
and  discretion  of  the  mother,  and  in  all  cases  the  great 
aim  should  be  to  get  what  is  substantial  and  good,  in 
preference  to  what  is  gaudy  and  showy,  and  not  so  liable 
to  stand  wear.     All  lovers  of  unnecessary  display  would 

VOL.  I. 


broidery  pair  that  will  cost  is.  6d.  It  is  always  a  good 
plan  to  have  an  old  or  common  pair  kept  handy  where 
any  one  can  have  free  access  to  them,  because  this  saves 
good  scissors.  Always  take  care  to  have  good  needles 
and  cotton  ;  bad  cotton  knots,  breaks,  and  makes 
bad  work.  Sewing  machine  cotton  is  the  best  made. 
Always  have  a  lead  pencil— an  HB  is  the  most  useful 
—and  a  penknife    in  the  work-basket      One   of  those 


34 


THE   REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  CHILDREN. 


covered  baskets  that  stand  on  legs  are  the  tidiest  and 
most  useful  to  hold  work,  and  do  not  cost  more  than 
four  or  five  shillings.  A  large  work-box  to  hold  ma- 
terials is  also  needed.  Procure  fine  cotton  and  fine 
needles  for  babies'  work  ;  needles  Nos.  8  and  9  should 
be  used,  and  the  best  cotton,  in  about  three  sizes.  Do  not 
use  the  glazed  cotton.  Some  persons  like  to  wax  their 
cotton  :  if  the  hands  are  over-warm,  an  emery  cushion  is 
useful  to  thrust  the  needles  in  ;  and  do  not  commence 
work  without*  a  good  leaden  pincushion,  a  yard  measure, 
and  plenty  of  pins.  If  j'ou  employ  a  machine,  the  cotton 
used  will  be  finer  than  that  quoted,  which  is  suitable  for 
hand  work. 

We  will  commence  our  labour  of  love,  by  instructing 
the  young  mother  how  to  provide  for  the  charge  she 
anticipates,  and  enumerate,  first  of  all,  the  requisites  for 
the  babe  during  the  month. 

To  Cut  and  Make  a  Baby's  Chetnise. — Half  a  dozen 
little  chemises  are  the  first  requisites  for  an  infant's 
toilette,  to  make  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  purchase 
a  yard  and  three-quarters  of  lawn  at  is.  6d.  a  yard  ;  the 
lawn  should  measure  twenty-eight  inches  wide.  Cut  this 
up  in  six  lengths  of  ten  inches  each.  To  cut  the  material 
accurately,  measure  ten  inches  on  each  side  with  a  yard 
measure,  put  a  pin  at  each  place,  fold  the  stuff  across, 
and  crease  it  quite  flat.  Get  a  friend  or  servant  to  hold 
the  opposite  end  as  you  cut  it,  or  pin  it  to  a  leaden  pin- 
cushion. Take  one  of  the  ten-inch  strips  to  make  the  first 
chemise,  and  fold  it  across  the  narrow  way  to  ascertain 
the  centre  ;  open  it  again ;  measure  six  and  a  half  inches 
each  side  of  the  centre,  and  mark  the  place  with  a  pencil 
dot  or  a  pin  (never  attempt  to  work  without  a  paper  of 
pins,  short  whites)  ;  make  a  fold  again  at  each  of  these 
marks — the  narrow  way.  These  folds  are  lettered  with 
four  C's  in  Fig.  i.  Double  first  the  right  and  then 
the  left  side  of  the  stuff  over,  like  the  page  of  a  book, 
at  these  folds,  so  that  A  A  at  the  right  corners  meets 
A  A  in  the  centre,  and  B  B  at  the  left  corners  meets  B  B 
in  the  centre,  the  two  ends  folding  over  about  a  couple 
of  inches  on  the  right  hand.  Your  work  now  looks 
of  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  2 — that  is,  nearly  square. 
With  your  pencil  mark  the  tv/o  slanting  lines  E  E  in 
Fig.  2,  Try  with  your  yard  measure  if  they  are  in  the 
right  place.  From  the  corners  to  F,  each  side,  it  should 
measure  three  inches  and  a  half ;  from  the  corner  to  G, 
the  bottom  of  the  slanting  line,  two  and  a  quarter.  The 
line  itself  is  to  measure  two  and  a  half  inches  long.  If 
your  pencil  line  is  not  correct,  make  it  so,  and  then  cut 
the  stuff,  cutting  downwards  from  F  through  both 
pieces,  just  as  they  are  folded  together,  and  exactly  over 
the  correct  pencil  mark.  If  you  have  pinned  the  stuff 
together  closely  all  round  the  edge  and  each  side  of  the 
mark  before  cutting,  you  will  be  t^e  more  sure  of  ac- 
curacy. These  two  simple  acts  form  the  sleeves  and  the 
flaps  of  the  little  chemise  ;  the  sleeves  must  first  be  run 
and  felled  together  on  the  shoulders  (h,  Fig.  4).  The 
next  thing  to  do  is  to  turn  down  a  very  tiny  hem  and 
work  it  finely  with  a  9  needle  and  fine  cotton.  The  corners 
between  the  sleeves  and  flaps  of  the  garment  should 
be  shown  either  button-holed  or  gussetted.  The  button- 
holing is  done  by  working  long  graduated  stitches  finely 
and  close,  as  in  K,  Fig.  3,  or  letting  in  a  gusset,  as  in 
I^>  ^'g-  3'  A  gusset  is  a  three-cornered  piece  of  stuff 
laid  on.  In  this  instance,  it  measures  not  quite  one  inch 
across  by  half  an  inch  deep.  It  is  run  on  at  the  top, 
turned  down,  and  stitched ;  the  other  two  sides  are 
hemmed  to  the  chemise.  Next  turn  a  very  fine  hem 
down  for  the  edge  of  the  sleeves  ;  afterwards  hem  the 
bottom  of  the  little  garment  rather  deeper.  The  selvage 
for  the  sides  may  be  left.  Fig.  4  shows  its  appearance 
when  completed.  The  points  of  the  sleeves  are  armed 
with  straps,  and  fine  linen  buttons  are  placed  midway 
on  the  shoulders.     These   are   used,  when   the  child  is 


older,  to  button  down  the  flannel  straps,  and  need  not  be 
added  till  required. 

For  a  handsome  Chemise.— Those  who  can  afibrd  it  use 
French  cambric  for  babies'  chemises,  edge  the  sleeves  with 
very  narrow  Valenciennes  lace,  and  instead  of  running 
and  felling  the  shoulders  together,  hem  them  very  narrow,* 
and  sew  them  to  the  two  sides  of  an  extremely  narrow 
Valenciennes  insertion. 

T/ie  Flanjicl. — Next  to  the  chemise  a  flannel  is  worn. 
This  should  be  .Saxony,  and  measure  not  less  than  forty 
or  forty-four  inches  wide.  It  may  be  purchased  for 
IS.  6d.  a  yard,  unless  it  is  desirable  to  give  more.  Two 
yards  must  be  purchased  to  make  two  of  these.  Mark  the 
centre  of  the  flannel,  and  form  a  box-plait  there  an  inch 
and  a  half  wide,  or  two  inches  in  the  wider  flannel  (the 
forty-four  inch).  Make  two  other  similar  plaits  on  each 
side  of  this — five  plaits  in  all — with  full  an  inch  space 
between  each,  and  about  four  inches  over  at  each  end. 
Tack  these  plaits  down  for  seveh  inches  to  form  a  body, 
and  let  the  rest  hang  free  ;  cut  out  two  half-circlets 
between  the  two  outer  plaits  each  side,  to  form  the  arm- 
holes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5  at  M  and  M.  Run  the  plaits 
very  neatly  down  each  side,  and  stitch  them  across 
at  the  ends  marked  by  the  letter  N.  Stitch  a  washable 
binding  all  round  the  flannel,  and  add  two  tapes  for 
shoulder-straps,  marked  o,  and  tapes  each  side  at  the 
places  marked  by  six  p's,  to  tie  the  flannel,  which  folds 
across  the  baby.  fThis  is  the  description  for  a  night 
flannel. 

For  a  Day  Flannel. — Purchase  two  more  yards  of  better 
quality  flannel,  say  2s.  6d.  or  3s.  per  yard.  Make  as 
before  directed.  Some  persons  give  as  much  as  4s.  6d. 
or  5s.  a  yard  for  perfectly  white  flannel,  bind  it  with  white 
sarcenet  ribbon,  and  tie  it  down  the  front  with  sarcenet 
bows.  The  plaits  are  either  quilted  across  with  white  or 
coloured  silk,  or  sewn  down  with  chain-stitch.  If  blue  or 
scarlet  silk  is  used  for  this  purpose,  the  flannel  must  be 
bound  with  blue  or  scarlet  ribbon  or  washable  binding. 
Fig.  6  represents  parts  of  two  folds  of  a  baby's  flannel,  the 
one  quilted  the  other  chain-stitched.  Chain-stitches  are 
formed  by  leaving  the  loop  of  the  first  thread  above  the 
work  and  entering  the  needle  of  the  second  stitch  through 
it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7. 

The  First  Gowns. — These  are  made  half  high,  and  with 
long  sleeves.  Buy  twelve  yards  of  bird's-eye  spotted  cam- 
bric jnuslin,  at  a  shilling  a  yard,  and  make  six  of  them. 
The  material  is  a  yard  wide.  Cut  off  two  lengths  of  a  yard 
each,  and  run  and  fell  them  together  till  they  look  like  a 
sack  with  two  seams.  Fig.  8.  Leave  these  seams  open 
(u  U,  Fig.  8)  for  the  sleeves  to  be  put  in  ;  slope  off  pieces 
at  V  V,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  to  form  the  shoulders, 
which  should  measure  about  tw.o  inches  long.  Run  and 
fell  these  together.  Either  merely  hem  the  top  and  run 
a  string  in  it,  or  gather  it  into  a  band,  which  must,  how- 
ever, also  have  a  string  in  it  to  draw  it  close  to  the  baby's 
little  neck.  Gather  in  the  skirt  from  x  to  x  to  form  a 
waist.  The  piece  gathered  should  be  fifteen  inches  long, 
and  brought  into  a  band  one  inch  deep  and  five  long,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  9,  at  Q.  One  end  at  each  side  of  this  band 
(r  r)  tics  round  the  back  of  the  waist,  and  draws  the 
loose  part  of  the  robe  close  to  the  baby's  figure.  A 
placket  hole  is  made  five  inches  long  down  the  back  of 
the  body.  The  robe  is  not  really  open  at  the  back,  it  is 
only  drawn  like  this  in  the  diagram  to  show  the  looseness 
of  the  back,  and  how  far  the  waist  gathers  extend.  The 
seams  come  at  the  sides.  The  sleeve  is  of  the  coat 
shape,  cut  like  Fig.  10  ;  it  is  run  and  felled  together,  the 
seam  being  placed  downwards  at  Y  in  Fig.  8.  The  z 
marked  in  the  diagram  of  the  sleeve.  Fig.  10,  shows  how 
the  top  is  rounded  to  sew  it  into  the  armhole.  It  is  run 
and  felled  in,  and  eased  a  little  at  the  top  ;  the  armhole 
should  not  be  quite  so  large  as  the  sleeve.  The  baby's 
sleeve  is  eight  inches  long,  six  across  the  top  before  it  is 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


35 


joined,  and  five  at  the  cuff.     The  measurements  arc  all 

vcn  allowing  for  turnings,  hems,  &c. 

/  ric/i  First  Frock  (Fig.  1 1)  is  made  of  fine  cambric 
.  islin  ;  three  rows  of  insertion  embroidery,  edged  each 
side  by  narrow  pointed  work,  trini  the  body.  The  cuffs 
and  epaulettes  are  enriched  to  correspond,  and  the  neck 
and  waistband  arc  also  of  fancy  work.  The  skirt  is  cm- 
bcUished  with  a  number  of  narrow  tucks,  and  edged  with 
pointed  embroidery. 

A  handsoinc  Day  Flannel. — Fig.  12  gives  a  design  for 
a  handsome  day  flannel.  It  is  made  of  very  fine  white 
Saxony.  The  body  plaits  arc  machine  quilted,  with  white 
crochet  silk.  The  skirt  has  a  deep  hem  also  quilted.  It 
is  bound  with  broad  white  ribbon  and  tied  with  large 
bows. 

In  our  next  article  we  propose  giving  another  pattern 
for  a  baby's  flannel,  a  baby's  house  wrapper,  a  baby's 
cloak,  cape,  and  hood,  with  ample  directions  for  cutting 
them  out  and  making  them  up  as  in  the  case  of  the 
garments  described  in  the  present  paper. 


INMATES  OF  THE  HOUSE— LEGAL. 

II. — PARENT  AND   CHILD. 

It  might,  perhaps,  be  thought  that  if  any  law  were  re- 
quired to  regulate  the  relations  between  parent  and  child, 
it  would  be  found  innate  in  the  human  breast.  But 
human  nature  has  so  many  weaknesses,  to  say  nothing 
of  positive  evil  impulses,  that  we  cannot  allow  ourselves 
to  trust  to  it  alone,  and  experience  has  shown  that  a  public 
law  is  necessary,  in  order  to  define  the  relation  in  which 
parents  and  children  stand  towards  each  other,  and 
towards  those  who  are  without.- 

The  law  of  Rome  gave  to  a  father  the  most  absolute 
fKJwer  over  his  children,  at  one  period  allowing  him  even 
the  power  of  life  and  death ;  but  always  giving  him 
ownership  in  all  that  his  sons  or  daughters  had,  with 
power  of  disposing  of  it  during  his  own  lifetime.  Only 
upon  the  father's  death  did  the  children  become  free,  un- 
less he  had  emancipated  them  previously,  and  in  that 
case  the  children  of  the  free  were  in  their  turn  in  legal 
bondage  to  their  father.  These  principles  never  found 
favour  in  the  West,  and  were  not  adopted  even  by 
those  nations  which  engrafted  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Roman  law  upon  their  own  stocks.  In  this  country  the 
Roman  law  never  had  any  footing,  in  spite  of  many 
strenuous  efforts  to  import  it ;  and  the  English  law  of 
parent  and  child  is  therefore  not  founded  upon  it,  but 
upon  those  principles  of  general  convenience  and  utility 
which  suggested  themselves  as  the  demand  for  them 
came. 

The  Duties  imposed  upon  Parents  by  the  English  law 
are  the  maintenance  and  protection  of  their  children.  It 
has  been  considered  an  unwarrantable  thing  that  those 
through  whose  instrumentality  children  have  been  called 
into  being,  should  be  allowed  to  neglect  those  children,  or 
to  throw  them  as  a  burden  upon  otliers.  This  is  a  com- 
mon-sense view  of  the  matter,  and  one  that  would  be 
approved  even  by  persons  devoid  of  that  natural  affec- 
tion which  is  a  law  of  -itself  to  those  who  have  it. 
It  is  required,  then,  of  parents  that  they  shall  feed, 
clothe,  and  house  their  children^  but  it  does  not  follow 
legally  from  this  that  they  must  do  so  in  a  manner  accord- 
ing with  the  style  in  which  they  themselves  are  living.  So 
long  as  they  arrange  in  such  a  way  that  the  children  are 
n<yt  chargeable  to  the  parish,  they  may  bring  them  up  in 
what  station  of  life  they  please.  It  might,  no  doubt,  be 
matter  for  comment,  if  an  unnatural  father  should  deny  to 
his  children  a  share  in  the  comforts  he  is  able  to  procure ; 
but  the  law  would  only  compel  him  to  provide  them  with 
actual  necessaries.    "  The  policy  of  our  laws,"  says  Black- 


stone,  "  which  are  ever  watchful  to  promote  industry,  did 
not  mean  to  compel  a  father  to  maintain  his  idle  and  lazy 
children  in  case  and  indolence  ;  but  thought  it  unjust  to 
oblige  the  parent  against  his  will  to  provide  them  with 
superfluities  and  otlier  indulgences  of  fortune,  imagining 
they  might  trust  to  the  impulse  of  nature,  if  the  children 
were  deserving  of  such  favours."  Supposing,  however, 
that  the  child  be  living  away  from  home,  and  there  is  not 
any  intimation  given  by  the  father  of  his  own  peculiarities, 
it  will  be  understood  that  he  intends  his  child  to  live  in  a 
manner  consonant  to  that  in  which  he  himself  lives  ;  and 
tradesmen  supplying  goods  to  such  child  will  be  able  to 
recover  from  the  father  not  only  the  price  of  such  goods 
as  were  actually  necessary  to  sustain  life,  but  also  of  such 
other  goods  as  were  not  incompatible  with  the  father's 
position  in  the  world.  What  goods  were  necessary  for  the 
child's  existence,  it  is  not  difficult  to  determine ;  what 
other  goods  were,  under  the  circumstances,  allowable,  is 
a  question  which  is  left  to  a  jury  to  answer.  Some  of  the 
decisions  have  been  sufficiently  remarkable.  In  one  case 
it  was  held  that  a  gold  latch-key  was  "necessary"  to  an 
officer  in  the  Life  Guards,  evidence  having  been  given  to 
show  that  it  was  the  custom  for  the  officers  of  that  regi- 
ment to  use  gold  keys.  But  in  the  same  case  it  was  held 
by  the  jury,  with  the  full  approval  of  the  court,  that  gold 
lockets,  bracelets,  and  earrings,  could  not  be  "necessary" 
to  an  officer,  and  the  items  were  struck  out  of  the  account. 
A  diamond  ring  was  allowed  to  stand  in  a  jeweller's  bill, 
for  which  an  action  was  brought  against  a  nobleman — the 
goods  having  been  supplied  to  his  son,  an  undergraduate 
at  Oxford — on  the  ground  that  such  an  ornament  was  a 
common  one  iimong  gentlemen  in  the  young  m;  n's  posi- 
tion, and  might  therefore  be  considered  in  the  hght  of  a 
"necessary,"  for  which  the  father  was  chargeable.  In- 
stafices  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely  ;  but  the  rule  is, 
that  where  a  lather  allows  his  child  to  be  in  that  position, 
from  which  it  might  reasonably  be  supposed  he  intended 
him  to  be  treated  as  his  son,  he  will  be  liable  for  supplies 
made  to  him,  in  accordance  with  the  appearance  he  allowed 
him  to  keep  up.  It  is  at  all  times  competent,  however, 
to  a  father  to  limit  his  liability,  by  giving  notice  that 
he  will  not  be  liable  for  any  debts  his  child  may  incur  ; 
and  if  he  does  this,  by  advertising  for  a  reasonable 
time  in  such  papers  as  are  generally  read,  or  by  special 
notice  to  tradesmen  and  others  in  the  places  where  his 
son  may  be,  he  will  not  be  liable  except  for  bare  neces- 
saries, and  even  for  these  it  is  a  question  whether  he  will 
be  made  to  pay,  if  he  causes  it  to  be  known  that  he  is 
paying  his  son  a  sufficient  necessary  allowance.  So 
firmly,  however,  does  the  law  hold  to  its  rule  that  a  parent 
shall  maintain  his  children,  that  it  requires  the  father  to 
repay  to  a  parish,  on  the  rates  of  which  the  son  has 
become  chargeable,  the  value  of  the  supplies  made  to  him. 
By  virtue  of  his  office  of  guardian  to  his  child  a  father 
may  bring  an  action  against  any  person  injuring  the  child, 
and  he  may  recover  damages  not  only  for  the  child,  but 
for  himself  also,  because  the  child  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  help  to  his  father,  and  damages  are  awarded  to 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  service.  The  Roman  law 
carried  the  jirinciple  of  parental  jiiaintenancc  so  far 
that  it  would  not  allow  a  man  to  disinherit  his 
children,  that  is  to  say,  it  would  not  allow  him  to  leave 
more  than  three-fourths  of  his  property  away  from  his 
children.  If  he  did  so,  his  will  was  set  aside  as  insane, 
and  a  fourth  of  the  property  was  taken  for  the  chil- 
dren's benefit.  At  one  time  our  law  recognised  the 
children's  right  to  "a  reasonable  part"  of  the  father's 
estate  ;  but  at  the  present  day,  the  utmost  freedom  is 
given  to  testators  in  disposing  of  their  property,  and  a 
man  possessed  of  a  million  of  money  may,  for  al  th,' 
law  will  interfere,  leave  the  whole  of  his  wealth  away  from 
his  family. 
Education. — Up  to  the  present  moment  parents   are 


36 


COOKING. 


not  under  any  legal  obligation  to  educate  their  chil- 
dren, but  are  free  to  follow  their  own  instincts  on  the 
subject. 

Power  of  Parents  over  Children.— k.  father  has  a  right 
to  the  custody  of  his  children  until  they  attain  twenty-one 
years,  and  he  may  recover  them,  if  detained  from  him,  by 
the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  Cases  arise  sometimes  in 
which  this  right  to  custody  is  modified,  so  that  the  child 
is  free  at  the  age  of  fourteen  ;  but  he  must  himself  express 
his  desire  to  leave  the  protection  of  his  parents,  and  must 
do  so  in  open  court,  or  he  will  be  given  up  to  his  father. 
Under  the  age  of  fourteen  the  child  is  absolutely  within 
the  power  of  his  father,  and  any  person  enticing,  stealing, 
or  detaining  a  child  under  ten  years  of  age,  with  intent  to 
deprive  its  father  or  proper  guardian  of  the  charge  of  it, 
incurs  the  penalties  of  felony.  A  father  has  legal  right  t© 
correct  or  chastise  his  child,  so  the  punishment  be  not 
immoderate  ;  his  consent  must  be  obtained  to  a  marriage, 
if  the  child  be  a  minor ;  and  his  dissent,  on  publication  of 
banns,  will  be  sufficient  to  stop  the  marriage.  A  licence 
for  a  minor  to  be  married  will  not  as  a  rule  be  granted, 
and  should  not  be  granted,  except  on  oath  that  the 
father's  consent  has  been  obtained.  Where  a  minor 
has  property,  independently  of  his  parents,  his  father  is 
the  guardian  and  administrator  of  it  during  the  minority  ; 
but  he  will  be  liable  to  be  called  upon  for  an  account 
of  his  guardianship  on  the  infant  attaining  his  majority. 
A  father  has  power  by  his  will  to  appoint  guardians  for 
his  children  under  age,  and  such  guardians  are  invested, 
by  the  law,  with  the  same  rights  and  powers  and  reponsi- 
bilities  as  the  father. 

Mother  and  Child. — A  mother  has  not  any  power  over 
her  children  during  her  husband's  lifetime,  except  in  one 
case  which  is  created  by  statute.  If  the  children  are 
under  seven  years  of  age,  the  Lord  Chancellor  may  order, 
on  the  mother's  petition,  that  they  be  given  over  to  her — 
the  mother  being  considered  a  better  and  more  natural 
guardian  for  children  of  tender  years.  On  the  death  of 
her  husband,  she  steps  into  his  place  as  guardian,  having 
a  right  to  the  custody  of  her  children  till  they  are  of  age. 
She  cannot,  however,  appoint  a  guardian  by  her  will,  as 
she  is  not  mentioned  in  the  statute  which  gave  the  father 
that  privilege. 

Duties  of  Children  to  Parents. — These  are  not  defined 
by  the  municipal  law,  being  supposed  to  be  contained  in 
the  law  of  nature ;  but  the  poor  law  which  compels 
parents,  who  are  able  to  do  so,  to  pay  for  the  maintenance 
of  their  children,  of  whatever  age,  who  may  become 
chargeable  to  the  parish,  also  makes  it  incumbent  on 
children  having  ability  to  pay,  to  provide  for  their  poor 
and  impotent  parents,  at  such  a  rate  as  the  justices  in 
quarter  sessions  may  order. 


COOKING. 


SIMPLE  RECIPES  {continued). 

Baked  Tapioca  Pudding. — To  each  pint  of  milk  put  four 
table-spoonfuls  of  tapioca,  and  boil  gently  until  it  is 
swollen.  Sweeten  and  flavour  to  taste  and  your  means. 
A  little  bit  of  cinnamon,  or  of  orange  or  lemon-peel,  boiled 
with  the  milk  is  agreeable.  Let  it  stand  to  cool  until  it  is 
tepid.  Into  the  pie-dish  in  which  your  pudding  is  to  be 
baked,  break  two  or  three  eggs  ;  more,  if  you  can  afford 
them.  Break  them  up  with  a  fork,  and  stir  into  them 
your  lukewarm  milk  and  tapioca.  Grate  a  little  nut- 
meg on  the  top,  and  set  into  a  very  gentle  oven.  Watch 
that  it  does  not  boil.  Sago  and  semolina  baked  puddings 
are  made  in  the  same  way.  You  may,  if  you  like,  line 
the  bottom  of  the  dish  with  a  crust,  as  in  making  baked 
apple-pudding ;  it  will  make  it  more  satisfying.  When 
eggs  are  scarce,  their  loss  may  be  in  some  measure 
supplied  by  the  addition  of  a  little  flour,  arrowroot,  or 


baking-powder ;  but  always  use  eggs  when  you  can  get 
them. 

Baked  Rice  Pudding. — Boil  rice  (after  washing  it)  in  a 
little  more  milk  than  it  will  absorb,  with  a  little  bit  of 
cinnamon  or  lemon-peel,  and  a  small  quantity  of  finely- 
chopped  suet ;  sweeten  to  taste.  When  nearly  cool,  mix 
with  it  as  many  beat-up  eggs  as  are  allowed  you,  pour  it 
into  a  greased  pie-dish,  grate  nutmeg  on  the  top,  and  bake 
in  a  very  gentle  oven,  especially  if  the  allowance  of  eggs 
is  liberal.  The  suet  directed  in  this  receipt  (or  a  bit  of 
butter  instead)  will  be  found  a  very  great  improve- 
ment. Some  people  are  obliged  to  leave  out  the  eggs 
altogether ;  some  do  so  from  choice,  but  of  course  when 
this  is  the  case  the  pudding  becomes  a  very  plain  one,  and 
though  good,  wholesome  fare,  and  very  nice,  if  well 
made,  it  hardly  deserves  the  name  of  a  pudding. 

Savoury  Rice  Milk. — Steep  your  rice  an  hour  or  two  in 
soft  water.  Set  it  on  the  fire  in  half  milk  and  half  good 
broth,  cold.  Mutton  broth  is  excellent,  with  the  fat  left 
floating  on  the  top  ;  if  turnips  have  been  boiled  with  the 
meat,  so  much  the  better.  Season  with  a  small  quantity 
of  finely-chopped  onion,  and  a  dust  of  pepper  and  salt. 
Keep  stirring  all  the  while,  to  keep  the  rice  from  burning 
and  the  milk  from  boiling  over.  When  the  rice  is 
quite  tender,  the  members  of  the  household  can  be 
served  with  their  share,  warning  them  not  to  burn  their 
mouths. 

Sweet  Rice  Milk  is  more  of  a  treat  for  delicate  little 
girls,  perhaps  a  little  spoilt.  By  additions  you  may  easily 
bring  it  up  to  custard  or  pudding  point.  Boil  rice, 
previously  steeped  in  new  milk,  with  the  same  pre- 
cautions as  before ;  season  with  a  little  salt  and  suf- 
ficient sugar.  You  may  flavour  with  lemon-peel,  cin- 
namon, or  grated  nutmeg.  You  may  stir  in,  after  taking 
it  off  the  fire,  as  many  beat-up  eggs  as  you  please  ;  and 
you  may,  if  you  choose,  add  to  it  a  bit  of  butter,  a  glass  of 
home-made  wine,  or,  if  needful,  on  a  sharp  winter's 
evening,  a  table-spoonful  of  brandy, 

Broken-Bread  Pudding,  Baked. — You  will  often  have 
sundry  scraps  and  remnants  of  bread.  Crusts  are  even 
better  for  this  purpose  than  crumb.  No  matter  how  dry 
they  are,  so  long  as  they  are  not  musty  or  mouldy.  Break 
up  your  fragments  into  small  bits,  and  put  them  in  a 
bowl.  Put  into  a  saucepan  as  much  milk  as  you  judge 
will  soak  the  bread  ;  throw  into  it  two  or  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  suet  chopped  very  fine,  sugar  to  taste,  and 
a  pinch  of  salt.  When  it  boils  up,  pour  it  over  the 
bread.  When  nearly  cold,  add  two  or  three  beat-up  eggs, 
and  just  a  few  currants  and  raisins.  Break  up  and  mix  the 
whole  equally  together  with  a  spoon.  Put  it  into  a  buttered 
pie-dish  ;  smooth  the  top,  put  a  few  little  bits  of  butter 
and  raisins  on  the  surface,  and  set  into  the  oven  to  bake. 
This  pudding  is  as  good  cold  as  hot.  The  addition  of 
a  table-spoonful  of  rum  to  the  beat-up  eggs  is  by  some 
thought  to  be  an  improvement.  By  putting  in  more  eggs 
and  a  little  flour,  to  make  it  hold  together,  broken-bread 
pudding  may  be  boiled  in  a  basin,  and  turned  out  on  a 
dish.  It  maybe  served  with  some  one  of  the  sweet  sauces 
for  which  we  have  already  given  recipes,  poured  over  and 
round  it,  and  then  becomes  a  very  delicate  and  presentable 
form  of  using  up  remnants. 

Bread- and- Butter  Pudding,  without  Butter.  —  This 
makes  a.  capital  pudding,  and  we  strongly  recommend  our 
readers  to  try  it.  Wher^  well  made,  it  is  quite  equal  to 
the  best  varieties  of  marrow  pudding.  To  make  it  first- 
rate,  however,  a  liberal  allowance  of  sugar  and  eggs  is 
indispensable.  Bake  a  nice  fat  piece  of  beef — the  thin 
end  of  the  ribs,  for  instance — on  a  three-legged  wire 
stand,  over  a  dish  of  potatoes.  By  setting  it  into  a  brisk 
oven,  and  turning  the  potatoes  soon  afterwards,  they  will 
be  crusted  outside,  floury  within,  and  will  soak  up  very 
little  of  the  dripping.  After  the  beef  and  potatoes  have 
been  served  (which  may  thus  become  the  staple  of  the 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


37 


first  day's  dinner),  and  before  the  dripping  is  quite  cold, 
cut  several  slices  of  bread,  not  too  thick,  and  butter 
their  upper  surface  with  the  cooling  fat,  until  you  have 
enough  to  half  fill  the  pie-dish  which  is  to  hold  your 
pudding.  The  half  left  empty  is  to  allow  for  the  swelling 
of  the  bread.  Stone  some  raisins  ;  wash  a  few  currants. 
Lay  a  few  of  these  at  the  bottom  of  your  dish  ;  on 
them  slices  of  bread  and  fat ;  then  more  fruit,  and  so  on. 
Sweeten,  according  to  taste  or  your  pocket ;  a  little  more 
milk  than  will  cover  the  whole;  add  a  pinch  of  salt  ;  beat 
up  with  that  the  number  of  eggs  you  can  afford — one, 
two,  three,  or  four.  A  little  brandy  can,  if  desired,  be  added. 
Pour  this  over  the  sliced  bread.  Let  it  stand  to  soak.  If 
it  is  all  absorbed,  fill  up  the  dish  with  more  milk  and  egg. 
On  the  top  drop  a  few  currants  and  raisins,  and  some  bits 
of  the  cold  beef  dripping  as  big  as  hazel-nuts.  Set  into 
a  moderate  oven,  and  bake  very  gently,  just  allowing  the 
top  slice  of  bread  to  brown.  This  pudding  is  richest  hot, 
but  excellent  cold.  We  are  incHned  to  think  raisins  only 
to  be  more  economical  for  these  and  most  other  puddings 
than  currants,  which  may,  therefore,  be  left  out.  Raisins, 
especially  when  opened  and  stoned,  make  a  greater  show 
and  communicate  more  flavour.  But  a  sprinkling  of  cur- 
rants looks  prettier. 

Batter  is  a  mixture  of  flour,  salt,  eggs,  and  milk,  beaten 
together,  whose  proportions  depend — first,  on  the  house- 
wife's means  ;  secondly,  on  the  purpose  for  which  she 
wants  it.  Some  batter,  as  that  for  pancakes,  fritters,  and 
frying  things  in,  is  lightened  by  the  addition  of  yeast  or 
spirit.  It  may  be  also  lightened  by  beating  the  whites  of 
the  eggs  to  a  froth,  and  then  mixing  them  with  the  batter. 
Batter,  when  cooked,  should  cut  firmly,  and  not  stick  to 
the  knife  like  paste.  To  ensure  this,  five  eggs  to  every 
half  a  pound  of  flour  is  a  good  allowance.  Put  first  the 
flour  and  salt  (in  very  small  quantity)  together  in  the 
bowl ;  then  the  eggs.  When  those  are  incorporated,  pour 
in  the  milk,  a  little  at  a  time,  beating  it  with  the  back  of 
a  large  wooden  spoon  till  all  is  smooth  and  of  the  required 
consistency. 

Plain  Batter  Pudd'ing^  Boiled,  is  the  above  batter  tied 
in  a  well-floured  cloth,  or  in  a  buttered  basin,  and  boiled, 
galloping,  from  an  hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half,  according 
to  size.  The  basin  takes  longer  than  the  cloth.  Do  not 
take  the  pudding  out  of  the  boiler  till  the  minute  before 
you  want  to  serve  it.  It  is  eaten  most  frequently  with 
meat  gravy ;  occasionally,  however,  with  sweet  or  wine 
sauce. 

Black-Cap  Pucldins;-  is  nothing  more  than  the  above, 
with  the  addition  of  a  handful  of  well-washed  currants, 
and  slightly  sweetened,  boiled  in  a  basin.  Let  the  basin 
stand  on  its  bottom  in  the  boiler  ;  the  currants  in  the 
batter  will  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  remain  fixed  there 
when  the  pudding  is  cooked  ;  and  when  turned  out,  they 
will  all  be  at  the  top.  Serve  with  any  good  sweet  or  wine 
sauce.  Instead  of  grocers'  currants,  fresh  fruit,  as  sliced 
apples,  cherries,  &c.,  may  be  used  ;  but  the  batter  must 
be  stiffer,  to  enable  it  to  hold  together  ;  and  the  pudding 
mostly  turns  out  a  "  mess "  in  the  unfavourable  sense  of 
the  word.     Fruit  with  batter  is  much  better  baked. 

Baked  Batter  Pudding,  with  Apples. — Grease  the  inside 
of  a  shallow  pie-dish.  Peel,  quarter,  and  core  apples 
enough  to  cover  the  bottom  of  the  dish  one  layer  thick. 
Over  this  pour  enough  batter,  slightly  sweetened,  to  fill 
the  dish.  The  layer  of  apple  will  float  to  the  top.  Bake 
in  a  tolerably  brisk  oven,  and  serve  immediately  after 
taking  out.  It  will  then  be  a  great  improvement  to  put  a 
few  bits  of  butter  (which  will  melt  immediately),  and 
sprinkle  a  little  sugar  on  the  top.  Similar  batter  pud- 
dings may  be  made  with  almost  any  fresh  fruit.  Even 
those  of  inferior  quality  are  softened  and  mellowed  by  the 
ibaking.  Strawberries,  cherries,  plums  of  various  kinds, 
even  buUaces,  make  exceedingly  nice  and  wholesome 
baked  batter  puddings. 


Baked  Batter  Pudding,  with  Sausages  or  Bacon. — 
Exactly  as  above,  only,  of  course,  not  sweetening  the 
batter,  and  using  sausages  or  slices  of  bacon,  or  both^ 
instead  of  fruit.  In  this  case  also  it  is  best  to  lay  the 
meat  at  the  bottom  of  the  dish,  and  pour  the  batter  over 
it  ;  because  the  coating  of  batter  which  ^dheres  to  it 
prevents  its  surface  from  being  scorched,  and  retains  the 
gravy. 

Toad  in  a  Hole  is  a  good  lump  of  fat  meat,  perhaps 
with  plenty  of  bone — beef  is  best,  veal  second  best — 
laid  in  the  middle  of  a  deep  dish,  and  baked  with  batter 
poured  round  it.  When  done,  the  toad,  or  bit  of  meat,  is 
taken  out  of  its  hole,  laid  on  a  hot  dish,  and  served, 
accompanied  by  vegetables,  after  the  hole  itself  has  been 
eaten.  This  is  also  a  capital  way  of  getting  all  that  is  to 
be  had  out  of  an  underdone  joint  of  cold  meat,  especially 
if  fat  enough. 

Batter  Pudding,  Baked  under  Meat,  is  also  very  good, 
when  the  meat  is  raised  above  the  batter  on  a  wire  stand 
with  three  or  four  legs.  The  gravy,  dropping  from  the 
meat,  enriches  the  pudding,  which  in  this  case  has  a  level 
surface,  instead  of  presenting  a  hollow  vacancy  as  with 
the  toad-in-a-hole.  When  cooked,  the  meat  is  transferred 
to  a  hot  dish,  the  wire  stand  removed,  and  the  pudding 
left  entire  without  flaw  or  defect 

Yorkshire  Pudding  is  batter  made  a  little  stiffer  than 
usual,  put  into  a  shallow  tin,  and  set  in  the  catchpan 
under  roasting  meat,  and  cooked  by  the  fire  which  roasts 
it.  Large  joints  would  flood  the  pudding  with  too  much 
gravy ;  while  with  a  small  fire  the  pudding  is  apt  to 
remain  underdone  and  pasty,  for  which  the  only  remedy 
is  to  set  it  for  awhile  in  the  oven.  Cold  Yorkshire  and 
other  baked  batter  puddings  may  be  heated  in  a  Dutch 
oven  before  the  fire.  Cold  boiled  batter  pudding  may 
be  either  fried,  or  sliced,  toasted,  and  buttered  like 
crumpets. 

Carrot  Pudding. — Mix  together  half  a  pound  of  flour, 
half  a  pound  of  chopped  suet,  a  pound  of  chopped  carrot, 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  each  of  washed  currants,  stoned 
raisins,  and  brown  sugar,  with  grated  nutmeg,  a  little  salt, 
four  eggs,  and  enough  new  milk  to  bring  the  mixture  to 
the  proper  consistence.  Boil  for  an  hour  in  a  pudding- 
basin. 

Saratoga  Pudding  {American). — Beat  together  three 
table-spoonfuls  of  sugar,  two  of  flour,  three  eggs,  and  a 
little  salt.  Stir  into  them  a  quart  of  hot  milk-  Beat  to- 
gether again,  and  bake  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 

Dr.  DobeWs  Flour  Pudding. — That  eminent  physician 
informs  us,  in  his  "Manual  of  Diet  and  Regimen,"  that 
four  ounces  of  flour,  an  ounce  and  a  quarter  of  sugar, 
three-quarters  of  an  ounce  of  suet,  three-quarters  of  a  pint 
of  milk,  and  one  egg,  form  a  combination  of  alimentary 
principles  in  nearly  exact  normal  proportions. 

Gateau,  French  country  cake,  for  high  days  and  holi- 
days.— Five  eggs  to  every  pound  of  flour  is  the  rule  ; 
when  they  are  dear,  you  may  content  yourself  with  four  ; 
when  cheap,  you  may  bestow  six  or  seven  on  each  pound 
of  flour  ;  but  the  more  eggs  you  put,  the  drier  the  cake 
will  be.  Put  also  to  the  same  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
butter  (which  rich  folk  increase  to  half  a  pound),  and 
either  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  currants,  washed,  or  the 
same  quantity  of  raisins,  stoned  and  chopped.  The 
plums  will  thus  be  few  and  far  between,  as  if  they  had 
been  shot  into  the  cake  at  a  long  range.  Indeed,  you 
have  a  fair  chance  of  getting  a  slice  of  plum  cake  without 
plums.  No  sugar.  Work  these  into  dough  with  water 
and  yeast,  and  proceed  exactly  as  with  bread,  making 
your  cake  into  a  long  roll-shaped  loaf,  to  bake  the  more 
thoroughly.  You  may  use  milk  instead  of  water,  feut  it 
makes  the  cake  drier.  Gdteau  is  eaten  m  slices  spread 
with  butter,  at  the  end  of  a  repast,  or  at  the  usual  five 
o'clock  collation.  It  may  also  be  made  pUain.  .'..'..  vritViout 
plums. 


38 


THE   HOUSE. 


THE    HOUSE. 

WAYS  AND  MEANS  {continued). 

In  accordance  with  the  plan  laid  down  in  our  previous 
paper  on  this  subject,  we  propose  now  to  enter  into  the 
question  of  household  economy  somewhat  more  in  detail, 
and  as  this  can  be  made  more  intelligible  if  some  actual 
sum  is  taken  as  an  illustration,  we  propose  to  lay  out  in 
this  chapter  a  scheme  for  the  expenditure  of  ^150  a  year. 
Still,  in  what  we  are  now  about  to  say,  we  must  be  under- 
stood as  speaking  generally,  for  it  is  difficult,  nay,  almost 
impossible,   to   lay  down    any    precise   rules   for   expen- 
diture upon  different  items  of    housekeeping.      A  man, 
his   wife,   and   four  children,    will   live   in   the    country, 
when   provisions  and  coals    are    cheap,   and  save   upon 
a  sum,  which  in   the  suburbs  of  a  town  will  not  much 
more    than    keep    them    from     starvation.      To    live    in 
London  is  more  economical  than  in  the  outskirts,  because, 
there,  the  markets  are  available  ;   and  at  the  close  of  the 
day  most  edibles  may  be  purchased  at  a  very  low  rate. 
Even   in    groceries   there    is    a    wide  difference    in    the 
price.     Sugar,  which  at  one  end  of  the  town  can  be  had 
for  fourpence,   is    fivepence    elsewhere  ;    the   same   with 
cocoa,  tea,  coffee,  cheese,   and  butter.     Where  a  wife  is 
at  all  clever,  is  a  womanly  woman,  and  thoroughly  under- 
stands her  position   and    responsibility,  it  is  marvellous 
how  much   of  wholesome   food  she  will  make  a  small 
outlay  produce. 

We  have  seen  that  in  an  income  of  ;^ioo  per  annum, 
only  6s.  6d.  per  week    for    rent   can   be   expended.     In 
that   of   ^150,   the    rent    and    taxes    may    be    allowed 
for   at    the   rate   of    ^30    per   annum,    or    iis.    6d.   per 
week — that  is,  rent  ^25,   taxes  ^5.     A  servant   cannot 
be  kept  with   an   income    of  ^150   a   year,    unless    her 
wages     and     maintenance     be     taken     from     the    sura 
allotted  to  housekeeping,  or   that   she   saves,  by  under- 
taking the  washing,  four  pounds  of  her  wages. 

It  is  a  disputed   point   among   housekeepers   whether 
there  is  really  any  economy  in  having  the  washing  done 
at   home.      Under  some    circumstances,  undoubtedly   it 
is ;  but  under  others  it  is  not  so.     Given  a  good  drying 
ground,    is.    a  day   to   the   washerwoman,  cheap   coals, 
;ind   plenty  of  time    at   disposal,   then   it   is   better,  un- 
doubtedly, to  wash  at  home;    but  wlien,  as  in  London, 
2s.  6d.  a  day  is  paid  for  labour,  coals  being  dear,  and 
time  is  apportioned  by  the  washerwoman,  who  must  be 
allowed,  beyond  her  pay,  beer  or  gin,  or  both,  then  it  is 
cheapen-  to  put  the  clothes  out  to  wash.     An  excellent  way 
is  to  put  out  to  be  washed  shirts,  sheets,  and  table-cloths, 
and  have  the  remainder  done   at  home  by  the  servant. 
Children's   clothes   are    readily    washed    and   ironed,    or 
ought  to  be  so,  where  a  narrow  income  is  to  be  battled 
with,  to  make  it  yield  as  much  as  it  possibly  can  ;  and 
in  a  case  like  this,  the  wife's  value  may  be  exhibited,  in 
her  ingenuity  and  contrivance  to  make  one  shilling  do 
the  work  of  two  completely  and  satisfactorily,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  clothes  will  be  far  better  and  more  care- 
fully done  than  if  they  had  been  put  out.     Taking  then 
an  ordinary  family,  consisting  of  husband,  wife,  and  two 
children,    the    following    is    the    mode    of    expenditure 
of  ;i^i5o  per  annum,  which  we  think  will  be  found  the 
best : — 

Yea7'ly.  £  s.d. 

Rent,  taxes,  and  water  rate         ...         . . .  30  o  o 

Housekeeping        ...         ...         ...         ...  70  o  o 

Clothing      ...  ...         ...         ...  ...  25  o  o 

Washing     ...         ...         ...         ...         ...     600 

Incidentals 19  o  o 


^150  o  o 

The  weekly  expenditure  of  this  income  may  be  allotted 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  following  manner  : — 


Weekly. 


Rent,  &c.    ... 
Housekeeping 
Washing     ... 
Clothing 
Incidentals... 


£     s.     d. 

on     ^\ 
I     6  11^ 
o     2     31 
o    9     5 
o    7    4i 


;^2  17     81 

The  £\  6s.  ii^d.  which  we  have  allowed  per  week  for 
housekeeping,  ought  to  be  spent  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
the  following  manner:  — 

s.       d. 

1 1  lbs.  of  meat  at  9 Jd.        ...         ...         ...  8     8^ 

5  quartern  loaves  at  7d.     ...         ...         ...211 

I  quartern  of  flour  at  7id ...         ...  o     7| 

1  of  a  lb.  of  tea  at  2s.  6d.  ...         i  10^ 

^  lb.  of  coffee  at  IS.  4d ...  o    4 

2  lbs.  of  sugar  at  4d.           ...         o     8 

7  pints  of  milk  at  2d.          i     2 

I  lb.  of  butter  at  is.  4d.,  and  4  eggs  at    d.  i     8 

1  lb.  of  cheese         o  8 

Greengrocery  and  fruit       ...         ...         ...20 

Beer,  7  pints  at  3id.  ...         ...         ...  2  o<^ 

Pepper,  salt,  mustard,  vinegar      o  3 

\  lb.  of  soap,  I  lb.  of  soda o  3§ 

Candles  and  gas      ...         ...         ...         . . .  i  3 

Wood  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  o  3 

2  cwt.  of  coals  at  22s.  6d.  per  ton  ...  2  3 


£x  6  III 


This  estimated  allowance  gives  three  ounces  of  meat 
a  day  to  each  person,  exclusive  of  bone,  bread  half  a 
pound,  and  potatoes  one  pound.  It  shows,  also,  how 
very  particular  every  one  should  be  that  they  receive 
the  weights  and  measures  they  pay  for.  It  is  a  terrible 
thing  for  the  poor  when  provisions  are  short  in  weight. 
Every  ounce  tells  one  way  or  the  other  for  subsistence 
or  deprivation. 

Of  course  it  will  be  seen  at  once  that  to  such  a  calcula- 
tion as  the  above  there  must  be  many  modifications  :  the 
size  of  the  family  may  be  larger  or  smaller,  the  neighbour- 
hood may  be  cheaper,  or,  again,  some  of  the  articles  we 
have  set  down  in  our  list  may  be  so  far  from  being 
necessaries  of  life  to  some  that  they  may  be  quite  content 
to  do  without  them  altogether. 

In  the  country,  where  land  is  cheap,  thirty  pounds  a 
year  for  rcnr  and  taxes  is  somewhat  high,  and  a  saving  of 
ten  pounds  may  probably  be  made  in  this  expense  only, 
because  rents  differ  with  the  localities  ;  but  there  is  one 
item  for  saving,  which  depends  more  on  inclination  than 
aught  else,  and  that  is — the  cost  of  beer.  Threepence- 
halfpenny  a  day  sounds  no  great  deal,  but  it  amounts  to 
;^5  6s.  55d.  in  the  year.  A  man  or  woman  would  heed- 
lessly spend  the  pence,  but  would  hail  that  friend  as  a 
benefactor  who,  at  the  end  of  a  twelvemonth,  proferrcd  a 
gift  of  iive  guineas.  The  proverb  says  of  an  extravagant 
man,  "  He  is  no  man's  enemy  but  his  own."  Now  a 
man's  best  friend  is  himself,  not  in  a  selfish  sense,  but  in 
that  of  saving  and  spending  judiciously— of  learning  how 
to  do  without  superlluities. 

These  instances  will  serve  the  purpose  of  illustrating 
the  general  principle  we  are  laying  down.  One  man  will 
find  an  opportunity  for  saving  in  one  direction,  another  in 
another,  but  every  one  should  endeavour  to  save  some- 
where, so  as  to  get  a  surplus  of  income  over  expenditure. 
How  that  surplus  should  be  applied  to  the  best  advantage 
is  a  matter  which  we  will  discuss  further.  Of  course  the 
obvious  use  of  such  a  surplus  is  to  provide  against  an 
occasion  when  from  sickness  or  misfortunes  of  some  kind 
the  annual  sum  on  which  we  were  formerly  able  to  count 
comes  in  to  us  no  longer.  Unfortunately,  as  a  rule,  there 
is  great  want  of  forethought  shown  in  these  matters  by 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


39 


too  many  among  us,  and  especially  in  the  present  age 
there  is  often  displayed  great  improvidence  among  those 
who  marry  early  and  only  upon  a  small  annuiil  sum. 

A  man  with  thirty  to  five-and-thirty  shillings  a  week, 
'>■:  even  a  lesser  sum,  marries  a  heedless  servant  girl.     A 

lerk  or  mechanic  marries  a  girl  perhaps  in  a  superior 
elation  to  a  servant,  and  on  an  annual  salary  of  from 
j^ioo  to  ^300.  There  is  not  much  thought  between  them 
tor  the  present,  and  none  for  the  future,  or  for  the  period  of 

ickness,  sorrow,  and  bereavement.  After  a  time  the  wife 
laay  reflect  that  if  the  bread-winner  dies,  her  all  is  gone. 
The  thought  of  a  benefit  society  or  an  insurance  office 
may  occur  toiler,  and  of  all  the  misery  she  could  be  saved 
from,  if  some  money  were  deposited  in  cither,  but  it  cannot 
come  from  herself  to  suggest  this.  To  mention  money 
in  which  she  can  have  no  interest  but  by  the  death  of 
her  husband,  naturally  seems  to  her  unfeeling.  With  the 
husband,  then,  rests  all  the  responsibility  of  rescuing  his 
wife  and  children  /rom  destitution  when  he  exists  no 
longer  to  provide  for  them.  Let  him  ask  himself  what 
punishment  could  be  greater  to  his  spirit,  if  cognizant 

if  human  affairs,  than  to  Avitness  or  know  of  the  distress 

iiid  perhaps  crime,  which  his  own  prudence  might  have 
averted,  and  which  five  pounds  a  year  would,  in  a  measure, 
have  alleviated.  If  a  just  and  well-thinking  man  but 
steadily  contemplated  the  possible  future  of  his  family, 
he  would  save  every  penay  not  absolutely  needful  for 
daily  subsistence,  and  insure  his  life  for  the  benefit  of  the 
helpless  ones  he  leaves  behind  him.  Five  pounds  yearly, 
commencing  to  insure  at  the  age  of  thirty-three,  would  not 
secure  more  than  ^200,  but  it  is  all  a  man  with  a  very 
limited  income  can  do,  and  he  cannot  be  said  to  have 
done  his  duty  to  his  family  or  country  who  neglects  to 
make  this  provision. 

If  every  father  who  cannot  secure  a  settlement  for  his 
daughter  would  not  give  his  consent  to  her  marriage  unless 
her  intended  husband,  perhaps  of  the  age  of  twenty-five, 
insured  his  life  for  ^200,  by  a  yearly  payment  of  ^■^  i6s., 
much  distress  and  trouble  at  the  death  of  the  husband 
might  be  avoided.  Also  if  the  father  himself,  having  the 
means,  secured  a  policy  of  insurance  for  ^200,  available 
on  the  death  of  either  husband  or  wife,  and  payable  to  the 
survivor,  it  would  be  of  greater  benefit  under  distressing 
circumstances  than  making  them  a  present  of  six  pounds 
yearly.  Then  there  would  be  ^^400  at  disposal,  and  the 
father  might  so  arrange  that  ^200  of  it  should  go  to  benefit 
the  children. 

The  advantages  of  insurance,  both  of  life  and  from  fire, 
are  so  obvious,  and  the  sums  so  trifling  to  obtain  them, 
that  it  becomes  a  matter  for  censure  where  there  is  care- 
lessness about  either.  Even  a  bachelor  who  may  never 
intend  to  marry,  or  who  may,  at  the  age  of  thirty,  have  at 
his  disposal  a  sum  of  ^24  5s.  a  year,  or  who  can  save  this 
sum  from  his  salary,  may  secure  £1,000  to  his  relatives  or 
others,  in  the  event  of  his  dying  before  he  reaches  the 
age  of  sixty-five,  or,  passing  that  age  himself,  he  may 
receive  ^1,000,  or  exchange  this  sum  for  an  annuity  of 
^112  16s.  8d.  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Such  a 
prospect  should  be  an  inducement  to  save  nine  and  four- 
pence  weekly  from  the  age  of  thirty  for  a  period  of  thirty- 
five  years. 

At  first,  to  a  man  or  woman  not  having  a  miser's  spirit, 
this  petty  saving  of  pence  is  distasteful,  but  the  results  are 
astounding,  and  offer  every  encouragement  to  economy. 
It  is  troublesome  to  persist  in  saving  pence  unless  it  be 
begun  and  continued  in  a  resolution  to  avoid  any  unneces- 
sary expenses  ;  but  evils  often  repressed  soon  cease  to 
become  exacting.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that,  at  a  definite 
early  age — and  a  man  may  insure  his  life  till  he  is  sixty — 
by  the  saving  of  two  shillings  weekly,  and  invested  as  an 
insurance  at  the  end  of  the  year,  will  in  twelve  months 
represent  a  value  of  ;i^200  ;  that  is,  whether  death  comes 

arly  or  late.     But  if  the  insurance  is  allowed  to  drop  from  | 


nonpayment  of  the  premium,  the  whole  is  lost.  Now  the 
Post  Office  savings  banks  offer  a  very  ready  mode  of  taking 
care  of  the  pence  and  shillings  till  the  end  of  the  year, 
when,  without  delay,  the  life  should  be  insured.  If  two 
shillings  out  of  a  weekly  wage  is  deposited  in  the  bank, 
there  should  arise  no  inducement  to  take  it  out  again. 
Some  inevitable  circumstance  might  happen,  or  a  pressing 
need,  and  it  may  be  withdrawn  ;  but  let  it  be  imagined 
that  the  money  is  not  there,  and  the  need  will  not  be  so 
prominent. 

In  recommending  to  our  readers  thus  strongly  the 
system  of  life  insurance,  we  cannot  overlook  the  fact  that, 
especially  at  the  present  time,  there  is  a  tendency  to  view 
all  associations  of  this  nature  with  suspicion,  owing  to  a 
series  of  disclosures  which  have  revealed  the  unsoundness 
and  insecurity  of  the  working  of  sonfc  of  them.  But  it 
must  be  clearly  understood  that  these  arc  only  a  few  indi- 
vidual cases ;  the  principle  of  life  insurance  is  sound 
enmigh,  and  very  many  insurance  offices  fully  deserve  the 
confidence  they  inspire.  We  propose  in  our  next  paper  on 
this  subject  to  explain  fully  to  our  readers  the  principles 
and  working  of  an  insurance  office,  and  thus  enable  them 
to  judge  for  themselves  of  the  stability  of  the  undertaking 
in  which  they  purpose  investing  their  savings. 


HOUSEIiOLD    DECORATIVE    ART. 

I. — LEATHER  WORK, 

Leather  work,  or  the  art  of  modelling  leather  in  imi- 
tation of  carved  wood,  is  an  artistic  occupation  which  has 
been  revived  of  late,  but  has  not  yet  reached  either  in 
beauty  or  utility  the  high  standard  it  may  be  expected  to 
attain.  Wherever  lightness,  elegance,  and  durability  in 
ornamentation  are  required,  leather  work,  either  plain  or 
gilt,  may  be  called  into  requisition.  Cornices  and  border- 
ings  for  panels,  groups  for  the  latter,  picture -frames, 
brackets,  card-baskets,  and  many  of  the  thousand  and 
one  appliances  of  modern  luxury  can  receive  embellish- 
ments at  the  hand  of  a  tasteful  designer  and  worker  in 
leather  work,  which  may  elevate  them  to  the  rank  of  art- 
furniture. 

Leather  work  is  of  very  ancient  date.  In  the  Egyptian 
Room  of  the  British  Museum  there  are  specimens  of  em- 
bossed leather  supposed  to  have  been  manufactured  900 
B.C.,  and  over  the  door  of  the  same  room  there  is  a  cross 
from  the  vestment  of  a  Coptic  priest,  attributed  to  the  year 
of  our  Lord  640.  In  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century 
leather  work  was  introduced  into  England  in  the  form  of 
tapestry  or  hangings. 

in  Planders  especially,  this  tapestry  was  carried  to  great 
perfection.  Its  superiority  over  carved  and  moulded 
work  consists  in  its  adaptability  to  ornamentation,  where 
lightness  and  elegance,  with  economy  of  cost,  are  desir- 
able. It  improves  l^  age,  does  not  break,  nor  chip,  and 
is  not  readily  affectea  by  heat  or  damp.  It  can  be  gilt, 
silvered,  or  stained  to  any  colour  to  imitate  old  carvings  in 
oak,  ebony,  «S:c.,  and  admits  of  being  easily  cleaned. 

The  matt-rials  and  instruments  required  consist  of 
basil  and  skiver  leathers,  liquid  glue,  copper  wire  of 
various  sizes,  some  very  small  headless  tacks,  a  sharp  pen- 
knife, a  fine  brad-awl,  cutting  pliers,  and  a  vcincr  (Fig.  l) ; 
moulds  for  grapes,  brushes,  and  one  or  two  bottles  of  size 
and  varnishes  ;  all  of  which  can  be  purchased  at  any  fancy 
repositories.  Basil  leather  is  sheep-skin  tanned  brown, 
and  is  used  for  the  leaves  and  petals  of  the  flowers.  Skiver 
leather  consists  of  shavings  from  the  currier's  block,  and 
is  used  for  stalks,  tendrils,  c^c.  Tliose  who  wish  to  be- 
come proficients  in  the  art  of  making  leather  ornaments 
should  work  from  nature  in  all  its  varied  forms,  taking 
specimens  from  the  fields,  hedges,  and  gardens.  When 
these  are  not  procurable,  the  bought  patterns  may  be  used. 

To  make  leaves,  &c.,  soak  the  leather  in  water,  dry  well 


40 


HOUSEHOLD   DECORATIVE  ART. 


with  a  towel,  and  then  cut  out  the  proper  shapes  thus : 
lay  the  pattern  on  the  leather,  holding  it  firmly  down  with 
the  left  hand,  while  with  the  right  draw  a  line  round  the 


pattern  with   a  hard  lead  pencil ;   then,  with  a   pair  of 
sharp  scissors  cut  out  each  leaf  or  petal  thus  traced,  taking 


Fig.  2. 

care  to  have  the  edges  sharp  and  clear  ;  proceed  thus 
until  a  sufficient  number  of  one  size  are  cut  out ;  and  con- 


tinue in  the  same  manner  until  several  sizes  have  been 
cut,  and  the  requisite-  number  obtained.  Now  throw 
them  into  a  basin  of  cold  water  for  about  five  minutes, 
then  take  them  out  and  squeeze  them  gently  in  a  cloth. 


lay  them  separately  on  a  board,  wipe  and  smooth  them 
out  ;  next  mark  or  vein  them  deeply  with  the  veiner  on 
the  smooth  side  of  the  leather,  pressing  heavily  where  a 
thick  vein  is  required,  and  more  lightly  where  only  finer 
ones  should  be  visible  ;  next  mould  the  leaf  with  the 
fingers,  laying  it  upon  the  palm  of  the  left  hand  to  the  form 
which  taste  or  the  model  designs  for  it,  endeavouring,  as 
far  as  possible,  to  give  the  required  effect  at  once,  as 
working  the  leather  is  apt  to  injure  it :  if  any  of  the  veins 
seem  pressed  out  by  the  moulding,  vein  them  afresh.  In 
veining  a  better  effect  is- obtained  by  working  the  ioo\  from 
rather  than  towards  the 
operator. 

The  next  process  is  to 
twist  the  stalk  between 
your  finger  and  thumb  un- 
til it  acquires  a  rounded 
form.  A  leaf  sometimes 
requires  a  pinch  between 
the  finger  and  thumb  to 
give  it  a  graceful  turn. 

If  the  leaves  are  for 
a  formed  design,  to  be 
constructed  before  it  is 
attached  to  the  frame,  the 
appearance  of  the  work 
may  be  considerably  im- 
proved by  passing  a  small 
wire  into  the  leather  at  the 
under  part  in  a  direction 
corresponding  to  the  cen- 
tral vein  ;  it  strengthens 
and  gives  firmness  of  form 
to  it. 

After  moulding,  the 
leaves  should  be  dried  as 
quickly  as  possible,  with- 
out artificial  heat,  as  fire 
is  apt  to  shrivel,  and 
make  them  brittle.  When 
the  leaves  are  dry,  brush 
them  all  over  (particularly 
the  edges)  with  the  pre- 
pared stiffening,  applied 
with  a  camel's  hair  brush, 
thinly  and  evenly.  When 
dry  they  will  be  ready 
for  use.  The  stiffening 
or  size  can  be  procured 
ready  made,  but  it  is  pre- 
ferable to  make  it,  after 
the  folk)wing  recipe,  which 
is  not  affected  by  damp, 
and  dries  quickly  :  mix 
cold,  two  ounces  of  Aus- 
tralian red  gum,  six 
ounces  of  orange  shellac, 
half-pint  of  spirits  of 
wine,  put  -into  a  bottle, 
and  shake  up  occasionally 
until  the  gums  are  dissolved ;  strain,  and  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Stems  are  made  of  strips  of  basil  leather,  one-third  of 
an  inch  wide,  and  as  long  as  the  leather  will  allow ;  soak 
them  till  soft,  wipe  them,  and  then  roll  them  round  as 
tightly  as  possible  (the  smooth  side  outwards)  on  the  table, 
and  dry  them  ;  if  required  very  stiff,  add  inside  a  piece 
of  wire.  Tendrils  are  made  in  a  similar  manner,  using 
skiver  leather,  and  cutting  it  into  very  narrow  strips,  and 
winding  them,  when  damp,  round  a  brad-awl  or  knitting- 
pin  ;  dry  by  the  fire,  remove  from  the  awl,  and  a  delicate 
tendril  will  be  the  result ;  cut  it  to  the  length  desired,  and 
apply  a  coat  of  stiffening  to  keep  it  in  shape. 

Berries  are  made  by  smearing  with  liquid  glue  a  long 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


41 


thin  shaving  of  leather,  and  rolling  it  between  the  finger 
and  thumb  until  it  becomes  round  ;  several  of  these 
berries  are  glued  together  to  a  thin  strip  of  rolled  leather 
which  forms  the  stalk.  Grapes  are  formed  by  cutting 
rounds  of  skiver  leather  to  the  size  required,  which  should 
be  wetted  and  placed  in  the  grape  mould  ;  then  fill  the 
leather  in  the  mould  firmly  with  wadding,  and  tie  the 
grapes  securely  with  fine  twine ;  when  the  grape  is 
finished  put  a  piece  of  wire  through  the  part  where  it  has 
been  tied  up  to  form  a  stalk.  For  acorns  and  fdberts  the 
acorn  and  nut  itself  should  be  covered  in  leather.  For 
larger  fruits  the  leather  must  be  moulded,  while  moist, 
over  a  plaster  cast. 

It  is  advisable  for  the  beginner  to  keep  to  foliage  en- 
tirely at  first,  and  learn  to  cover  frames  and  brackets 
with  them  before  attempting  flowers  ;  therefore  we  will 
conclude  this  article  with  directions  for  that  purpose,  and 
a  recipe  for  preserving  leaves,  and  keeping  them  in  form 
for  imitation. 

Procure  a  frame,  draw  an  outline  of  the  design  upon  it, 
then  cut  strips  of  leather  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
wide,  and  as  long  as  the  skin  will  allow  ;  turn  the  rough 
side  outwards,  and  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  roll  these 
strips  on  a  table  till  they  are  somewhat  rounded ; 
then  smear  the  inside  with  liquid  glue ;  now  roll 
them  together  till  the  two  sides  have  adhered  closely. 
The  branch  is  now  to  be  affixed 
to  the  frame,  by  giving  it  occa- 
sional touches  of  the  liquid  glue, 
and  here  and  there  inserting 
headless  tacks ;  then  glue  or 
nail  the  foliage  on  thickly,  so 
as  to  hide  all  the  woodwork. 
Great  taste  can  be  displayed  in 
the  arrangement.  Among  the 
most  effective  and  easiest  imita- 
tions for  beginners  to  make  and 
arrange,  are  the  ivy,  vine,  oak, 
and  fern  patterns. 

We  give  patterns  for  the  ivy 
and  a  fern  frond,  copied  from 
nature  and  of  the  natural  size. 
Fig.  2  represents  the  ivy  leaf, 
as  cut  out  of  the  basil :  it  may 
be  used  as  a  pattern.  Fig.  3 
represents  the  same  leaf  veined :  this  also  may  be  used 
as  a  pattern.  Fig.  4  is  an  accurate  tracing  of  a  natural 
fern  frond  ;  and  Fig.  5  of  an  oak  leaf. 

Stains  and  varnishes  are  to  be  procured  of  every  shade 
when  it  is  intended  to  imitate  the  appearance  of  old  wood 
carvings.  To  imitate  old  oak  or  walnut-wood  procure 
asphaltum  varnish.  For  modern  oak,  brown  or  yellow 
varnish  ;  for  pine,  white.  To  stain  the  leaves,  brush  each 
stem  and  leaf  entirely  over  with  the  varnish,  using  a  hog^s 
hair  brush  for  the  purpose.  Brush  well  over  the  veined 
parts,  and  should  the  leaves,  when  dry,  not  be  so  dark  as 
desired,  another  coat  may  be  given,  but  it  should  not  be  put 
on  too  thickly,  and  one  coat  must  dry  before  another  is 
applied.  The  frames  and  brackets  must  be  coloured  before 
the  foliage  is  put  on,  but  before  the  wood  will  take  the 
stain  the  frame-work  must  be  sized  all  over  twice  with 
melted  size. 

Recipe  for  Preserving  Leaves. — Take  one  pound  white 
powdered  starch,  dry  it  before  the  fire,  when  cool  put 
a  layer  of  half  an  inch  at  the  bottom  of  a  small  box, 
taking  care  that  the  box  is  dry  ;  gather  the  leaves  on 
a  fine  day,  and  lay  as  many  leaves  on  the  starch  powder 
as  can  be  done  without  touching  each  other ;  then 
sprinkle  starch  powder  over  them,  covering  all  the  leaves 
well ;  then  put  another  layer  of  leaves,  and  proceed 
with  the  powder  as  before,  until  the  box  is  filled.  Fill 
irp  with  the  powder,  and  fasten  the  bax  lid  firmly  down 
until  the  leaves  are  reauired. 


Fis-  5- 


DOMESTIC  MEDICINE. 
In  commencing  a  system  of  domestic  medicine  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  determine  the  classification  of  subjects.  The 
best  arrangement  of  diseases  will  be  that  which  is  most 
practical,  which  can  be  most  easily  comprehended  and 
recollected.  We  will  endeavour  to  be  practical  in  our 
division  of  diseases,  and  also  to  be  simple  in  the  language 
which  we  use,  avoiding  technical  phrases  as  much  as 
possible.  Before  describing  particular  diseases  we  shall 
devote  a  few  lines  to  a  consideration  of  the  symptoms  by 
which  we  may  know  that  a  person  is  out  of  health,  and 
we  shall  be  particular  in  pointing  out  symptoms  which 
imply  a  serious  case,  or  one  for  which  the  doctor  should 
be  sent.  It  is  lamentable  to  see  in  some  cases  how  thlg 
importance  of  symptoms  is  overlooked  until  disease  has 
made  serious  advance.     Let  us,  accordingly,  first  mention 

A     FEW     SYMPTOMS     THAT     SHOULD    ALWAYS    BE    CON- 
-  SIDERED  GRAVE  ENOUGH  TO  JUSTIFY  US  IN  SENDING 
FOR   THE   DOCTOR. 

1.  Foremost  among  these  is  a  shivering,  or  what  doctors 
call  a  rigor,  a  Latin  word  meaning  a  stiff  coldness.  Most 
inflammations  and  fevers  begin  with  more  or  less  of  this 
shivering  or  rigor,  and  it  is  a  symptom  to  which  doctors 
always  attach  importance.  It  may  be  a  severe  shivering, 
severe  enough  to  make  the  teeth  of  the  patient  chatter, 
and  the  bed  shake  ;  or  it  may  be  slight  enough  only  to 
make  the  patient  feel  a  little  cold,  as  if  cold  water  were 
running  down  the  back.  Sometimes  there  is  only  a  pale- 
ness of  the  face  and  the  surface  generally  to  represent 
this  peculiar  symptom.  This  shivering  is  a  very  re- 
markable thing,  and  the  exact  nature  and  cause  of  it  is 
yet  a  matter  of  discussion  among  doctors.  But,  never- 
theless, the  significance  of  it  is  admitted  on  all  hands,  and 
it  is  generally  the  beginning  of  an  illness  more  or  less 
severe  ;  often  of  only  a  sore  throat,  but  often,  too,  of  an 
internal  inflammation,  or  of  rheumatic  fever,  or  of  one  of 
the  eruptive  diseases,  such  as  scarlet  fever  or  small-pox. 
In  lying-in-women  it  is  generally  a  significant  thing,  but 
the  exact  significance  of  it  can  only  be  judged  of  by  a 
doctor.  It  may  mean  the  beginning  of  an  abscess  in  the 
breast,  or  it  may  simply  denote  a  weed,  that  is,  a  slight 
child-bed  fever,  characterised  by  alternate  shiverings 
and  sweatings,  or  it  ,may  imply  a  child-bed  fever  of  a 
more  serious  kind,  or  an  inflammation  of  the  womb.  It 
is  probable  that  this  symptom — a  rigor — is  a  nervous 
symptom,  and  that  it  depends  upon  some  effect  produced 
upon  the  nerves  or  the  nervous  centres.  In  children  it  is 
sometimes  represented  or  replaced  by  a  thorough  con\'ul- 
sion.  It  is  always  an  important  thing,  though  the  exact 
significance  of  it  is  to  be  determined  by  other  s\-mptoms, 
which  do  not  idways  immediately  follow.  These  sympv 
toms  are  generally  pain  in  some  part,  as,  for  example,  the 
throat,  or  in  joints,  or,  in  lying-in-women,  in  the  breast. 
In  other  cases  an  eruption  will  succeed  the  rigor.  When 
a  shivering  does  occur,  the  proper  thing  to  do  is  to 
administer  some  warm  drink,  put  the  patient  to  bed,  apply 
warmth  to  the  feet,  and  cover  the  body  well,  and,  \C  he  is 
not  well  in  twelve  hours,  to  send  for  the  doctor. 

2.  Another  symptom  of  interest  and  importance  is  an 
unusual  heat  of  the  body,  or,  as  doctors  say,  an  elevation 
of  the  temperature.  The  natural  heat  of  the  body  is  about 
98°.  The  temperature  may  be  judged  of  roughly  by  the 
hand,  but  much  nvDre  accurately  by  a  thermometer,  the 
bulb  being  placed  under  the  tongue  or  in  the  arm-pit,  the 
body  being  carefully  covered  over  with  bed-clothes.  The 
patient  should  be  an  hour  in  bed  before  the  thermometer 
is  used.  A  very  convenient  and  sensitive  thermometer 
for  medical  purposes,  and  costing  half-a-guinca,  lately  in- 
vented, will  be  found  von.'  useful  for  this  puqwsc.  It  is  at 
the  same  time  an  index  themiometer,  that  is  to  say,  it  has 
a  short  column  of  mercury  detached  from  the  mercury 
of  the  bu'b  by  a  little  air,  which  remains  at  any  point  to 


42 


THE    HOUSEHOLD   MECHANIC. 


which  it  has  been  raised  by  the  heat  of  the  patient,  after 
the  withdrawal  of  the  instrument.     This  increased  heat 
of  the  body  is  not  only  a  symptom  of  the  severity  of 
disease,  but  it  is    a  very  early  symptom.     Dr.  Burdon 
Sanderson,  during  the  cattle-plague,  made  the  interesting 
observation  that  the  very  first  symptom  which  occurred 
was  this  elevation  of  temperature.     When  to  all  ordinary 
appearance  the  animal  was  well,  a  thermometer  thrust 
into  an  internal  part,  often  showed  an  elevation  of  the 
temperature  of  the  body  by  two  or  three  degrees  ;  and  in 
these  cases  he  was  able  to  predict  confidently  that  the 
animal  was  in  for  cattle-plague.     The  advantage  here  was 
that  the  animal  might  sooner  be  slaughtered  and  removed 
from  contact  with  other  animals  before  the  more  con- 
*  tagious  stages  of  its  disease  occurred.     And  so  in  human 
diseases  a  rise  of  temperature  is  an  early  and  significant 
symptohi,-and  one  not  difficult  to  ascertain.     A  child,  a 
few  years  old,  will  not  unwillingly  become  a  party  to  an 
interesting  thermometric  observation,  and  will  hold  the 
bulb  of  the  thermometer  under  its  tongue.  The  writer  may 
illustrate  these  points  by  a  case  : — A  little  girl  at  church 
on  a  Sunday  evening,  and  making  no  particular  complaint, 
was  noticed  the  ne.Kt  day  to  be  rather  hot  in  the  skin,  by  the 
medical  man  who  was  calling  at  the  house  for  another  pur- 
pose.    Sore  throat  was  immediately  suspected  and  soon 
after  found.     And  the  thermometer  being  at  hand,  it  was 
kept  in  the  mouth  by  the  little  patient,  and  found  to  rise 
to  102°  Fahrenheit.    The  patient  may  feel  shivery,  and  yet 
the  thermometer  will  show  an  elevation  of  temperature : 
so   early  does  this  occur  in  disease.     As  our  object  at 
present  is  to  specify  early  symptoms  which  imply  com- 
plaints serious  enough  to  have  a  medical  opinion  upon, 
we  will   not  dwell   further  upon   the   significance  of  an 
elevated  temperature.     We  will  only  say,  with  the  view  of 
showing  our  readers   how  careful  and   precise   medical 
science  is  becoming,  that  the  thermometer  is  often  used 
for  ascertaining  the   existence   of  serious    disease  when 
other  symptoms  are  very  vague,  and  also  for  determining 
the  danger  of  particular  cases.     A  very  high  temperature 
occurring  in  the  course   of  diseases,  such  as   fevers  or 
rheumatic  fever,  is,  a  dangerous   symptom.      If  a   high 
temperature  succeeds  a  severe  shivering,  tho  case  is  cer- 
tainly one  for  medical,  not  domestic  treatment. 

Shiverings  and  subsequent  heat,  of  alternate  shiverings 
and  heat,  accompanied  with  general  aching  and  soreness, 
are  the  symptoms  by  which  we  may  generally  judge  of 
the  onset  of  some  acute  attack.  Other  preliminary 
symptoms  occur,  according  to  the  particular  nature  of  tlie 
disease  setting  in.  For  example,  sickness  generally 
accompanies  the  preliminary  shiverings  and  heats  of 
scarlet  fever  ;  sneezing  and  red  eyes,  those  of  measles  ; 
severe  acute  pain  in  the  back,  those  of  small-pox.  But 
these  will  come  in  for  more  particular  notice  under  the 
head  of  the  special  diseases  which  they  characterise.  The 
grand  thing  to  remember  here  is  that  shiverings  and  sub- 
sequent heat  of  the  body  are  generally  the  indications  of 
a  smart  attack  of  some  kind. 

Let'us  now  mention  a  few  symptoms  which  may  not  be 
the  forerunners  of  any  acute  attack,  laut  which  must  never- 
theless be  seriously  regarded ;  amongst  these  we  may  notice 
— sickness,  loss  of  flesh,  loss  of  colour,  loss  of  strength. 

Sickness  may  be  of  no  consequence.  It  may  be  caused 
by  an  error  of  diet,  eating  unwholesome  food  or  forbidden 
fruit,  and  it  may  cure  itself.  There  is  one  kind  of  sickness, 
against  neglecting  which  we  warn  people,  that  is,  a  very 
acute,  incessant  sickness  in  children  or  young  people, 
accompanied  with  costiveness.  Such  a  sickness  as  this 
leading  the  patient  to  vomit  even  water,  should  be  regarded 
as  of  serious  import.  Vomiting  is  a  common  symptom  at 
the  outset  of  scarlet  fever.  Of  this  more  hereafter.  Pend- 
ing the  arrival  of  a  doctor  the  proper  treatm.ent  of  it  is  the 
blandest  food  in  small  quantities,  such  as  milk,  or  milk  and 
water ;  and  a  little  effervescing  drink  from  time  to  time. 


Loss  of  Flesh,  Loss  of  Colour,  or  Loss  of  Strength,  if 
they  occur  either  singly  or  together,  are  things  to  take 
advice  about  rather  than  to  take  physic  for. 

With  these  preliminary  hints  about  important  symptoms, 
we  will  give  in  a  future  number  a  more  detailed  nptice  of 
particular  diseases 


THE   HOUSEHOLD   MECHANIC. 

THE   TOOL-CHEST    (c07ltinued) . 

For  mahogany  a  tool  like  a  smoothing-plane  is  used, 
but  the  angle  of  the  bed  ismuch  greater,  eighty  or  ninety 
degrees,  and  the  edge  of  the  iron  is  cut  into  little  teeth. 
The  action  of  this  tool  is  more  scraping  than  cutting,  and 
is  of  most  use  in  roughing  veneers.  It  is  called  a  toothing- 
plane.  Beading-planes,  for  cutting  beads  of  various  sizes 
and  curves,  are  constructed  with  irons  of  the  required 
shape.  Hollows,  rounds,  and  various  mouldings  are  cut 
by  the  same  means.  Fillisters,  or  rebating-planes,  are 
provided  with  knives  which  cut  on  the  sides  as  well  as  at 
the  sole,  and  are  chiefly  used  for  cutting  out  the  channel 
in  window-frames  in  which  the  glass  lies.  They  are  often 
provided  with  movable  stops  and  guides,  without  which 
their  action  is  very  uncertain.  Match-planes  are  provided 
with  two  sides,  one  of  which  has  an  iron  constructed  to 
hollow  out  a  groove  on  the  edge  of  a  plank,  the  other  side 
having  a  double  iron,  which  cuts  a  tongue  exactly  to 
match  the  groove,  the  object  being  to  fit  two  planks 
together,  edge  to  edge.  It  is  common  to  work  a  small 
bead  on  one  edge,  which  is  a  great  improvement  to  the 
appearance.     These  planks  are  termed  "match-boarding." 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  20  is  what  is  known  as  an  "  old  woman's  tooth,"  and 
is  used  for  cutting  out  grooves  across  the  grain,  such  as 
slides,  into  which  shelves  are  fitted.  The  edges  of  these 
grooves  should  be  sawn  out  with  a  tenon-saw. 

Compass -planes  have  round  soles  according  to  the 
curve  they  are  required  to  cut,  and  of  course  are  of  great 
variety. 

The  principle  in  a  plane  is  the  same  as  with  a  chisel, 
with  the  advantage  of  much  greater  steadiness  on  account 
of  the  increased  power  of  guiding  given  by  the  sole,  which 
prevents  too  great  a  degree  of  penetration. 

The  spokeshave  is  the  lowest  form  of  plane,  and  is  only 
used  for  small  widths.  It  is  pulled  towards  the  operator 
by  both  hands.  The  angle  of  the  edge  being  only  twenty- 
five  degrees,  the  tool  cuts  quickly  and  easily. 

Saii.is.—\t  is  by  means  of  saws  that  the  more  easily 
worked  materials  are  converted  from  the  tree  form  to 
the  crude  shape  they,  are  required  to  assume  before  the 
finishing  processes  are  begun  ;  and  as  the  ends  to  be 
accomplished  are  so  varied  in  magnitude  and  difficulty, 
so  are  the  forms  these  tools  are  given  numerous  and 
diversified.  All  saws,  however,  consist  of  thin  blades  of 
steel,  fixed  in  convenient  handles,  and  having  one  edge 
serrated,  or  cut  into  teeth  ;  and  it  is  in  the  size  and  shape 
of  these  teeth,  and  the  angles  at  which  they  are  inclined, 
that  the  most 'important  variations  are  to  be  noticed.  In 
all  saws  intended  for  wood,  the  teeth  are  slightly  bent 
alternately  outwards,  in  order  that  the  cutting  edge  should 
present  a  larger  surface  to  the  material  than  the  blade 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


43 


will  require  to  follow  in..  If  this  were  not  clone,  the  tool 
would  become  cloj;ged  and  choked  with  the  sawdust.  In 
metal  saws,  the  teeth  being  too  fine  and  thick  to  admit 
of  being  bent,  or  "  set,"  as  it  is  termed,  the  back  of  the 
blade    is    made   much   thinner  than   the    cutting   edge. 


T T 

V-J IL 


Jl fl 


Vk 


saw-set,"  the  nicks  of  which  are  of 
suit    the   various   thicknesses   of  the 


Fig.  21  shows  a  ' 
different  sizes,  to 
blades. 

As  none  of  our  readers  are  likely  to  have  occasion  to 
use  the  pit-saw,  it  is  of  no  use  to  bring  it  before  them. 
The  next  largest  variety  is  the   cross-cut  saw,  Fig.  22, 


Fip.  22. 

which  is  used  for  felling  and  cutting  trees  or  timber  in 
a  direction  across  its  grain.  It  is  worked  by  two  men, 
one  at  each  end,  and  pushed  backwards  and  forwards 
with  equal  force,  cutting  both  ways  ;  and  for  this  reason 
the  front  and  back  angles  of  the  teeth  are  equal,  or  about 
sixty  degrees.  The  teeth  are  kept  so  upright  to  prevent 
too  great  a  degree  of  penetration. 

The  rip-saw.  Fig.  23,  is  the  largest  single-handled  saw 
— about  2  ft.  6  in.  or  3  ft.  long — and  is  used  for  sawing  or 


VAA/V 


Fig.  13. 

ripping  along  planks  in  the  direction  of  the  grain.  The 
teeth  are,  therefore,  inclined  forward,  and  work  very  fast, 
and  number  about  three  and  a  half  teeth  to  the  inch. 
The  half-rip  saw  is  of  the  same  shape  and  form  of  teeth 
as  the  rip,  but  altogether  smaller.  The  panel-saw  is 
much  narrower  at  the  bottom  end  than  the  half- rip.  Its 
width  there  is  about  two  inches,  and  it  is  much  finer  in 
the  teeth,  which  generally  number  about  six  or  seven  to 
the  inch. 

The  last  three  may  be  considered  to  represent  the  most 
usual  form  of  plain  hand-saws.  In  use  they  are  grasped 
by  the  right  hand  on  the  handle — the  work  to  be  sawn 
being  laid  on  the  sawing-stool,  and  held  by  the  left  hand 
or  cither  knee.  After  just  notching  the  end  of  the  line 
to  be  cut,  the  strokes  are  lengthened  gradually,  and 
swept  downwards  with  considerable  vigour  and  force, 
and  brought  up  with  the  teeth  kept  well  down  in  the 
cut,  the  blade  being  used  from  top  to  bottom.  A  little 
grease  smeared  on  the  blade  occasionally  makes  the 
saw  go  easier. 

The  tenon  -  saw,  Fig.  24,  consists  of  a  thin  blade, 
fastened  at  the  top  edge  in  a  metal  rim  or  back,  which 
keeps  it  firmly  stretched  out.  It  is,  nevertheless,  rather 
a  delicate  instnmient,  and  requires  careful  usage,  or  the 
blade  will  be  crumpled  or  buckled — a  fiult  very  difficult 
to  remedy.  If  the  buckle  is  only  slight,  a  smart  blow 
with  a  hammer  on  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the  back  will 
often  set  it  right ;  but  failing  this,  the  blade  must  be 


taken  out  and  re-fitted  by  a  smith,  as  it  is  entirely  unfit 
for  its  work  while  in  that  condition.  The  teeth  arc  fine 
—ten  to  the  inch— and  the  pitch  is  not  very  forward, 
the  back  angle  being  about  thirty  degrees  with  the  cut, 
and  the  forward  angle  ninety  degrees.  Dovetail  -  saws 
exactly  resemble  tenon-saws,  but  are  smaller  and  much 
thinner  in  the  blade  and  finer  in  the  teeth.      The  hint 


Fig.  24. 

about  careful  usage  should  be  doubly  observed  with  them. 
After  making  the  line  intended  to  be  sawn,  these  two 
saws  are  used  horizontally,  and  across  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  and  are  grasped  by  the  right  hand,  being  moved 
with  short,  quick,  parallel  strokes.  The  work  should  be 
fixed  higher  than  in  rip  sawing  ;  the  bench  is  a  con- 
venient height. 

We  now  come  to  saws  intended  to  cut  in  curves  or 


Fig.  25. 

circles — the  most  ordinary  form  being  the  keyhole-saw, 
Fig.  25.  This  is  a  long,  thin,  tapering  blade,  A,  much 
thicker  on  the  teeth  edge  than  at  the  back,  to  allow  of 
the  curve  to  be  made.  In  order  that  the  extreme  end  of 
the  thin  part  may  be  used  for  small  circles  without  danger 
of  crippling  or  breaking,  the  blade  is  made  to  slide  into 
a  long  hole  right  through  the  handle,  and  is  fixed  at  any 
required  place  by  the  screws,  C.  In  using,  a  hole  is  first 
bored  with  a  gimlet,  touching  the  required  path  of  the 
saw,  the  thin  end  of  which  is  then  introduced  and  pushed 
backwards  and  forwards  rapidly,  but  not  too  forcibly,  the 
straight  or  curved  path,  being  regulated  by  the  twist  of 
the  hand. 


GARDENING. 

II.— THE     WINDOW     GARDEN. 

Although  it  is  not  in  every  man's  power  to  h^ve  a 
garden,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  improvise  a  greenhouse,  or  to  cultivate  flowers 
in  the  very  heart  of  a  town.  Window-gardening  is  within 
reach  of  all  who  have  a  roof  to  cover  them,  and  the  nearer 
the  sky  the  operations  are  carried  on  the  better  chance 
have  the  flowers  of  thriving.  A  few  boxes  made  of 
rough  boards  nailed  together,  or,  indeed,  anything  that 
will  hold  earth  and  permit  drainage,  will  serve  as  the 
ground-work  of  a  window  garden  ;  and  even  in  a  house 
where  there  are  only  two  or  three  rooms,  flowers  may  be 
cultivated  successfully. 

It  is  erroneous  to  imagine  that  it  is  unhealthy  to  have 
plants  in  living-rooms.  There  arc,  of  course,  exceptional 
cases,  where  the  perfume  of  some  particular  flower  pro- 
duces sickness  or  headache,  but  this  only  occurs  with 
delicate  persons  ;  from  sleeping- rooms,  however,  growing 
plants  ought  to  be  excluded.  As  a  rule,  it  is  a  gootl  plan 
to  keep  flowers  in  a  living-room  during  the  day,  as  they 
absorb  the  noxious  gases  in  the  atmosphere.  These  they 
exhale  by  night ;  and  as  they  thus  poison  the  air  of  the 
room,  it  is  desirable,  as  far  as  possible,  then  to  remove 
them. 


44 


GARDENING. 


We  have  said  that  anything  capable  of  containing  soil 
and  affording  an  outlet  to  moisture  will  do  for  flowers 
to  grow  in.  Ordinary  flower-pots  are  most  frequently 
used,  but  they  are  not  desirable  when  economy  of  space 
is  an  object.  The  great  advantage  of  pots  is  the  facility 
which  they  afford  for  changing  the  plants  from  time  to 
time.  Zinc  boxes  are  often  preferable  to 
clay  pots,  and  they  can  be  had  at  a  very 
trifling  cost,  or  made  at  home  without 
much  trouble.  The  bottom  must  be  per- 
forated, and  the  box  either  raised  upon 
small  feet  of  wood  or  iron,  or  set  upon 
bricks.  -"A  wooden  outside  case  is  a  very 
great  advantage— it  ought  to  be  a  trifle 
larger  thafi  the  zinc  one — the  intervening 
space  being  filled  with  moss,  or  straw,  or 
dried  leaves.  The  object  to  be  gained  by 
this  is  one  every  window-gardener  must 
attend  to — namely,  to  prevent  the  rays  of 
the  sun  over-heating  the  earth  in  which 
the  roots  of  his  plants  are  lying.  Very 
pretty  and  ornamental  cases  are  made  by 
planting  common  ivy  between  the  zinc  and 
wood,  and  letting  it  trail  over  the  sides, 
or  upon  a  little  trellis-work,  which  is  easily 
made  by  bending  and  interlacing  willow 
wands,  such  as  basket-makers  use,  sticking  the  ends  into 
the  earth.  I  once  saw  a  box  of  this  sort  with  a  very 
picturesque  device.  Four  wands  were  fastened  at  the 
corners,  from  which  four  more  met  in  the  centre  ;  round 
these  a  small-leaved  clematis  was  trained,  and  kept  so 
close  that  it  did  not  interfere  with  the  passage  of  air 
or  light  to  the  other  flowers. 

The  pots  or  cases  having  thus  been  secured,  the  next 
thing  to  do  before  filling-in  the  earth  will  be  to  attend  to 
the  drainage.  Be  very  particular  never  to  let  your  plants 
stand  in  water.  Some  few  plants,  it  is  true— hydrangeas, 
for  example — like  to  have  their  roots  kept  constantly 
moist,  but,  as  a  rule,  plants,  like  men,  are  better  with 
their  feet  dry. 

The  best  way  to  set  about  the  drainage  is  to  cover  the 
hole  at  the  bottom  of  the  pots  with 
a  piece  of  a  broken  pot,  so  placed  as 
to  afford  a  free  passage  for  the  water; 
over  this  spread  moss  or  straw,  to 
prevent  the  earth  running  down  and 
choking  up  the  drainage.  If  a  case 
is  used,  set  to  work  in  the  same  way, 
only  lay  the  broken  pieces  a  little 
thicker,  and  let  the  moss  be  also 
thicker,  and  well  pressed  down.  A 
very  good  drainage  may  be  easily 
obtain-ed  by  filling  the  bottom  of  the 
box  or  pot  with  a  layer  of  common 
coal  cinders,  about  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. 

'  The  next  thing  is  to  get  soil — not 
always  an  easy  matter  in  a  crowded 
town,  and  often  entailing  many  a 
long  walk.  In  London  it  is  very 
difficult  indeed  to  get  soil,  if  there 
is  no  ground  adjoining  the  dwelling 
which  can  be  laid  under  contribution. 
It  will  often  prove  the  best  economy 
to  procure  some  from  a  gardener,  which  will  have  the 
advantage  of  being  specially  prepared  for  the  growth  of 
flowers  ;  and  the  expense  of  getting  such  a  small  quantity 
as  %yould  be  required  for  a  window-garden  would  be  very 
trifling  indeed.  At  any  large  market  where  flower  roots 
are  sold,  the  gardeners  are  glad  to  part  with  any  of  the 
refuse  soil  they  have  brought  there  round  the  roots  of  the 
plants  for  a  very  trifling  cost.  For  a  penny  or  two  the 
amateur  window  gardener  will  get  enough  soil  to  fill  at  least 


two  good-sized  flower  boxes.  When  people  can  get  out  into 
the  country,  they  will  have  little  difficulty  in  obtaining  leave 
to  gather  the  earth  that  they  want  from  the  little  hillocks 
of  road-scrapings  piled  at  the  side  of  the  road,  which  are 
full  of  valuable  manure,  choosing  '  always  those  parts 
where  the  grass  is  stiff  and  sharp.  For  some  plants-^ 
namely,  those  of  the  fine  hair-rooted  sorts, 
such  as  heaths,  &c. — a  more  fibrous  earth, 
mixed  with  flints  and  sands,  will  be  re- 
quired. This  can  always  be  obtained 
where  heath  grows.  When  you  have 
time,  and  really  mean  to  excel  in  your 
flowers,  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  carry 
home  a  few  sods  of  the  wiry  grass  we 
mentioned,  and  having  charred  the  grass 
at  the  fire,  lay  the  sods  a\yay  in  any  dark 
dry  corner  for  a  month  or  two,  when  it  will 
be  ready  to  powder  down  with  the  hand. 
In  some  cases  it  is  a  good  thing  to  mix 
sand  with  it.  All  soils,  however,  do  not 
require  an  extra  quantity  of  sand,  and  you 
can  determine  as  to  this  in  a  very  simple 
way.  Take  a  little  soil  in  your  hand,  and 
work  it  into  a  pulp.  If  it  feels  gritty,  you 
will  require  very  little  sand,  perhaps  none 
at  all  ;  if  it  gets  simply  soft  and  smooth, 
add  sand  accordingly.  The  manure  you  mix  with  the  soil 
must  be  perfectly  rotten,  and  in  a  crumbling  state.  You 
must  use  your  own  judgment,  when  it  is  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  soil,  as  to  adding  sufficient  moisture.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  use  too  fine  soil,  as  it  is  apt  to  run  together  and 
cake  ;  therefore  take  rough  soil  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  your  pots. 

In  transplanting  or  repotting  you  must  be  careful  to 
damp  the  earth  and  roots  thoroughly,  then-  spread  the 
fingers  over  the  surface,  reverse  the  plant,  and  tap  the 
pot  smartly,  the  contents  will  come  out  unbroken ; 
separate  the  outer  roots  a  little  at  the  outside,  place 
the  plant  in  the  pot,  and  crumble  in  the  fresh  earth 
round  the  ball  of  roots.  If  the  earth  is  lumpy,  and  the 
roots  scanty,  wash  the  roots  free  from  soil,  keeping  them 
in  your  hands  and  manipulating  very 
quietly,  for  fear  of  breaking  the  fibres; 
then,  replacing  the  plant  in  the  pot, 
throw  in  the  fresh  earth,  packing 
carefully,  but  lightly,  when  rapid 
growth  is  the  object.  This  last 
should  always  be  observed ;  but  if 
you  want  to  stimulate  flower  bulbs, 
pack  the  earth  firmly.  After  trans- 
planting, water  equally  with  a  rose, 
or  if  you  have  not  such  a  con- 
venience, take  any  flat  thing— a  lid 
or  a  piece  of  .wood — and  by  holdir>g 
it  over  the  plant,  a  gentle  stream  of 
water  falls  upon  the  surface,  which 
will  thus  be  diffused  over  the  foliage 
as  well  as  the  soil. 

For  raising  seedlings,  warmth,  air, 
and  comparative  darkness  are  essen- 
tial.    Warmth  must  range  at  45°  or 
2  50°  to    germinate    the     seed,    after 

which   60°  is  quite  as   much  as  the 
young  plants  will  bear.     Moisture  is 
essential,  but  should  be  equal,  and  never  excessive. 

Comparative  darkness  is  desirable,  as  the  seed  will 
sooner  germinate,  and  throw  forth  its  shoot,  than  when 
kept  in  a  hardened  condition  by  the  influence  of  a  hot 
sun.  Care  must,  howe^'er,  be  taken  to  accustom  the 
plants  gradually  to  the  light,  and  that  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  show  above  the  surface.  The  great  secret  in 
raising  seedlings  is  never  to  allow  them  to  get  a  check. 
It  is  more  difficult  to  raise  seeds  in  pots  than  in  the 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD  GUIDE. 


45 


open  air,  and  we  shall   therefore   give  a  few  practical 
directions  for  planting  and  raising  them. 

Our  illustrations  show  designs  for  hanging-baskets, 
which  may  be  suspended  in  the  window  by  a  hook  driven 
into  the  ceiling  of  the  apartment,  and,  when  filled  with  ferns, 
creepers,  &c.,  will  be  found  to  produce  a  very  elegant  effect. 
Of  these  Fig.  i  represents  a  basket  made  of  rough  pieces 
of  rustic  wood  joined  together,  while  Fig.  2  is  of  a  little 
more  elaborate  kind,  being  composed  of  twisted  wire. 


THE    TOILETTE. 


I.— THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SKIN  {continued). 

Wannth. — If  we  would  have  the  skin  doing  its  duty 
properly,  we  must  be  sure  that  we  do  not  subject  it  to  too 
great  changes  of  temperature,  at  least  that  we  protect  it 
sufficiently  against  surprises  in  this  respect.  This  we 
are  enabled  to  do  by  means  of  properly  selected  clothing, 
which  prevents  the  heat  from  being  conducted,  as  it  is 
termed,  too  rapidly  away  from  the  body.  Flannel  garments 
are  the  best  for  this  purpose,  since  flannel  is  what  is  called 
a  bad  conductor  of  heat.  Merino  is  the  next  best  pro- 
tector. The  young  and  the  old  require  more  clothing 
than  the  middle  aged.  Now  in  cold  weather  the  young 
should,  in  this  variable  climate,  be  provided  with  flannel  or 
woollen  garments  next  the  skin  ;  the  feet  should  be  kept 
especially  warm.  The  custom  of  allowing  young  children 
to  be  dressed  in  a  half-naked  style  is  fraught  with  con- 
siderable danger.  It  may  be  fashionable,  Spartan,  and  so 
on,  but  it  is  not  sensible.  The  chest  should  be  well  pro- 
tected, and  the  sensitive  stomach  of  the  child  as  well. 
Flannel  may  be  irritable  to  the  skin  ;  in  that  case  merino 
should  be  substituted,  or  a  thin  layer  of  linen  placed 
inside  the  flannel.  When  the  skin  (be  it  in  the  infant,  the 
lad,  or  the  man)  is  kept  uniformly  warm,  the  circulation 
through  its  texture  is  much  facilitated,  and  diseases,  both 
of  skin  and  internal  organs,  are  warded  off.  In  summer 
time,  however,  flannel  is  to  be  dispensed  with,  and  cotton 
under-garments  used  instead,  as  the  keeping  the  body  too 
hot  is  then  followed  by  various  summer  rashes,  the  most 
uncomfortable  of  which  is  the  "  prickly  heat."  When  we 
say  that  infants  should  be  warmly  clad,  we  do  not  mean 
that  they  should  be  boxed  up  indoors  or  in  stufiy  rooms 
all  day  ;  they  should  be  clothed  warmly,  in  order  that 
they  may  get  the  benefit  of  open  air  and  the  like,  without 
running  any  risk  of  being  injured  by  it,  or  the  alternations 
of  temperature  that  characterise  our  variable  climate  in 
England.  So,  in  the  summer  time,  when  the  average 
temperature  of  the  day  is  high,  the  child  should  not  be 
muffled  up  as  though  he  or  she  were  in  a  vapour  bath ; 
nothing  so  readily  induces  little  red  rashes,  which  result 
from  the  excessive  perspiration.  These  rashes  are  known 
by  the  name  of  the  red  gum,  "  red  gown,"  (Sec,  and  are 
most  frequently  an  indication  that  the  sufferer  from 
them  requires  to  be  kept  much  cooler.  Clothe  well  and 
wisely  in  winter,  but  lightly  and  thinly  in  the  summer. 
Flannel  encasing  the  chest  and  stomach,  especially  in 
children,  in  cold  weather,  must  give  way  to  thin  garments 
of  cotton  in  the  hotter  days  of  the  summer.  This  is  a 
matter  of  common  sense. 

Exercise  is  absolutely  necessary  to  a  healthy  state  of 
skin.  The  only  remark  we  would  here  make  is  this, 
that  exercise  should  be  regularly  taken  each  day,  and 
that  it  should  not  be  taken  for  at  least  two  or  three  hours 
after  a  meal,  since  it  then  stops  digestion  ;  and  that 
exercise  before  meals  is  certainly  the  best  kind  to  take, 
as  it  puts  a  man  in  the  fittest  condition  for  food  taking. 
Any  kind  of  exercise,  when  excessive,  is  of  course 
accompanied  in  warm  weather  by  perspiration.  When 
the  latter  is  too  great,  it  should  never  be  checked  by 
plunging  into  cold  water,  sitting  in  draughts,  or  by  throw- 


ing off  the  clothes  and  going  to  sleep.  If  the  surface  be 
too  rapidly  cooled,  it  is  not  at  all  unusual  for  eruptions  of 
various  kinds  to  follow. 

Cleanliness. — The  virtues  of  the  use  01  soap  and  water 
have  been  more  appreciated  of  late.  It  is  impossible  to 
define  the  amount  of  good  which  results  from  habits  of 
cleanliness,  and  this  can  very  readily  be  understood  by  the 
reader,  if  he  has  comprehended  the  description  of  the 
structure  of  the  skin  already  given.  The  skin  is  a  great 
breathing  organ  :  oxygen  enters  the  blood  through  it  and 
helps  to  purify  the  blood  ;  then  the  glands  of  the  skin 
carry  off,  in  the  sweat  and  fatty  secretion,  matters  that  if 
retained  would  act  as  poison  in  the  blood.  The  tendency 
of  an  unwashed  skin  is  to  become  sluggish,  the  pores  get 
blocked  up,  the  oxygen  cannot  reach  the  blood,  the 
perspiration  does  not  readily  escape,  so  as  to  keep  the 
temperature  of  the  body  equable  ;  the  injurious  action  of 
outside  heat  is  therefore  not  counteracted  by  the  free 
evaporation  of  the  perspiration,  the  circulation  gets  de- 
ranged, and  inflammation  may  be  set  up.  Any  one  may 
guess  for  himself  what  an  unwashed  skin  can  do  in 
choking  up  the  ducts  of  the  skin,  if  he  examine  the  mass 
of  cuticle  and  dirt  which  can  be  rubbed  off  the  skin  of  a 
man  who,  not  having  had  recourse  to  a  bath  or  the  appli- 
cation of  soap  to  his  skin  for  some  time,  takes  a  Turkish 
bath,  or  a  hot  bath,  and  remains  under  the  influence  of 
heat  and  moisture  sufficiently  long  to  soften  the  skin  and 
the  useless  scales  of  cuticle  which  should  long  before  have 
been  cast  off  from  the  body.  Nature  can  be  helped  by 
art  in  the  preservation  of  health  and  vigorous  action  of 
organs.  The  application  of  water  to  the  skin  should 
be  part  and  parcel  of  the  daily  toilette.  From  oldest  time 
"  purification  by  water "  has  been  inculcated  as  part  of 
man's  daily  duty,  and  not  without  sound  reason.  By  its 
aid  the  accumulation  of  a  layer  of  worn-out  and  useless 
cuticle  is  prevented,  which  otherwise  forms  a  complete 
barrier  to  the  entrance  of  the  life-giving  oxygen,  and  pre- 
vents, to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  the  exit  of  poisonous 
products.  So  far,  then,  as  to  the  necessity ;  now 
as  to  the  mode  in  which  the  skin  should  be  cleansed. 
The  use  of  soap  is  the  most  sure  way  of  purifying  the 
surface  of  the  body.  Soap  contains  what  chemists 
call  an  alkali — a  chemical  substance  (potash  or  soda) 
which,  brought  in  contact  with  animal  membranes  or  sub- 
stances, softens  them.  Moreover,  it  emulsifies  fat.  The 
effect  of  soap  on  the  skin  is  therefore  clear  ;  it  softens  up 
the  cuticle,  and  it  enters  into  combination  with  the  fatty 
layer,  so  enables  the  water  to  gain  free  access  to  the  skin, 
and  friction  to  remove  the  loose  particles  of  cuticle  and 
dirt.  But  there  are  good  and  bad  soaps.  Some  have  too 
much  alkali  in  them,  and  then  they  dissolve  or  soften  up 
the  cuticle  too  much,  and  so  expose  or  irritate  the  delicate 
deeper  layers  of  the  skin.  We  should  use  a  soap  that  has 
a  small  amount  of  alkali  in  it.  The  best  of  all  the  soaps 
made,  considered  from  a  medical  point  of  view,  arc,  in  the 
writer's  opinion,  the  transparent  soap  of  Messrs.  Pears,  or 
the  well-known  old  brown  Windsor,  or  a  glycerine  soap. 
The  nicest  to  use  is  certainly  Pears's,  but  it  is  somewhat 
expensive.  It  is  the  best  for  babies  unquestionably,  and 
may  be  used  freely  to  them.  Well,  having  obtained  a 
nice  mild  soap,  it  should  be  used  to  the  face  once  a  day, 
the  heads  of  children  twice  a  week,  and  the  whole  body 
once  a  week  at  least.  This  is  in  addition  to  taking  the 
daily  cold  water  bath  to  be  by-and-by  noticed.  If  persons 
can  afford  the  time  and  have  the  inclination,  there  can 
be  no  question  that  the  best  possible  results  follow  the 
use  of  soap  to  the  arm-pits,  the  groin  and  parts  about, 
and  the  feet,  each  day,  and  to  those  who  luxuriate  in 
the  thing,  it  cannot  hurt  to  employ  Pears's  soap  to  the 
body  generally  each  day.  We  have,  however,  stated  that 
at  least  once  a  week  the  whole  body  should  be  soaped. 
Ordinary  yellow  soap  does  not  meet  with  any  favour  at  our 
hands,  and  we  condemn  it  in  the  case  of  young  children. 


46 


ANIMALS   KEPT  FOR   PROFIT. 


There  is  one  more  point  on  this  head.  The  face,  when 
very  hot  or  dirty,  or  after  a  walk,  should  not  be  washed 
in  soap.  It  is  better  to  bathe,  not  rub,  it  in  a  little  warm 
water,  and  then  powder  it  with  ordinary  baby  powder  and 
let  it  dry. 

THE  BATH,  AND  BATHING  IN  GENERAL. 

There  are  very  few  individuals  who  could  not  take  daily 
ablution  in  the  way  of  the  sponge  bath.  It  is  true  that 
the  majority  of  people  are  quite  unacquainted  with  such  a 
thing,  from  childhood  to  old  age,  as  the  morning  dip  or 
the  cold  douche,  but  this  is  the  reverse  of  what  really 
should  be  the  case.  It  is,  perhaps,  hopeless  to  expect  that 
any  reformation  can  be  effected  in  the.  case  of  those  who 
have  up  to  the  mid  period  of  life  avoided  the  bath,  but  we 
may  be  able,  perhaps,  to  persuade  mothers  of  families  to 
train  up  their  children  in  tlie  way  they  should  go,  and  the 
young  portion  of  our  readers  to  adopt  a  means  of  pro- 
moting health,  which  will  alone  do  very  much,  if  persist- 
ently followed,  in  even  prolonging  life.  The  babe  should 
be  subject  every  morning  to  a  good  sponge  all  over,  with, 
in  the  winter  time,  warmish  water  ;  soap  being  used  as 
well.  Those  parts  in  contact  with  the  napkins  should  be 
washed  carefully  at  night  as  well  as  in  the  morning.  The 
temperature  of  the  room  should  also  be  good  in  winter, 
and  the  babe  dried  rapidly  by  the  use  of  towels  warmed 
before  the  fire^  In  the  summer  a  dip  into  tepid  or  nearly 
cold  water  itself,  or  in  the  case  of  ruddy  children,  quite 
cold,  is  to  be  given.  When  the  child  comes  to  be  three  or 
four  months  old  it  should  have  become  accustomed  to  its 
"tub"  regularly  in  the  morning,  and  in  the  summer  time  the 
water  may  be  even  cold,  provided  the  skin  feels  warm  after 
the  child  comes  out  of  the  bath,  and  after  gentle  friction 
with  a  warm  or  dry  towel.  The  head  should  be  washed 
first  of  all  with  soap  and  flannel.  When  the  child  is  in  the 
bath  the  back  may  be  freely  douched  with  the  sponge. 

When  children  are  given  the  bath  from  an  early  age, 
they  take  it  each  day  with  peculiar  enjoyment.  There 
need  be  no  difficulty  in  the  way  of  expense  ;  a  wooden 
bath  suitable  for  Jinfants  can  be  bought  in  the  turners' 
shops  for  a  few  shillings,  and  the  ordinary  sponge  baths, 
fitted  for  youths,  girls,  and  adults,  of  a  common  sort,  cost 
something  inconsiderable. 

If  the  cold  douche  bath  is  taken  at  an  early  age,  it  should 
be  persevered  with  throughout  life,  and  only  relinquished 
temporarily  in  febrile  ailments.  The  best  time  for  every 
one  to  take  the  cold  bath  is  immediately  on  getting  out  of 
bed,  before  the  body  becomes  chilled.  The  test  whether 
the  bath  does  good  or  harm  is  to  be  found  in  the  occur- 
rence of  shiverings,  cold  feet,  a  sense  of  cokbiess  over  the 
body,  and  an  absence  of  "glow"  over  the  surface.  In 
such  circumstances,  the  water  taken  must  be  tepid,  and 
friction  with  towels  must  be  fi-eely  employed. 

Hot  baths  should  only  be  taken,  as  a  rule,  as  a  cleansing 
operation ;  in  fact,  for  the  "  Saturday  night's  wash,"  so 
to  speak.  Those  who  are  taking  active  exercise,  on  the 
one  hand,  in  their  occupation,  and  those,  on  the  other,  who 
lead  a  sedentary  life,  are  benefited  by  a  good  soaping  all 
over  and  a  rinsing  in  warm  water  every  fortnight,  in  ad- 
dition to  their  cold  douche  each  day. 

So  with  the  Turkish  bath.  It  may  be  taken  as  a  clean- 
sing operation  ;  it  cannot  supersede  the  cold  bath  in  the 
morning.  When  the  skin  gets  dry  and  inactive,  and  the 
cuticle  feels  rough,  the  forced  perspiration  and  the  tho- 
rough wash  and  soaping  one  gets  in  the  Turkish  bath, 
tend  to  remove  the  worn  out  and  dead  cuticle  which  col- 
lects on  the  skin.  The  Turkish  bath  should  be  taken 
before  a  meal,  not  at  least  until  three  hours  after  a  meal, 
and  the  bather  should  be  perfectly  quiescent  in  the  bath, 
lying  down  as  much  as  possible.  He  may  drink  a  little 
water  from  time  to  time,  and  place  a  little  water  on  the 
head  if  it  gets  dry  and  hot.  Turkish  baths,  however,  for 
healthy  persons,  do  npt  find  much  favour  with  us. 


A  good  deal  has  been  said  with  regard  to  the  efficacy 
of  flesh  gloves  and  brushes.  These  are  very  good  in  their 
way,  but  there  is  no  better  way  of  promoting  the  proper 
circulation  of  the  blood  (for  flesh  brushes  and  the  like  act 
in  this  way)  than  by  rubbing  the  skin  freely,  but  mo- 
derately and  firmly,  with  a  fairly  rough  towel.  If,  from 
long-continued  cold  weather,  or  east  winds,  the  perspira- 
tion has  been  retarded,  the  skin  may  become  harsh  to  the 
feel  from  the  plugging  up  of  the  little  sweat  glands  by  dead 
cuticle;  then  a  vigorous  application  of  the  flesh  brush, 
after  a  good  soaping  of  the  surface,  may  do  very  much 
good. 

In  addition  to  the  home  or  douche  bath,  there  is  the 
plunge  bath,  river  or  other,  to  be  considered.  Bathing  in 
general,  such  as  we  now  refer  to,  is  very  injudiciously 
practised,  and  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  parents, 
heads  of  schools,  and  others,  are  so  extremely  ignorant 
generally  of  the  best  rules  for  bathing.  The  proper  time 
is  when  the  body  is  moderately  heated  with  exercise, 
and  when  the  process  of  digestion  is  at  an  end,  and 
the  water  into  which  the  bather  goes  has  been  somewhat 
warmed  by  the  sun. 

The  reason  for  bathing  when  the  body  is  heated  slightly 
by  exercise  is  simply  this,  that  the  circulation  is  excited 
and  active,  and  is  on  the  qui  vive,  as  it  were,  to  prevent 
any  bad  effect  of  the  shock  of  the  plunge.  If  the  body  is 
cool,  or  the  bather  fatigued,  the  vital  powers  are  depressed 
rather  than  stimulated  by  the  cold  plunge.  The  whole 
body  should  be  immersed.  As  stated  before,  in  reference 
to  the  cold  douche,  the  test  of  a  bath  agreeing  with  any 
individual  is  to  be  found  in  the  occurrence  of  what  is 
termed  "reaction."  If  after  the  plunge  the  blood  circu- 
lates freely  through  the  skin,  and  a  feeling  of  warmth  and 
freshness  is  experienced,  we  knov/  that  the  bath  has  acted 
as  a  tonic.  If  the  bather  feels  shivery  and  cold,  the  bath 
does  harm,  and  when  this  latter  condition  is  found  to  exist 
in  weakly  subjects,  it  is  better  that  medical  advice  should 
be  at  once  taken,  before  bathing  is  again  permitted.  The 
following  rules,  drawn  up  by  the  Royal  Humane  Society, 
are  good  : — 

1.  Avoid  bathing  within  two  hours  after  a  meal. 

2.  Avoid  bathing  when  exhausted. 

3.  Avoid  bathing  when  the  body  is  cooling  after  per- 
spiration. 

4.  Bathe  when  the  body  is  warm. 

5.  Avoid  chiUing  the  body  after  bathing  by  sitting  naked 
on  banks  or  in  boats. 

6.  Avoid  staying  too  long  in  the  water.  Leave  it 
directly  there  is  the  slightest  feeling  of  chilliness. 

7.  Avoid  bathing  altogether  in  the  open  air  if,  after 
having  been  a  short  time  in  the  water,  there  is  a  sense  of 
chilliness  or  numbness  of  hands  and  feet. 

8.  The  vigorous  and  strong  may  bathe  early  in  the 
morning  on  an  empty  stomach. 

9.  The  young  and  the  weak  had  better  bathe  three 
hours  after  a  meal — best  after  breakfast. 

10.  Those  who  are  subject  to  attacks  of  giddiness  and 
faintness,  or  palpitation,  &c.,  should  not  bathe  without 
first  consulting  their  medical  adviser. 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR  PROFIT. 

II.— THE    FEEDING    AND    GENERAL    MANAGEMENT    OF 
ADULT    FOWLS. 

A  judicious  system  of  feeding  is  very  essential  to  the 
well-being  of  poultry,  and  has,  of  course,  more  direct 
influence  upon  the  profit  or  loss  than  any  of  the  circum- 
1  stances  —  though  equally  important  —  which  we  have 
before  enumerated.  W^e  shall,  therefore,  endeavour  to 
give  the  subject  a  full  and  practical  consideration. 

The  object  is  to  give  the  quantity  and  quality  of  food 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


47 


which  will  produce  the  greatest  amount  of  flesh  and 
^gs  ;  and  if  it  be  attained,  the  domestic  fowl  is  unques- 
tionably the  most  profitable  of  all  live  stock.  But  the 
problem  is  rather  a  nice  one,  for  there  is  no  "  mistake  on 
the  right  side"  here.  A  fat  hen  is  not  only  subject  to 
many  diseases,  but  ceases  to  lay,  or  nearly  so,  and 
becomes  a  mere  drag  on  the  concern  ;  while  a  pampered 
male  bird  is  lazy  and  useless  at  best,  and  very  probably, 
when  the  proprietor  most  requires  his  services,  may  be 
attacked  by  apoplexy  and  drop  down  dead. 

That  fowls  cannot  be  remunerative  if  starved  need 
scarcely  be  proved.  Ex  nihilo  nihil  Jit;  and  the  almost 
daily  production  of  an  article  so  rich  in  nitrogen  as  an 
egg  —  the  very  essence  of  animal  nourishment  —  must 
demand  an  ample  and  regular  supply  of  adequate  food. 
We  say  no  more  upon  this  point,  knowing  that  the 
comn^on  mistake  of  nearly  all  amateur  poultry-keepers  is 
upon  the  other  side — that  of  over-feeding. 

The  usual  plan,  where  fowls  are  regularly  fed  at  all, 
.ippears  to  be  to  give  the  birds  at  each  meal  as  much 
barley  or  oats  as  they  will  eat ;  and  this  being  done,  the 
owner  prides  himself  upon  his  liberality,  and  insists  that 
his  at  least  are  properly  fed.  Yet  both  in  quantity  and 
quality  is  he  mistaken.  Grain  will  do  for  the  regular 
meals  of  fowls  which  live  on  a  farm,  or  have  any  other 
extensive  range  where  they  can  provide  other  food  for 
themselves,  have  abundant  exercise,  and  their  digestive 
organs  are  kept  in  vigorous  action.  But  poultry  kept  in 
confinement  on  such  a  diet  will  not  thrive.  Their 
plumage,  after  awhile,  begins  to  fall  off,  their  bowels 
become  affected,  and  they  lose  greatly  in  condition  ;  and 
though  in  summer  their  eggs  may  possibly  repay  the  food 
expended,  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  obtain  any  in 
winter,  when  they  are  most  valuable. 

All  fixed  dietary  scales  for  fowls  are  delusive.     The  one 

imple  rule  is  to  give  them  as  much   as  they  will  eat 

'igerly,  and  no  more  ;  directly  they  begin  to  feed  with 

pparent  indifference,  or  cease  to  run  when  the  food  is 

:hrown  at  a  little  distance,  the  supply  should  be  stopped. 

In  a  state  of  nature,  they  have  to  seek  far  and  wide  for 

the  scanty  morsels  which  form  their  subsistence  ;  and  the 

Creator  never  intended  that  they,  any  more  than  human 

beings,  should  eat  till  they  can  literally  eat  no  more.     It 

follows,  from  this  rule,  that  food  should  never  be  left  on 

the  ground.     If  such  a  slovenly  practice  be  permitted, 

much  of  what  is  eaten  will  be  wasted,  and  a  great  deal 

will  never  be  eaten  at  all  ;  for  fowls  are  dainty  in  their 

way,  and  unless  at  starvation  point  always  refuse  sour  or 

sodden  food. 

The  number  of  meals  per  day  best  consistent  v/ith  real 
economy  will  vary  from  two  to  three,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  run.  If  it  be  of  moderate  extent,  so  that  they  can, 
in  any  degree,  forage  for  themselves,  two  are  quite  suffi- 
cient, at  least  in  summer,  and  should  be  given  early  in  the 
morning,  and  the  last  thing  before  the  birds  go  to  roost. 
In  any  case,  these  will  be  the  principal  meals  ;  but  when 
the  fowls  are  kept  in  confinement,  they  will  require,  in 
addition,  a  scanty — and  only  a  very  scanty— feed  at  mid- 
day. 

The  first  feeding  should  consist  of  soft  food  of  some 
kind.  The  birds  have  passed  a  whole  night  since  they 
were  last  fed  ;  and  it  is  important,  especially  in  cold 
weather,  that  a  fresh  supply  should  as  soon  as  possible  be 
got  into  the  system,  and  not  merely  into  the  crop.  If 
grain  be  given,  it  has  to  be  ground  in  the  poor  bird's 
gizzard  before  it  can  be  digested  ;  and  on  a  cold  winter's 
morning  the  delay  is  anything  but  beneficial.  But  for  the 
very  same  reason,  at  the  evening  meal  grain  forms  the 
best  food  which  can  be  supplied  ;  it  is  digested  slowly, 
and  during  the  long  cold  nights  affords  support  and 
warmth  to  the  fowls. 

A  great  deal  depends  upon  this  system  of  feeding,  and 
as  we  arc  aware  it  is  opposed  to  the  practice  of  many, 


who  give  grain  for  the  breakfast,  and  meal,  if  at  all,  at 
night,  let  the  sceptical  reader  make  one  simple  experi- 
ment. Give  the  fowls  a  feed  of  meal,  say  at  live  o'clock 
in  the  evening ;  at  twelve  visit  the  roosts,  and  feel  the 
crops  of  the  poor  birds.  All  will  be  empty  ;  the  gizzard 
has  nothing  to  act  upon,  and  the  food  speedily  disappears, 
leaving  with  an  empty  stomach,  to  cope  with  the  long 
cold  hours  before  dawn,  the  most  hungry  and  incessant 
feeder  of  all  God's  creatures.  But  if  the  last  feed  has 
been  grain,  the  crop  will  still  be  found  partially  full,  and 
the  birds  will  awake  in  the  morning  hearty,  strengthened, 
and  refreshed. 

With  respect  to  the  morning  meal  of  pultaceous  food, 
when  only  a  few  fowls  are  kept,  to  supply  eggs  for  a 
moderate  family,  this  may  be  provided  almost  for  nothing 
by  boiling  daily  the  potato  peelings  till  soft,  and  mashing 
them  up  with  enough  bran,  slightly  scalded,  to  make  a 
tolerably  stiff  and  dry  paste.  There  will  be  more  than 
sufficient  of  this  if  the  fowls  kept  do  not  exceed  one  for 
each  member  of  the  household  ;  and  as  the  peelings  cost 
nothing,  and  the  bran  very  little,  one  half  the  food  is  pro- 
vided at  a  merely  nominal  expense,  while  no  better  could 
be  given.  A  little  salt  should  always  be  added,  and  in 
cold  or  wet  days  in  winter  a  slight  seasoning  of  pepper 
will  tend  to  keep  the  hens  in  good  health  and  laying. 
This  food  may  be  mixed  boiling  hot  over  night,  and 
covered  with  a  cloth,  or  be  put  in  the  oven  ;  in  either 
case  it  will  remain  warm  till  morning — the  condition  in 
which  it  should  always  be  given  in  cold  weather. 

If  a  tolerable  stock  of  poultry  be  kept,  such  a  source  of 
supply  will  be  obviously  inadequate  ;  and  in  purchasing 
the  food-  there  is  much  variety  to  choose  from.     Small  or 
"pig"  potatoes  may  be  bought  at  a  low  price  and  simi- 
larly treated  ;    or   barley-meal  may  be   mixed  with  hot 
water ;  or  an  equal  mixture  of  meal  and  "  sharps,"  or  of 
Indian  meal  and  bran  ;  either  of  these  make  a  capital 
food.     Or,  if  offered  on  reasonable  terms,  a  cart-load  of 
swede  or  other  turnips,  or  mangel-wurzel,  may  be  pur- 
chased ;    and  when   boiled   and   mashed   with   meal   or 
"  sharps,"  we  believe  forms  the  very  best  soft  food  a  fowl 
can  have,  especially  for  Dorkings  ;  but  they  cannot  ever>'- 
where  be  obtained  at  a  cheap  rate,  and  the  buyer  must 
study  the  local  market.     A  change  of  food,  at  times,  will 
be  beneficial,  and  in   making  it 
the    poultry -keeper     should    be 
guided    by    the    se:\son.      It    is, 
however,  necessary  to  avoid  giving 
too  great  a  proportion  of  maize, 
either  as  meal  or  corn,  or  the  effect 
will  be  a  useless  and  prejudicial 
fattening  from  the  large  quantity  of  oil  it  contains  ;  it  is 
best  mixed  with  barley  or  bean-meal,  and  is  then  a  most 
economical  and  useful  food.      Potatoes,  also,  from   the 
large  proportion  of  starch  contained   in  them,  are  not 
good   as   a  regular    diet   for  poultry  ;    but    occasionally 
mixed  with  bran  or  meal  will  be  found  most  conducive  to 
condition  and  laying. 

In  mixing  soft  food,  there  is  one  general  rule  always  to 
be  observed  :  it  must  be  mixed  rather  dry,  so  that  it  will 
break  if  thrown  upon  the  ground.  There  should  never 
be  enough  water  to  cause  the  food  to  glisten  in  the  light, 
or  to  make  a  sticky  porridgy  mass,  which  clings  round 
the  beaks  of  the  fowls  and  gives  them  infinite  anno>-ance, 
besides  often  causing  diarrhcea. 

If  the  weather  be  dry,  and  the  birds  are  fed  in  a  hard 
gravelled  yard,  the  food  is  just  as  well,  or  better,  thrown 
on  the  ground.  If  they  are  fed  in  the  shed,  however,  it  is 
best  to  use  an  oblong  dish  of  zinc,  or,  preferably,  earthen- 
ware, such  as  represented  in  Fig.  3.  The  trough  or  dish 
must,  however,  be  protected,  or  the  fowls  will  walk  upon 
it,  scratch  earth  into  it,  and  waste  a  large  portion  ;  and 
this  is  best  prevented  by  having  a  loose  curved  cover 
made  of  tin  and  wire,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  which,  when 


Fig-  3- 


48 


ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PROFIT. 


Fig.  4. 


placed  on  the  ground  over  the  dish,-  will  effectually 
prevent  the  fowls  having  anything  to  do  wjth  the  food 
except  to  eat  it,  which  they  are  quite  at  liberty  to  do 
through  the  perpendicular  wires,  two  and  a  half  inches 
apart.  Many  experienced  poultry-keepers  prefer  to  drive 
the  wires  into  the  ground,  leaving  them  six  inches  high  ; 
the  trough  is  then  put  behind  them,  and  a  board  laid 
over,  leaning  on  the  top  of  the  wires.  The  effect  of  such 
a  plan  is  precisely  similar  as  regards  the  protection  of  the 
food,  and  its  only  disadvantage  is,  that  the  wires  being 
always  in  the  ground  rather  hinder  the  sweeping  of  the 
shed. 
If  the  fowls  have  a  field  to  run  in  they  will  require 
no  further  feeding  till  their 
evening  meal  of  grain. 
Taking  it  altogether,  no 
grain  is  more  useful  or 
economical  than  barley,  and 
in  summer  this  may  be  oc- 
casionally changed  with 
oats ;  in  winter,  for  the 
reasons  already  given,  In- 
dian corn  may  be  given 
every  second  or  third  day  with  advantage.  Buckwheat 
is,  chemically,  almost  identical  in  composition  with 
barley,  but  it  certainly  has  a  stimulating  effect  on 
the  production  of  eggs,  and  it  is  a  pity  it  cannot  be 
more  frequently  obtained  at  a  cheap  rate.  We  never 
omit  purchasing  a  sack  of  this  grain  when  we  can,  and 
have  a  strong  opinion  that  the  enormous  production  of 
eggs  and  fowls  in  France  is  to  some  extent  connected 
with  the  almost  universal  use  of  buckwheat  by  P'rench 
poultry-keepers.  Wheat  is  generally  too  dear  to  be  cm- 
ployed,  unless  damaged,  and  if  the  damage  be  great  it 
had  better  not  be  meddled  with  ;  but  if  only  slightly 
injured,  or  if  a  good  sample  be  offered  of  light  "tail" 
wheat,  as  it  is  called,  it  is  a  most  valuable  food,  both  for 
chickens  and  fowls.  "  Sweepings "  sometimes  contain 
poisonous  substances  ;  are  invariably  dearer,  weight  for 
weight,  than  sound  grain  ;  and  should  never  be  seen  in  a 
poultry-yard. 

The  mid-day  meal  of  penned-up  fowls  should  be  only 
a  scanty  one,  and  may  consist  either  of  soft  food  or  grain, 
as  most  convenient — meal  preferably  in  cold  weather. 

The  regular  and  substantial  diet  is  now  provided  for, 
but  will  not  alone  keep  the  fowls  in  good  health  and 
laying.  They  are  omnivorous  in  their  natural  state,  and 
require  some  portion  of  animal  food.  On  a  wide  range 
they  will  provide  this  for  themselves,  and  in  a  small 
establishment  the  scraps  of  the  dinner-table  will  be  quite 
sufficient ;  but  if  the  number  kept  be  large,  with  only 
limited  accommodation,  it  will  be  necessary  to  buy  every 
week  a  few  pennyworths  of  bullocks'  liver,  which  may  be 
boiled,  chopped  fine,  and  mixed  in  their  food,  the  broth 
being  used  instead  of  water  in  mixing  ;  these  little  tit-bits 
will  be  eagerly  picked  out  and  enjoyed.  A  very  little  is 
all  that  is  necessary,  and  need  not  be  given  more  than 
three  times  a  week.  If  fowls  be  much  over-fed  with  this 
kind  of  food  the  quills  of  the  feathers  become  more  or 
less  charged  with  blood,  which  the  birds  in  time  perceive, 
and  almost  invariably  peck  at  each  other's  plumage  till 
they  leave  the  skin  quite  bare. 

There  is  yet  another  most  important  article  of  diet, 
without  which  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  keep  fowls  in 
health.  We  refer  to  an  ample  and  daily  supply  of  green 
or  fresh  vegetable  food.  It  is  not  perhaps  too  much  to 
say  that  the  omission  of  this  is  the  proximate  cause  of 
nearly  half  the  deaths  where  fowls  are  kept  in  confine- 
ment ;  whilst  with  it,  our  other  directions  having  been 
observed,  they  may  be  kept  in  health  for  a  long  time  in  a 
pen  only  a  few  feet  square.  It  was  to  provide  this  that 
we  recommended  the  open  yards,  to  be  laid  down  in 
grass — the  very  best  green  food  for  poultry  ;  and  a  run  of 


even  an  hour  daily  on  such  a  grass  plot,  supposing  the 
shed  to  be  dry  and  clean,  will  keep  them  i^  vigorous 
health,  and  not  be  more  than  the  grass  will  bear.  But  if 
a  shed  only  be  available,  fresh  vegetables  must  be  thrown 
in  daily.  'Anything  will  do.  A  good  plan  is  to  mince  up 
cabbage-leaves  or  other  refuse  vegetables,  and  mix  pretty 
freely  with  the  soft  food  ;  or  the  whole  leaves  may  be 
thrown  down  for  the  fowls  to  devour ;  or  a  few  turnips 
may  be  minced  up  daily,  and  scattered  like  grain,  or 
simply  cut  in  two  and  thrown  into  the  run  ;  or  if  it  can 
be  got,  a  large  sod  of  fresh-cut  turf  thrown  to  the  fowls 
will  be  better  than  all.  But  something  they  must  have 
every  day,  or  nearly  so,  otherwise  their  bowels  sooner 
or  later  become  disordered,  their  feathers  look  dirty,  and 
their  combs  lose  that  beautiful  bright  red  colour  which 
Avill  always  accompany  really  good  health  and  condition, 
and  testifies  pleasantly  to  abundance  of  eggs.  ^ 

The  water  vessel  must  be  filled  fresh  every  day  at  least, 
and  so  arranged  that  the  birds  cannot  scratch  dirt  into  it, 
or  make  it  foul.  The  ordinary  poultry-fountain  is  too 
well  known  to  need  description,  but  a  rather  better  form 
than  is  usually  made  is  shown  in  the  annexed  figure.  The 
advantages  of  such  a  construction  are  two  :  the  top  being 
open,  and  fitted  with  a  cork,  the  state  of  the  interior  can 
be  examined,  and  the  vessel  well  sluiced  through  to  re- 
move the  green  slime  which  always  collects  by  degrees, 
and  is  very  prejudicial  to  health  ;  and  the  trough  being 
sightly  raised  from  the  ground,  instead  of  upon  it,  the 
water  is  less  easily  fouled.  Some  experienced  breeders 
prefer  shallow  pans  ;  but  if  these  be  adopted  they  must  be 
either  put  behind  rails,  with  a  board  over,  or  protected  by 
a  cover,  in  the  same  way  as  the  feeding-troughs  already 
described. 

Fowls  must  never  be  left  without  water.*  During  a 
frost,  therefore,  the  fountain  should  be  emptied  every 
night,  or  there  will  be  trouble  next  morning.  Care  must 
always  be  taken  also  that  snow  is 
not  allowed  to  fall  into  the  drink- 
ing vessel.  The  reason  has  puzzled 
wiser  heads  than  ours  ;  but  it  is  a 
fact,  that  any  real  quantity  of  snow- 
water seems  to  reduce  fowls  and 
other  birds  to  mere  skeletons. 

It  is  well  in  winter  to  add  to  the 
water  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  iron  (green  vitriol),  just 
enough  to  give  a  slight  mineral 
taste.  This  will,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, guard  against  roup,  and  act 
as  a  bracing  tonic  generally.  The 
rusty  appearance  the  water  will  assume  is  quite  imma? 
terial. 

Whilst  the  fowls  are  moulting,  sulphate  of  iron  should 
always  be  used  ;  it  will  assist  them  greatly  through  this, 
the  most  critical  period  of  the  whole  year.  A  little  hemp- 
seed  should  also  be  given  every  day  at  this  season,  at 
least  to  all  fowls  of  value ;  and  with  these  aids,  and  a  little 
pepper  on  their  food,  with  perhaps  a  little  extra  meat,  or 
even  a  little  ale  to  delicate  breeds  during  the  few  weeks 
the  process  lasts,  there  will  rarely  be  any  lost.  With 
hardy  kinds  and  good  shelter  such  precautions  are  scarcely 
necessary,  but  they  cost  little,  and  have  their  effect  also  on 
the  early  recommencement  of  laying. 

In  addition  to  their  regular  food  it  will  be  needful  that 
the  fowls  have  a  supply  of  lime,  in  some  shape  or  other, 
to  form  the  shells  of  their  eggs.  Old  mortar  pounded  is 
excellent  ;  so  are  oyster-shells  well  burnt  in  the  fire  and 
pulverised  ;  of  the  latter  they  are  very  fond,  and  it  is  an 
excellent  plan  to  keep  a  "tree-saucer"  full  of  it  in  theii 
yard.  If  this  matter  has  been  neglected,  and  soft  shell- 
less  eggs  have  resulted,  the  quickest  way  of  getting 
matters  right  again  is  to  add  a  little  lime  to  the  drinking- 
water. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


THE   HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 

THE    TOOL-CHEST   {contimud). 

Saws. — For  larger  curves  and  coarser  work,  a  strong, 
narrow,  tapering  blade,  fixed  into  a  handle,  is  used.  This 
is  called  a  compass-saw.  For  more  elaborate  curves,  a 
narrow  parallel  blade,  thinner  on  the  back  than  in  front, 
is  stretched  in  a  wooden  frame.  This  is  called  a  turning- 
saw,  and  a  common  arrangement  is  shown   in   Fig,  26. 


wttaeumatm 


Fiij.  26. 

The  blade.  A,  is  fixed  by  a  rivet  at  each  end  to  the 
handloe,  P.  B,  which  are  thrust  through  holes  in  the  sides 
of  the  frame,  C  C.  A  centre  bar,  D,  keeps  this  frame 
distended,  and  acts  as  a  fulcrum,  whereby  the  force 
generated  by  the  twisting  of  the  cord,  E,  is  transmitted 
to  the  blade.  The  cord  is  twisted  by  the  lever,  F,  and 
should  consist  of  five  or  six  turns  of  strong  whipcord. 
The  parts  of  the  handles  which  go  through  the  frame 


r? 


ccr=D 


Ir> 


Fig.  27. 

being  cylindrical,  they  can  be  turned  so  as  to  put  the 
blade  in  any  required  position  to  keep  the  frame  out  of 
the  way  of  the  work.  The  handle  behind  the  pitch  of 
the  teeth — which  is  the  one  taken  hold  of— is  usually 
larger  than  the  one  at  the  other  end.  A  stronger  and 
larger  form  of  this  kind  of  saw  is  much  used  on  the 
Continent  for  all  sorts  of  carpentry  work,  in  place  of  our 
rip  and  half-rip  saws.  The  turning-saw  may  be  used  to 
cut  out  spaces,  by  first   boring  a  hole,  into  which  the 


Fig.  28. 

blade,  released  from  one  of  the  handles  by  taking  out  the 
rivet,  is  inserted.  Of  course,  the  limit  of  distance  from 
the  edge  of  the  work  at  which  these  saws  can  act,  is  equal 
to  the  space  betweeli  the  blade  and  the  centre  bar,  D. 
Fig.  27  is  a  diagram  of  the  buhl-saw  ;  these  saws  are  used 
for  cutting  delicate  and  elaborate  patterns  through  thin 
materials,  such  as  veneer  for  inlaying,  and  they  are  fitted 
in  frames  witli  very  long  backs  of  light  metal,  so  that  they 

VOL.    \. 


>9_ 

may  take  in  work  of  some  size.  The  blade  is  ot  extremely 
thin  metal,  with  very  fine  teeth,  so  that  if  a  pattern  is 
sawn  through  two  layers  of  veneer  at  once,  one  of  light 
colour  and  the  other  dark,  temporarily  stuck  together 
with  a  piece  of  paper  glued  between  them  for  the  con- 
venience of  separation,  the  pieces  of  each  set  would 
correspond  and  fit  into  the  holes  of  the  other,  and  vice 
versd ;  and  so,  with  the  one  operation,  two  patterns  arc 
produced,  one  dark  on  light  ground,  and  the  other  light 
on  dark  ground.  The  joints  of  the  pattern  are  barely 
perceptible,  owing  to  the  extreme  thinness  of  the  saw. 
In  use,  this  saw  is  held  with  the  blade  vertical,  and  the 


Fig.  29. 

handle  below  the  work,  and  both  frame  and  work  are  twisted 
about  as  the  curves  of  the  pattern  require.  The  professed 
buhl  cutter  often  uses  a  kind  of  wooden  vice,  one  jaw 
of  which  acts  with  a  treadle,  in  which  fcase  the  work  is  in 
a  vertical  position,  and  the  saw  is  held  horizontally. 
Fig,  28  shows  a  common  metal  saw,  which  is  a  stout 
blade,  A,  of  hard,  tempered  steel,  thicker  at  the  teeth  edge 
than  the  back  in  order  to  allow  clearage  way,  the  teeth 
not  being  "  set,"  fixed  in  a  metal  frame,  B,  in  which  it  is 
strained  by  the  nut,  C.  This  saw  is  held  by  the  handle 
in  the  right  hand,  and  pushed  forward  with  considerable 
force,  the  left  hand  being  lightly  pressed  in  the  curve  of 


I-'ig.  3-^' 


the  frame  in  order  to  steady  the  blade.  These  saws 
should  be  used  as  little  as  possible  for  cutting  steel,  which 
wears  them  out  very  quickly,  and  they  are  too  hard  to  be 
filed  up  again  economically.  The  ordinary  forms  of  wood 
saws  are  sharpened  with  three-cornered  files,  known  as 
saw  files,  which  are  moved  rapidly  to  and  fro  over  the 
front  and  back  edges  of  the  tooth.    The  blade  of  the  saw 


is  held  in  a  wooden  vice,  but  an  ordinary  bench  or  tail- 
vice  may  be  made  to  answer  the  purpose,  if  a  couple  of 
wooden  clamps  be  placed  in  the  jaws  one  on  each  side  ot 
the  blade,  othenvise  the  grating  noise  is  almost  unbear- 
able. Of  circular  or  vertical  machine  saws,  it  will  not  Ik- 
necessarv  to  say  an\thing  here,  as  they  will  not  be  liko.y 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 


to  be  required  for  the  small  jobs  we  shall  probably  meet 
in  our  household. 

Screw- driver. — Fig.  29  is  the  diagram  of  a  screw-driver, 
a  tool  in  which  the  only  variation  noticeable  is  in  size. 
The  longer  the  handle,  of  course  the  greater  the  power 
obtained.  The  point  should  not  be  ground  up  sharp, 
but  bevelled  nearly  to  an  edge,  so  as  exactly  to  fit  the 
nick  in  the  head  of  a  screw.  Screw-drivers  are  also  fitted 
as  bits,  and  used  in  the  brace,  a  most  convenient  form 
where  much  screwing  is  to  be  done. 

Squares^  Levels,  Qr^c. — Fig.  30  shows  the  ordinary  form 
of  carpenter's  square,  which  consists  of  a  thin,  flat,  steel 


1 

(          •:* 

f^                     > 

Fig-  33- 


blade.  A,  which  is  riveted  into  a  thicker  piece  of  wood, 
B,  at  right  angles  to  it,  the  inner  edge  of  the  wood 
being  generally  faced  with  brass.  In  using,  the  blade  is 
laid  'flat  on  the  wood  to  be  squared,  with  the  brass  part  of 
the  handle  held  close  up  to  the  edge,  and  being  brought 
to  the  required  place,  a  line  drawn  along  the  metal  edge 
will  be  exactly  at  right  angles  to  the  guide  edge  of 
the  wood.  Squares  are  also  used  in  testing  the  ac- 
curacy of  planed  work,  in  which  case  the  work  should 
be  held  between  the  eye  and  the  light,  so  that,  on  applying 
the  tool,  it  will  at  once  appear  if  it  is  at  all  untrue. 
Similar  in  principle  and  application  is  the  mitre  bevel. 
Fig.  31,  which  is  a  handle,  15,  with  a  shifting  blade.  A, 
which  can  be  set  at  any  required  angle  by  the  screw,  c. 
The  blade  can  be  drawn  out  to  the  full  extent  of  the 
slot  in  it,  by  which  means  a  much  longer  line  can  be 
drawn.  When  not  in  use,  the  blade  is  turned  round  and 
brought  in  a  line  with  the  handle,  in  which  position  it 
occupies  very  little  space.  Fig.  32  shows  the  form  of 
larger  squares  used  by  masons  and  others,  which  also 
serve  as  levels  and  tests  of  upright  lines,  by  means  of 
the  plummet  and  line,  C.  For  the  horizontal  test,  it 
may  be  used  on  the  same  position  as  in  the  diagram,  or 
turned  over  with  the  side,  B,  downwards,  in  which  case 
the  plumb-bob  falls  into  the  hole  at  A.  The  opposite 
side,  C,  held  to  vertical  work,  will  test  its  uprightness. 
The  plummet  will  fall  in  this  case  into  the  hole  A,  as 
with  the  last.  Fig.  33  shows  a  common  form  of  spirit- 
level,  which  consists  of  a  hollow  tube  of  glass,  closed 
at  each  end,  and  full  of  spirits  of  wine,  all  but  a 
small  bubble  of  air.  This  tube  is  mounted  in  a  block 
of  wood,  faced  with  brass,  in  the  centre  of  which  is 
an  opening,  through  which  the  tube  is  seen  ;  across  the 
slit  is  a  thin  line,  which  marks  the  exact  middle  of 
the  level,  and  when  placed  on  the  surface  to  be  tested, 


1 


Fig-  34- 

the  bubble  should  stand  exactly  under  this  index  if  the 
work  is  correct.  Levels  are  of  many  different  shapes,  and 
are  sometimes  found  set  in  rules  or  squares  ;  but  in  all 
forms  their  application  is  the  same.  Analogous  in  use  to 
squares  and  levels  are  carpenters'  straight-edges,  often 
called  winding-sticks,  which  are  simply  parallel  slats  of 
wood  about  two  feet  long,  with  their  edges  planed  per- 
fectly true.  Suppose  a  long  block  of  wood  has  been 
planed  up  to  an  apparently  true  surface,  place  one  straight- 
edge on  each  end,  and  parallel  to  one  another  ;  bring  the 
eye  down  so  as  to  get  the  two  sticks  in  a  line,  and  if  any  twist 
should  exist  in  the  log  of  wood,  the  greater  length  of 
the  straight-edge  will  magnify  the  fault.  If,  however,  the 
two  sticks  appear,  when  foreshortened,  exactly  parallel,  the 
work  is  correct.  One  edge  of  a  straight-edge  is  usually 
bevelled  to  a  point,  which  is  used  for  testing  long  surfaces, 


by  bringing  this  sharp  edge  in  contact  with  the  work 
when  between  the  eye  and  the  light.  If  the  light  is  seen 
plainly  through  at  any  part,  it  is  obvious  that  that  part  i ; 
too  low,  and  therefore  the  surrounding  portions  must  be 
reduced  to  the  same  level.  For  gauging  across  narrow- 
logs,  the  metal  edge  of  the  square  is  mostly  used  in 
the  same  manner.  For  marking  across  the  grain,  a 
tool  is  used  called  a  striking  knife,  shown  in  our  illus- 
tration. Fig.  34,  which  is  a  blade  sharpened  with  a 
slanting  edge,  which  is  bevelled  from  both  sides.  The 
other  end  of  the  blade  terminates  in  a  point,  which  is  used 
for  such  purposes  as  pricking  holes  as  guides  for  the 
position  of  nails,  &:c. 

Vices. — These  useful  contrivances  are  almost  indispen- 
sable if  any  work  in  metal  is  attempted;  but  should  our 
amateur  only  desire  to  work  in  softer  materials,  he  will 
find  the  screw  bench,  to  be  described  hereafter,  answer 
his  purpose,  or  at  all  events  will  only  need  a  small  table- 
vice.     Fig.  35  shows  the  usual  arrangement  for  the  larger 


Fig-  35- 

kinds  of  vices,  called  tail-vices,  from  the  fact  that  one  of 
its  arms  is  prolonged  downwards  into  a  tail,  B,  which 
rests  on  the  floor,  and  contributes  much  to  the  steadiness 
of  the  hold.  The  work  is  held  between  the  jaws.  A, 
which  are  closed  by  turning  the  handle  working  the  screw, 
C,  the  jaws  opening  when  released  by  the  action  of 
the  spring,  D.  These  vices  should  be  screwed  firmly  to 
the  bench  or  table.  Table-vices  are  much  the  same  as 
the  above,  but  smaller,  and  have  no  tail,  but  are  screwed 
to  the  edge  of  the  bench.  They  are  only  fit  for  light 
work,  however.  In  both  the  above,  the  insides  of  the  jaws 
are  faced  with  steel,  and  cut  into  teeth,  in  order  to  increase 
the  hplding  power ;  these  teeth,  however,  are  liable  to 
injure  the  surface  of  finished  work,  if  such  is  required  to 
be  held.  To  prevent  this,  clamps  are  used,  made  of  soft 
metal,  and  may  be  had  ready  to  fit  the  jaws ;  although, 
for  nearly  all  purposes,  nothing  answers  better  than  two 
strips  of  thick  sheet  lea^"!,  the  length  of  the  ja\vs,  and  about 
three  or  four  inches  wij'e,  nipped  half-way  in,  and  the 
remaining  half  bent  over  on  each  side  with  a  hammer, 
so  as  to  fit  round  the  jaws  and  keep  on  them  when 
opened.  For  holding  round  bars  or  pipes,  a  pair  of 
clamps,  like  a  and  d,  Fig.  35,  will  be  found  useful,  a  is  a 
piece  of  angle  iron,  and  i)  is  similar,  but  thicker  on  one 
side,  which  side  is  filed  out  into  a  gap,  c  ;  the  three  faces 
formed  by  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  the  clamp  a  givin- 
a  vastly  increased  grip  on  rods,  S:c,,  besides  altogether 
preventing  them  from  slipping  out  of  the  upright  position. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


5' 


Fig.  36  shows  a  hand  or  pin-vice,  much  used  by  watch- 
makers, &.C.,  for  holding  small  wire.  The  jaws  are  closed 
by  a  fly  nut,  and  the  handle  is  hollow,  to  admit  of  a  long 
rod  being  slipped  through.     The  round  handle  is  very 


s^::::^::^ 


Fig.  36. 


convenient  for  keeping  work  cylindrical  if  required,  as 
the  file  may  be  moved  in  a  straight  path  while  the  vice  is 
rolled  backwards  and  forwards  by  the  left  hand,  the  work 
being  lodged  in  the  partially-opened  jaws  of  another  vice. 
To  obviate  the  difficulty  in  holding  large  works,  owing 
to  the  disadvantage  produced  by  the  radial  motion  of  the 
jaws  in  these  arrangements,  vices  have  been  contrived 
in  which  the  jaws  move  horizontally.     Fig.  37  shows  one 


t^ 

S^ 

01 

\W\TW\\^ 

F»-..  -  ..-jd 

PO 


F'S-  37- 

of  these,  which,  though  usually  fine  specimens  of  work- 
manship, are  of  course  rather  expensive  (about  30s.). 
Tail-vices  may  be  had  from  los.  upwards,  according  to 
(veight,  about  6d.  or  7d.  per  lb.  being  the  average  price. 
Table-vices  are  about  5s.,  and  pin  about  2s.  6d.  upwards. 
Wrenches. — These  are  used  chiefly  for  turning  nuts  or 
bolts  by  means  of  their  heads,  which  are  shaped  so  as  to 
admit  of  being  gripped,  mostly  having  four  or  six  sides. 
The  ordinary  forai  is  known  as  a  spanner,  but,  being 
of  certain  fixed  size,  is,  of  course,  limited  in  effective- 
ness to  only  just  those  nuts  or  bolts  it  happens  to  fit. 
I  n  order  to  do  away  with  the  necessity  of  having  a  large 


\J 


m 


u 


Fig.  38. 


number  to  fit  every  size,  Avrenches  are  made  with  sliding 
jaws,  which  open  or  close  by  various  means.  Fig.  38 
is  a  diagram  of  what  is  popularly  known  as  a  screw 
hammer.  The  handle,  A,  turns  in  the  collar,  B,  and  has 
a  screw  cut  in  a  hole  bored  inside  it,  into  which  screw 
the  movable  jaw,  C,  is  drawn  by  the  turning  of  the  handle. 
There  are  many  other  forms  of  screw  wrenches,  but  in  all 
the  application  is  similar,  and  it-  is  needless  to  describe 
each  form. 

Before  concluding  this  chapter  on  tools,  it  will  be  as 
well  to  bring  before  the  reader  the  common  forms  of 
nails,  &c.,  he  will  be  sure  to  want,  and  just  to  let  him 
know  the  names  by  which  to  call  them.  In  Fig.  39, 
A  shows  that  most  common  form,  the  "cut"  nail.  It 
will  be  seen  that,  looked  at  from  the  side,  this  is  wedge 
formed,  but  from  the  edge  parallel.  It  follows,  there- 
fore, that  the  nail,  when  driven  into  wood,  should  be 
placed  with  its  wedge  side  in  a  line  with  the  grain  of  the 
wood.  If  this  is  not  attended  to,  the  wood,  if  at  all  thin, 
is  sure  to  be  split,  besides  which  the  hold  is  not  so  firm, 


as  the  fibres,  being  bulj^cd  away,  do  not  maintain  so 
complete  a  contact  with  the  nail  as  if  driven  in  right. 
A  practical  trial  or  two  will  soon  show  the  truth  of  this* 
argument.  These  nails  are  very  cheap,  about  2jd.  per  lb., 
and  are  known  as  inch,  two-inch,  &c.,  cut  nails.  At  one 
time  the  standard  for  their  length  was  the  height  of  piles 
of  pennies ;  but  since  the  alteration  in  the  coinage  this 
standard  has  given  way  to  the  more  rational  one  of  inch 
measure.      Brads,  B,  are  cut  by  machinery  from  sheet 


Fig.  39. 


iron,  which  is  used  without  waste  in  their  manufacture,  as 
the  diagram  C,  showing  the  manner  in  which  they  fit  one 
another,  will  show.  These  are  also  wedge-formed  in  one 
direction,  and  should  be  driven  as  directed  for  cut  nails. 
The  price  of  brads  varies  according  to  size,  being  from 
about  3d.  to  IS.  per  1,000.  D  is  a  round,  flat-headed  nail, 
called  a  "  clout,"  much  used  for  such  purposes  as  nailing 
on  sacking  of  beds,  &c.,  or  in  any  case  where  a  broad 
holding  surface  is  required.  These  nails,  being  almost 
exclusively  wrought  by  hand,  are  expensive,  about  6d. 
per  100  and  upwards,  according  to  size.  The  tack,  E,  is 
a  reduced  form  of  the  above,  and  will  perhaps  be  the 
most  used  of  all  nails  in  household  requirements,  for 
nailing  down  carpets,  blinds,  &c.  They  may  be  had  as 
japanned  or  tinned  tacks,  at  4d.  to  6d.  per  packet,  con- 
taining 1,000.  Wall-nails,  F,  are  used  only  for  nailing  up 
trees  to  walls,  and  such  purposes.  They  are  made  of 
cast  iron,  and  consequently  very  brittle.  Price,  2d.  per  lb. 
The  sort  of  long  iron  tacks  known  as  French  pins, 
deserve  to  be  much  more  generally  used,  as  their  grasp 
is  very  firm,  although,  owing  to  their  cylindrical  shape, 
there  is  but  little  danger  of  splitting  the  wood  in 
using  them.  They  are  made  of  iron  wire,  flattened 
at  one  end  into  a  head,  sharpened  at  the  other  into 
a  point.  The  price  ranges  from  6d.  to  is.  and  over 
per  lb.  Gimp-pins,  H,  will  be  found  useful  for  tackmg 
on  bordering,  fringe,  &c.,  to  curtains,  ottomans,  »S:c. 
They  are  only  short,  very  stout  forms  of  pins  made  of 
brass  wire,  and  lacquered  of  different  colours  to  suit  the 
different  furniture  ;  price  about  2d.  per  oz.  Nails  with 
iron  or  steel  points  and  brass  heads  or  hooks  of  various 
shapes,  will  most  likely  be  in  much  request ;  they  may 
be  had  with  screws  instead  of  points,  if  required. 


DOMESTIC   SURGERY. 


WOUNDS,  BRUISES,  AND  SPRAINS. 
Poisoned  Wounds. — The  form  of  poisoned  wound  most 
familiar  in  domestic  surgery  is  in  the  finger  of  a  cook 
who  has  pricked  herself  whilst  trussing  game  or  cleaning 
fish.  The  slight  prick,  which  is  not  noticed  at  the 
moment,  becomes  painful  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours, 
when  the  finger  becomes  hot  and  swollen,  and  a  red 
flush  is  seen  to  be  extending  up  the  finger  to  the  h.-ind. 
This  state  of  things,  if  taken  in  time,  may  be  effectually 
checked  by  the  application  of  a  wetted  stick  of  lunar 
caustic  over  all  the  inflamed  surface,  and  for  some  little 
distance  beyond  it.     The  caustic,  of  course,  causes  a 


52 


DOMESTIC   SURGERY. 


smarting  pain,  and  turns  the  finger  black,  but  this  wears  off 
in  a  few  days.  A  solution  of  caustic  answers  as  well,  or 
even  better,  than  the  solid  caustic  in  these  cases,  and  the 
ordinary  "  nitrate-bath  "  of  photography,  to  be  found  in  so 
many  houses,  is  very  good  for  the  purpose.  Instead  of 
the  inflammation  spreading  in  the  above  described  way, 
it  may  be  concentrated  in  the  wounded  spot,  and  give 
rise  to  a  whitlow.  In  this  case,  fomentation  of  the  whole 
hand,  hot  linseed-meal  poultices,  and  support  in  a  sling, 
will  be  the  proper  treatment  ;  but  if  matter  forms,  it  will 
probably  require  an  incision,  in  order  to  save  the  finger, 
and  therefore  early  recourse  should  be  had  to  a  surgeon. 
Bites  of  animals  may  give  rise  to  poisoned  wounds,  with- 
out there  being  any  risk  of  hydrophobia  ;  and  this  is  seen 
in  the  case  of  pet  dogs,  cats,  squirrels,  &c.  The  same 
treatment  as  for  ordinary  wounds,  followed  by  that  in- 
dicated for  poisoned  wounds,  if  occasion  arises,  would  be 
proper  in  such  cases.  When  there  is  the  least  reason  to 
fear  hydrophobia  in  the  animal  which  has  bitten,  every 
precaution  should  be  taken,  which  should  include  thorough 
cauterisation  or  extirpation  of  the  wounded  part ;  but  this 
it  is  impossible  for  a  non-medical  person  to  carry  out  effec- 
tually. The  bite  of  the  adder  is  the  only  example  of  snake- 
poison  met  with  in  this  country,  and  its  effects,  though 
serious,  are  not  ordinarily  fatal.  In  order  to  prevent,  as 
far  as  possible,  absorption  of  the  poisonous  material  into 
the  system,  a  string  should  be  tied  tightly  above  the 
wounded  spot,  which  should  be  well  sucked,  the  operator 
taking  care  to  rinse  his  mouth  out  with  a  little  brandy 
and  water,  and  not  to  swallow  any  of  the  poison.  After 
this,  hot  fomentations  and  a  poultice  will  be  the  proper 
treatment.  If  the  poison  has  spread  up  the  limb,  it  gives 
rise  to  great  swelling  of  the  part,  and  this  may  even 
extend  to  the  trunk.  Friction  with  warm  oil  is  the  best 
remedy  for  this  state  of  things,  but  it  often  does  not 
subside  for  some  days.  The  stings  of  wasps  or  bees 
are  painful,  but  not  dangerous,  unless  some  vital  part, 
such  as  the  inside  of  the  throat,  is  stung.  The  stings, 
which  are  often  left  in  the  part,  should  be  extracted 
with  fine  forceps  or  tweezers,  and  the  smarting  pain 
may  be  allayed  by  a  little  moistened  carbonate  of  soda 
being  laid  over,  or  some  sal- volatile  and  oil  rubbed  on  the 
part. 

PoidrattJig  Wounds  of  a  slight  character  arise  from 
the  incautiou:;  use  of  some  common  articles  of  domestic 
use,  such  as  an  ordinary  sewing-needle,  a  crochet-needle, 
or  a  fish-hook.  The  ordinary  needle,  if  buried  beneath 
the  skin  of  the  hand  or  other  part,  may  be  readily  ex- 
tracted if  so  placed  that  both  ends  can  be  felt.  In  that 
case,  it  is  only  necessary  to  press  the  end  nearest  the  sur- 
face through  the  skin,  and  it  can  be  easily  withdrawn.  If, 
however,  as  more  frequently  happens,  only  one  end  can  be 
felt,  and  it  is  uncertain  what  length  of  steel  is  in  the 
tissues,  attempts  to  force  the  needle  out  lead  generally  to 
its  being  buried  deeper  ;  and  it  is  better,  therefore,  to  have 
recourse  to  medical  advice  at  once,  in  order  that  the 
surgeon  may,  if  he  think  it  advisable,  at  once  cut  down 
upon  the  foreign  body.  Operations  of  this  kind,  though 
apparently  trivial,  should  never  be  undertaken  by  amateurs, 
since  the  hand  is  too  important  an  organ  to  be  cut  into 
lightly  by  one  unacquainted  with  its  anatomy ;  and,  besides, 
tliere  is  usually  no  great  urgency  in  the  case,  and  the 
needle  may  very  well  be  left  alone  until,  in  process  of 
time,  it  makes  its  way  to  the  surface,  as  it  is  pretty  sure 
to  do.  Crochet-needles  are  more  difficult  to  manage  than 
ordinary  needles,  owing  to  the  hook  at  one  end.  If  merely 
driven  accidentally  into  the  skin,  the  wound  may  be  cau- 
tiously enlarged  with  a  lancet  or  sharp  and  clean  pen- 
knife, so  as  to  allow  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  barb  ;  but  if 
deeply  embedded  in  a  finger,  or,  as  has  happened,  in  the 
tongue  of  a  child,  it  will  be  necessary  to  push  the  point 
through  in  order  to  cut  the  hook  off  with  a  pair  of  wire- 
pliers,  and  for  tl-u~-  medical  assistance  should,  if  possible. 


be  obtained.  Fish-hooks  are  to  be  treated  on  a  similar 
plan,  except  that  the  disciple  of  Walton,  being  gene- 
rally alone  and  at  a  distance  when  the  accident  happens, 
must  be  content  to  cut  the  line  from  the  mischievous 
hook,  and  having  forced  the  barb  through  the  nearest 
point  of  skin,  should  draw  the  hook  through  the  wound 
thus  made. 

Bleeders  are  persons  who  suffer  from  what  is  scienti- 
fically called  a  " ha^morrhagic  diathesis" — /.f.,  they  bleed 
profusely  with  the  slightest  scratch,  and  the  blood  is  so 
peculiar  that  there  is  the  greatest  difficulty  in  stopping  its 
flow.  This  disease  is  found  to  affect  sometimes  only  one 
or  two  members  of  a  family,  is  often  hereditary,  and  may 
be  traced  through  many  generations.  It  is,  fortunately, 
of  not  very  common  occurrence,  and  is  only  mentioned 
here  in  order  to  warn  parents  of  children  who  sufler  from 
a  tendency  to  bleed,  that  they  should  always  inform  their 
medical  man  and  their  dentist  of  the  fact,  so  that,  as  far 
as  possible,  all  sources  of  bleeding  may  be  avoided  ;  and 
should  hicmorrhage  accidentally  occur,  immediate  medical 
assistance  should  be  obtained,  since  every  hour's  delay 
renders  it  more  difficult  to  stop  the  bleeding. 

Bleeding  from  the  Nose  is  sometimes  violent,  and  usually 
an  evidence  of  some  derangement  of  the  general  health, 
for  which  medical  advice  should  be  sought.  In  order  to 
check  the  bleeding,  cold  water  may  be  employed  to  bathe 
the  face  and  head  ;  or  ice-water  may  be  injected  with  a 
syringe  or  india-rubber  bottle  into  one  nostril,  when,  if 
the  patient  will  keep  the  mouth  open,  the  water  will  flew 
round  the  nose  and  out  of  the  opposite  nostril.  In  slight 
cases,  merely  sniffing  up  cold  air  forcibly  will  ofte;?. 
check  the  bleeding,  and,  in  addition,  powdered  alum  or 
tannin  may  be  used  as  snuff.  When  the  bleeding  con- 
tinues for  any  time,  the  surgeon  should  be  called  in  to 
plug  the  nostrils. 

Bruises  and  Contusions  are  common  accidents  where 
there  are  children,  and  fortunately  a  child  is  able  to  sustain, 
without  serious  after-consequences,  a  bruise  which  might 
be  of  importance  to  an  older  person.  A  severe  bruise  is 
alarming  to  the  bystanders  on  account  of  the  rapid  swell- 
ing which  takes  place,  and  is  annoying,  in  addition,  to  the 
recipient  on  account  of  the  ccchymosis  or  discoloration 
left  for  some  days  after.  The  application  of  cold  in  any 
form  has  a  tendency  to  check  the  swelling  and  sub-cuta- 
neous extravasation  of  blood  constituting  a  bruise,  and 
this  may  be  applied  in  any  form  most  convenient — cold 
vinegar  and  water,  iced  water,  or  the  favourite  cold  metal 
spoon.  Raw  beef-steak  is  popularly  supposed  to  have  a 
great  controlling  effect  upon  bruises,  but  apparently  with- 
out good  foundation.  There  is  a  medical  remedy  cf 
recognised  utility  in  these  cases,  however,  and  this  is  the 
tincture  of  arnica  ;  and  this  may  be  painted  on  the  skin, 
if  not  broken,  or  applied  diluted  with  water,  if  the  skin  is 
torn.  There  is,  however,  one  caution  to  be  observed  in 
the  use  of  arnica — that  in  some  persons  it  excites  an 
irritation  of  the  skin  closely  resembling  erysipelas,  par- 
ticularly if  applied  to  a  broken  surface.  Some  caution 
should,  therefore,  be  used  in  its  first  application,  though 
the  frequency  of  the  occurrence  of  any  untoward  result 
is  probably  very  greatly  exaggerated.  Contusions  are 
more  severe  accidents  than  mere  superficial  bruises 
(with  which,  however,  they  may  be  combined),  since 
they  may  endanger  the  life  of  the  sufferer  from  injury 
to  deep-seated  and  important  organs.  The  immediate 
effect  of  a  severe  contusion  of  any  part  is  ordinarily  to 
produce  faintness  and  nausea,  and  for  this  the  patient 
should  be  laid  in  an  horizontal  position,  should  be  allowed 
plenty  of  fresh  air  (and  consequently  should  not  be 
crowded  upon  by  bystanders),  and  may,  if  able  to  swallow, 
drink  a  small  quantity  of  weak  brandy  and  water  or  wine. 
On  recovering  from  the  first  faintness,  no  other  symptoms 
may  appear,  and  the  patient  may  have  received  no  further 
injury  than  the  "shock"  of  the  accident ;  but  if,  from  the 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


S'5 


nature  and  severity  of  the  injury  itself,  it  may  be  sus- 
pected that  some  internal  injury  has  been  received — as 
shown  by  long-continued  faintnoss,  by  hiccup,  or  pain  in 
the  abdomen  or  chest — immediate  recourse  should  be  had 
to  medical  aid. 

Concussion  of  the  Brain  is  the  common  result  of  a  con- 
tusion of  the  head,  and  cannot  be  too  seriously  regarded. 
In  any  case  of  injury  to  the  head,  where  insensibility  has 
occurred,  a  doctor  should  be  sent  for  ;  but  even  in  slighter 
cases,  when  the  concussion  has  apparently  only  produced 
a  temporary  dizziness,  careful  treatment,  both  at  the  time 
and  after  the  injury,  will  be  necessary  to  restore  the 
patient  to  a  healthy  state  of  both  mind  and  body.  In  any 
case  of  insensibility  from  injury  to  the  head,  no  harm  can 
possibly  be  done  by  cutting  the  hair  close,  and  applying 
cold  to  the  head  until  the  surgeon's  arrival ;  or  should 
this  be  delayed,  and  the  patient's  body  be  cold  and  the 
skin  clammy,  hot  bottles  may  be  put  to  the  feet  in  addi- 
tion. Beyond  this,  however,  it  is  never  safe  for  a  non-pro- 
fessional person  to  go  in  a  case  of  severe  injury  to  the 
head  ;  and  most  particularly  ought  the  administration  of 
stimulants  in  any  form  to  be  avoided. 

Sprains. — A  severely  sprained  ankle  is  a  common,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  serious,  accident.  As  it  is  very  pos- 
sible that  the  accidental  twisting  of  the  foot  to  one  side 
may  have  broken  the  small  bone  of  the  leg  near  the 
ankle,  such  a  case  should  always  be  seen  as  soon  as 
possible  by  a  medical  man.  But  if  the  sprain  is  of  a 
sufficiently  slight  character  to  be  treated  domestically,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  complications  may  occur 
at  a  later  period,  for  which  medical  advice  should  not 
b3  too  long  delayed.  In  the  case  of  a  sprained  ankle, 
it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  get  the  boot  off  before 
the  swelling,  which  invariably  follows,  has  come  on.  If 
the  accident  has  happened  at  a  distance  from  home, 
the  foot  should  then  be  firmly  bound  up  with  a  bandage 
applied  round  the  ankle  in  a  series  of  figure  of  8  loops, 
and  the  foot  kept  in  an  elevated  posture  during  the 
conveyance  of  the  patient  to  his  home.  On  reaching 
home,  the  bandage  is  to  be  removed,  and  the  foot  assi- 
duously fomented  with  water  as  hot  as  can  be  borne, 
until  the  pain  is  relieved  ;  some  tincture  of  arnica  or 
poppy-heads  being  useful  adjuncts  to  the  fomentation. 
The  application  of  leeches  to  bad  sprains  is  often  of 
service,  but  it  is  not  safe  to  have  recourse  to  them 
without  medical  sanction.  The  use  of  cold  applica- 
tions to  sprains,  though  popular,  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. The  cold  lowers  the  vitality  of  the  part, 
and  tends  to  prevent  the  very  repair  which  it  is  our 
object  to  bring  about.  Support  and  rest  are  the  points 
to  be  insisted  on,  and  these  are  most  readily  obtained 
by  strapping  the  joint  firmly  with  adhesive  plaister,  so 
that  no  movement  of  the  ankle  is  possible.  In  order 
to  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a 
ynrd  or  two  of  good  "  strapping "  or 
"soap  plaister,"  so  that  the  pieces 
required  may  be  cut  ''in  the  length" 
of  the  calico.  Strips  long  enough 
to  encircle  the  foot  and  cross  by  some 
inches,  are  to  be  cut,  and  must  be 
thoroughly  warmed,  one  by  one,  either 
by  holding  them  with  the  plain  side 
to  the  fire,  or,  better,  by  plunging 
them  for  a  moment  into  a  basin  of 
hot  water.  The  foot  being  then  brought 
to  a  right  angle  with  the  leg,  and 
supported  on  the  heel  at  a  convenient 
height,  the  strips  of  plaister  are  to  be  applied  as  follows: — 
Beginning  near  the  roots  of  the  toes,  the  first  strip  is  to 
be  passed  beneath  the  sole,  and  the  ends  crossed  over  the 
instep,  and  each  strap  is  to  be  placed  nearer  the  heel,  and 
to  overlap  its  predecessor  for  about  \t\\i  its  width.  When 
half  a  dozen  straps  have  thus  been  applied,  another  series 


is  to  be  made  to  pass  around  the  upper  part  of  the  joint 
horizontally,  crossing  the  first  set  on  the  mstep,  and  thus 
the  whole  joint  will  be  supported  and  compressed,  and  the 
patient  will  be  able  to  get  about  (Fig.  13).  A  bandage 
should  be  applied  over  the  plaister,  to  keep  it  from  slip- 
ping. In  a  couple  of  days  the  plaister  will  have  become 
loose,  owing  to  the  subsidence  of  the  swelling,  and  must 
be  renewed,  the  old  plaister  being  most  easily  removed 
by  slipping  the  blunt  end  of  a  pair  of  scissors  beneath 
it  on  one  side  of  the  foot,  and  dividing  it  so  that  it  can 
be  taken  away  in  one  piece.  For  a  sprain  of  mode- 
rate severity  the  plaister  will  require  renewing  three  or 
four  times ;  but  even  when  its  use  is  abandoned,  it  will 
be  advisable  to  employ  a  bandage  or  an  elastic  "  foot- 
piece"  for  some  time,  as  the  foot  will  still  require  support. 
A  sprain  of  one  of  the  larger  joints,  and  especially  ol 
the  knee,  is  a  serious  injury  ;  and  if  any  severe  symptoms 
show  themselves,  immediate  recourse  must  be  had  to 
medical  aid.  When  a  knee  merely  gives  way  occasion- 
ally under  a  person  when  walking,  and  there  is  no  swelling 
or  heat  about  the  part,  it  will  often  be  of  service  to  support 
the  joint  with  a  knee-cap,  which  may  be  of  elastic  material, 
and  is  better  made  to  lace  up  than 
to  draw  over  the  leg.  When  the 
joint  continues  weak  for  some 
time,  it  may  be  advantageously 
treated  like  an  ankle  by  strapping, 
the  plaister  being  cut  long  enough 
to  go  once-and-a-half  round  the 
joint,  and  about  an  inch  in  width. 
The  straps  are  then  made  to  over- 
lap in  regular  series,  from  below 
upwards,  crossing  in  front  until  the 
joint  is  completely  covered,  as  seen 
in  the  illustration,  Y'vg.  14. 

A  Strain  is  much  the  same  as  a 
sprain,  except  that  it  docs  not 
necessarily  occur  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  a  joint.  It  consists  in  the 
tearing  of  some  tendinous  or  mus- 
cular fibres,  and  is  generally  the 
result  of  some  violent  and  un- 
wonted exertion.  The  treatment 
consists  in  obtaining  rest  and 
support  for  the  part  by  careful 
bandaging,  the  use  of  a  sling,  &c. 
The  terra  "  a  strain  "  is  sometimes 
applied  by  the  lower  classes  to  the 
occurrence  of  a  rupture  from  some 
violent  exertion.  If  any  swelling 
should  be  noticed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  groia 
after  some  exertion  or  athletic  exercise,  a  surgeon  should 
be  immediately  consulted,  as  the  case  may  be  a  serioii: 
one,  and  a  little  delay  be  a  matter  of  life  or  death. 


Fig.  14. 


COOKING. 


SIMPLE  RECIPES  {continued). 

Suet  Dumpling. — This  is  an  excellent  dish  both  fci 
rich  and  poor,  for  several  reasons.  It  is  wholesome, 
pleasant,  and  cheap  ;  it  may  be  nKkde  more  or  less  sub- 
stantial ;  and  its  flavour  may  be  varied  according  to 
taste  ;  it  can  be  eaten  cither  as  a  savoury'  or  as  a  sweet. 
Its  value  as  nourishment  consists  in  its  containing  a  good 
proportion  of  fat.  Waiters  on  cookery  cannot  too  strongly 
insist,  and  mothers  of  families  cannot  be  too  fully  per- 
suaded, that  a  certain  quantity  o{  fat  in  our  daily  food 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  health.  Young  people,  espe- 
cially, who  have  not  enough  of  it  to  eat,  are  more  liable 
than  others  to  fall  into  a  consumption  at  the  period  when 
tfiey  are  making  rapid  growth.  To  such  persons  fat.  ni 
the  shape  of  cod-liver  o'.\.  is  administered  as  a  medicine; 


54 


COOKING. 


for  it  matters  little  in  what  shape  the  fat  is  taken,  whether 
as  dripping,  butter,  or  oil,  their  efifects  on  the  system  being 
exactly  the*  same.  Unfortunately,  though  one  man  can 
lead  a  horse  to  water,  a  hundred  can't  make  him  drink; 
and  it  is  useless  to  set  before  delicate,  perhaps  fanciful, 
stomachs  things  from  which,  however  good  for  them, 
they  turn  away  with  dislike  and  loathing.  The  only 
way  is  to  cheat  them,  as  it  were,  into  taking,  almost 
without  knowing  it,  what  is  essential  for  their  bodily  wel- 
fare. The  housewife  at  least  ought  to  be  thoroughly 
convinced,  of  the  great  importance  of  all  kinds  of  fat  in 
family  dishes,  and  never  to  waste  any ;  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, to  procure  all  she  can  at  an  economical  rate. 
There  are  families  in  which  every  scrap  of  fat  which  is 
helped  to  its  members  seated  at  table  is  left  on  the  plate, 
and  thrown  to  the  cat  or  the  pig.  This  ought  never  to 
be.  It  will  not  often  happen  in  families  who  live  by  out- 
door employment,  but  it  will  when  their  occupations  are 
different.  We  have  no  right  to  say  an  unkind  word 
about  "  daintiness  "  and  the  rest,  if  persons  who  are  con- 
fined nearly  all  day  long  to  sedentary  and  monotonous 
employment,  in  a  close,  in-door  atmosphere,  have  not 
the  sharp-set  appetite  of  the  ploughman  who  hears  the 
singing  of  the  lark  and  feels  the  freshness  of  the  winds 
of  March,  fr^m  misty  daybreak  to  ruddy  sunset ;  only, 
if  they  can  eat  no  meat  but  lean,  we  urge  them  to  use 
the  fat  under  some  disguise.  They  already  take  it  in 
many  shapes,  unconsciously  or  without  thinking  of  it,  as 
in  broths,  milk,  bread  and  butter,  and  even  in  meat  which 
they  call  and  consider  lean.  Let  them  buy,  therefore,  not 
one  ounce  the  less  of  good  wholesome  fat  with  their 
meat,  and  let  them  employ  it  in  some  of  the  ways  wc 
are  about  to  mention.  For  plain  suet  dumpling,  the  best 
is  the  kidney  fat  of  beef  or  veal,  which  is  sold  separately 
in  small  quantities,  and  at  a  moderate  price.  Chop 
this  fine,  and  to  one  pound  of  flour,  put  from  a  quarter 
to  half  a  pound  of  chopped  suet,  according  to  the 
richness  you  wish  to  make  it  of.  Add  a  pinch  of  salt, 
and  water  or  milk  enough  to  make  it  into  a  paste  that 
will  hold  well  together.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  mix  the 
salt  (and,  if  you  like,  the  least  dust  of  pepper)  with  the 
suet  before  mixing  with  the  flour.  Make  this  paste 
into  dumplings  about  the  size  of  your  fist.  It  is  better 
to  make  several  of  a  moderate  size,  than  a  few  large 
ones  :  they  boil  more  thoroughly,  and  in  a  shorter  time  ; 
besides,  each  person  can  have  his  dumpling  to  himself. 
Flour  them  well ;  tie  each  one  in  a  cloth,  well  floured 
inside,  not  too  tight,  but  allowing  a  little  room  to 
swell.  A  very  little  practice  will  teach  you  the  degree  of 
tightness.  Throw  them  into  boiling  water,  and  keep 
boiling  (galloping)  a  couple  of  hours  or  so,  according  to 
the  size  of  your  dumplings,  and  see  that  none  of  them 
stick  to  the  bottom.  Serve  them  the  minute  they  are 
taken  out  of  the  cloth.  They  need  no  sauce  ;  but  a  little 
bit  of  butter,  as  an  indulgence,  or  some  roast  meat  gravy, 
does  no  harm.  For  sweet  suet  dumpling,  allow  a 
liberal  quantity  of  suet.  With  the  salt  mix  a  httle 
grated  nutmeg,  and  a  good  table-spoonful  of  brown 
powdered  sugar  ;  or,  instead  of  using  sugar,  you  may 
mix  a  table-spoonful  of  treacle  with  the  water  with 
which  you  make  the  dumpling-paste.  Boil  as  before. 
If  sauce  be  wanted,  give  matrimony  sauce. 

Plum  Dumplmg. — As  before  ;  only  mix  with  the  salt, 
sugar,  and  suet  six  ounces  of  washed  currants,  or  of 
raisins  stoned  and  chopped.  Same  cooking,  and  same 
sauce.  We  once  saw  an  ailing  child  crying  for  plum- 
dumpling  when  there  was  only  plain,  and  refusing  to  dine. 
A  good-natured  friend,  who  happened  to  look  in,  said, 
"  Give  me  one  of  those  nasty  plain  dumplings,"  and  dis- 
appeared with  it  into  the  kitchen.  In  two  minutes  he 
returned  with  it  stuck  over  the  outside  with  plums.  The 
child. set  to  with  appetite,  and  ate  it.  If  your  quantity 
of  plums  is  scantv.  mix  just  a  fetv  with  your  flour  and 


suet,  and  stick  the  rest  on  the  outside  of  your  dumplings 
before  tying  them  up  in  their  cloth  and  boiling  them. 
They  will  be  received  by  the  little  ones  with  a  heartier 
welcome  than  if  the  treasures  they  contained  were  unseen. 
It  is  said  that  "  a  pleasing  appearance  is  the  best  letter 
of  recommendation."  You  may  call  them  dumplings  in 
their  Sunday  clothes.  Moreover,  the  plan  has  a  highly- 
approved  precedent.  Cabinet  pudding  (which  is  nothing 
but  sponge-cake  soaked  in  beat-up  egg,  and  boiled  in  a 
mould)  ought  to  have  its  outside  only  garnished  with  dried 
cherries,  or,  in  default  of  them,  with  jar-raisins  stoned,  by 
sticking  them  inside  the  mould  before  boiling. 

Siiet  Pudding. — Mix  up  the  above  ingredients  with 
milk,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  bread-crumbs,  two  or 
three  eggs,  a  little  lemon-peel  chopped  fine,  and  a  little 
larger  allowance  of  sugar.  Do  not  make  this  up  into 
separate  dumplings,  but  boil  in  one  lump,  in  a  well- 
floured  cloth,  for  a  longer  time — three  or  four  hours. 
You  see  that  in  this  case,  as  in  the  soldier's  famous 
flint-soup,  we  are  gradually  enriching  a  preparation 
which  started  from  a  very  simple  beginning.  By  adding 
sundry  nice  things  to  suet  and  flour,  we  have  got  from 
plain  suet  pudding  almost  up  to  plum  pudding  itself. 

Short  Cake. — We  now  come  to  things  that  are  made 
with  a  crust  (which  we  may  call  pie-crust,  tho.ugh  in 
many  cases  it  is  boiled),  enclosing  something  either 
sweet  or  savoury.  And  as  we  have  said  a  few  words 
about  fat,  so  now  we  would  call  the  attention  of  house- 
wives to  the  importance  of  sugar  as  an  article  of  food. 
Its  effects  on  the  constitution  are  similar  to  those  of 
fat,  and  it  may  be  used  as  a  partial  substitute  for,  or 
in  addition  to  it.  They  should  also  know  that  there 
are  three  things  which,  although  so  different  to  the 
taste  and  the  touch,  are  alike  in  their  nature  and  their 
chemical  composition.  Those  three  things  are  gum, 
starch,  and  sugar.  We  often  eat  these,  especially  the 
two  last,  without  being  aware  of  it.  Arrowroot  is  starch. 
There  is  starch  in  potatoes  and  in  bread.  Indeed,  the 
more  of  it  there  is  in  potatoes,  the  more  nourishing 
they  arc.  There  is  sugar  not  only  in  most  ripe  fruits, 
but  in  many  roots,  as  turnips,  carrots,  and  parsnips  ;  and 
in  many  vegetables,  as  in  young  green  peas.  When  they 
grow  older,  it  changes  into  starch.  Almost  all  the  sugar 
eaten  in  France  is  made  from  the  beetroot  or  mangold- 
wurtzel.  Sugar  helps  to  fatten,  and  is  therefore  one  of  the 
aliments  which  supply  animal  heat.  It  is  a  valuable 
addition  to  food,  though  not  an  economical  one  ;  and 
families  who  can  afford  its  use  are  to  blame  if  they 
pinch  themselves  in  tlie  article  of  sugar.  Sweet  things, 
however,  require  to  be  backed  up  with  a  supply  of  those 
kinds  of  food  which  nourish  the  body — that  is,  which 
supply  the  materials  for  growth.  Short-cake  is  merely 
pie-crust  sweetened  with  a  little  sugar,  rolled  out  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  and  then  baked  in  pieces 
of  any  convenient  size.  It  is  mostly  eaten  hot,  as  a  little 
treat,  at  tea-time  or  supper,  and  is  often  made  of  what 
remains  over  and  above  of 

Good  Common  Pie-Crust. — You  may  make  this  by 
putting  six  or  seven  ounces  of  finely-chopped  suet,  with 
a  little  salt,  to  every  pound  of  flour,  and  working  it  into 
a  paste  with  a  little  cold  water.  But  it  is  better  to  "  try 
down,"  or  melt  in  a  saucepan  over  a  gentle  fire,  any  suet 
or  fat  you  happen  to  have,  and  put  it  to  the  flour  just 
before  it  gets  cold.  Very  eatable  crust  may  be  made 
with  the  dripping  from  roast  beef,  veal,  pork,  or  mutton. 
Even  goose-dripping  makes  a  not  bad  crust  (though  a 
little  strong  in  flavour)  for  meat  dumplings  or  pies. 
Butter  is  really  the  grease  for  pie-crust.  Sweet,  fresh 
pork-lard,  too,  makes  excellent  pie-crust,  but  it  is  often 
as  dear  as  butter,  so  that  it  is  a  question  of  price  which 
you  will  use.  The  qtmntity  of  fat  to  each  pound  of  flour 
is  also  a  matter  on  v/hich  you  will  consult  your  pocket, 
and   cut  your  garment   according  to  your  cloth.     Ten 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


inces  of  dripping  or  lard  will  make  a  rich  crust.  But 
my  things  do  not  7va/ii  a  n'c/i  crust.  They  are  the 
acr  for  its  being  at  once  substantial  and  /i^/t^,  which 
U  somewhat  depend  on  the  cook's  cxf>crtncss  in  the 
.■  of  her  rollini;-pin,  and  in  her  not  being  afraid  to 
i;)!()y  a  little  of  what  homely  folk  call  "  elbow-grcasc."' 
I'c'.v  quick  turns  and  rollings  out,  with  judicious  sprink- 
i^^s  of  flour  between  them,  will  often  make,  with  the 
ne  matcria'o,  all  the  difference  between  a  light  crust 
d  a  heavy  one. 

Treacle  Pudding. — Roll  out  your  crust,  to  the  thickness 

I    from   one-third  to   one-quarter  of  an  inch,   into   an 

oblong  shape,  approaching  to  what  learned  men  call  "  a 

Sarallelogram,"  and    simpler    people    "a   long    square." 
pread   this   with  good   treacle  ;    then  roll    it   into   the 
^ape  of  a  bolster  ;  work  the  ends  together  with  your 
fingers,  and  give   them  a  twist  to  keep  the  treacle  in. 
Tie    it    up    in    a  well -floured    cloth,   taking    particular 
ire  of  the  ends.     An  oval  boiler  is  the  most  convenient, 
cause  the  pudding  Diust  not  be  bent.      Throw  it  into 
;   water,  and  let   it  boil   well  at   least  two  hours. 
:,   it   is   not   easy  to   boil   this   class   of  puddings 
;;,-polies)  too  much,  unless  you  sit  up  all  night  to  do 
N.B.  They  should   be  kept  boiling  till   the  minute 
\  you  want  to  serve  them. 
AK  Roly-poly. — Make  rather  a  rich  crust  ;  spread 
iL  \\\\.i\  brown  sugar,  and  proceed  as  above.     Matrimony 
sauce  (p.  27)  is  very  nice  to  cat  with  this. 

Apple  Roly-poly.  —  Peel    and    quarter    a    quantity   of 
apples,  and  cut  out  their  cores.     Set  them  on  the  fire 
in  a  saucepan  with  a  little  water  and  a  clove  or  two.     As 
they  boil,  stir  them,  and  mash  to  a  pulp.     It  will  be  a 
'jreat  improvement   if  you  can  put  with  them  the  rind 
f  an  orange  peeled  thin  and  shred  fine.     Of  the  pulp 
f  the  orange  you   will    have   no  difficulty  in  disposing, 
illy    if  there   arc   children  in   the    house.     When 
ai  and  tender,  reduce  your  apple-pulp   to    a   thick 
annalade  by  letting  it    stand  by  the  side  of  the  fire 
)  evaporate.      On  the   Continent,  a  similar   marmalade 
.   made   with   pears,   especially   with   windfalls    after  a 
..javy  gale.     Sweeten  your  marmalade,  if  required,  and 
with  it  make  your  roly-poly  as  in  the  case  of  treacle- 
pudding.      It   is   clear  that   you   can  make  a  roly-poly 
pudding  with  any  description  of  fruit,  jam,  or  marmalade ; 
or  you  may  even   substitute  for  them  a  few  plums  and 
.  urrants. 
Apple  Dumplings. — Peel  and  core   your  apples ;    cut 
lem  into  small  pieces.      Put  a  small  handful  of  these 
;io  the  middle  of  a  bit  of  pie-crust,  and  with  them  one 
'■)vc  and  a  little  lemon-peel  chopped  fine.     It  is  these 
:1c  additions  which  make  things  nice,  and  it  is  not  the 
jst,  but  the  thought  and  the  trouble  which  prevent  their 
jing  added.      You   may  also   put  in   a  teaspoonful  of 
.own  sugar.     Then  v.ork  the  crust  round  them,  closing 
L  at  the  top  with  a  clever  twist,   and  tie  them,  not  too 
.:rht,  nor  yet  too  loose,  in  cloths  floured  inside,  and  boil 
;)ing  an  hour  and  a  half.     There  are   recipes   for 
i;    apple-dumplings,   respecting    which    we   beg    to 
.  e  that  when  baked  they  certainly  are  dumplings  no 
..   but   become    turnovers,   rolls,   or  whatever   else 
ju  please, 

Apple  Rolls.  —  Chop    apples    very  fine,   and    sweeten 

>.cm   with    sugar.      Lay    three    or    four   tablespoonfuls 

f  this    in   the  middle    of  a    circular   or    oval    bit    of 

istc,  rolled  out  a  quarter   of  an   inch   thick.     Fold  it 

1  two  lengthwise  ;  unite  the  edges,  and  press  or  scollop 

.;,cm  with   the  bowl  of  a  teaspoon,  or  the  tines  of  a 

fjik.     Lay  your  rolls  on  a  flat  sheet  of  iron  or  baking- 

■  ■'     that   has   been   previously  greased,   and   set  into  a 

rate  oven.     To  make  quite  sure  of  the  apple  being 

;J,  it  will  be  found  a  good  plan,  instead  of  chopped 

r  sliced  fruit,  to  use  apple  marmalade,  as  made  for  apple 
:>)ly-poly  pudding. 


HINTS  ON   CARVING. 

Carving  is  quite  a  modern  art,  for  forks  have  no\ 
been  introduced  in  Europe  many  centuries.  The  first 
were  brought  to  England  from  Italy  by  Coryat,  an 
English  traveller,  in  161 1.  In  the  days  of  our  Saxon 
ancestors,  joints  of  meat,  poultry,  and  game,  were  brought 
to  table  on  the  spits  on  which  they  were  cooked,  and 
handed  round  to  the  company  by  the  serving  men  on 
their  knees.  Each  person  cut  what  he  pleased  from  the 
joint,  using  a  knife  which  he  carried  at  his  girdle  for 
the  purpose,  and  tearing  and  conveying  the  pieces  to 
his  mouth  with  his  fingers.  The  invention  of  forks  is 
ascribed  to  the  Italians,  who  used  them  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  Other  European  nations  fed  out  of  the  same 
dish,  the  gentlemen  cutting  off  pieces  of  meat  for  the  ladies 
first,  and  all  using  their  fingers.  The  first  forks  were  two- 
pronged,  much  like  our  carvers. 

In  1653  it  had  become  an  elegant  habit  to  use  a  fork, 
but  the  roughness  of  the  general  manners  at  a  period 
ignorant  of  forks  and  of  the  art  of  carving  may  be  gleaned 
from  the  instructions  given  in  etiquette  in  a  little  work 
published  at  the  date  above  named,  and  entitled,  "  The  . 
Accomplished  Lady's  Rich  Closet  of  Rarities."  in  which 
it  secms~hccessary  to  warn  her  againsr!^  a  demeanour 
only  likely  to  be  found  amongst  the  very  lowest  mem- 
bers of  society  in  our  days,  as  the  following  extract 
shows  : — 

"  A  gentlewoman  being  at  table  abroad  or  at  home, 
must  observe  to  keep  her  body  straighte,  and  not  lean  by 
any  means  upon  her  elbowcs  ;  nor  by  ravenous  gesture 
discover  a  voracious  appetite  ;  talke  net  when  you  have 
meat  in  your  mouthe,  and  do  not  smacke  like  a  pig, 
nor  eat  spoonc-meat  so  hot  that  the  tears  stand  in 
your  eyes.  It  is  very  uncourtly  to  drink  so  large  a 
draught  that  your  breath  is  almost  gone,  and  you  are 
forced  to  blow  strongly  to  recover  yourself;  throwing 
doune  your  liquor  as  into  a  funnel  is  an  action  fitter  for 
a  juggler  than  a  gentlewoman.  In  carving  at  your  own 
table,  distribute  the  best  pi(;ces  first,  and  it  will  appear 
very  decent  and  comely  to  use  a  fork,  so  touch  no  piece 
of  meat  without  it." 

Twenty  years  later  than  this,  the  Highlanders  in  Scot- 
land cut  the  joints  of  food  brought  to  table  with  the 
daggers  they  v.ore  at  their  sides.  Even  at  the  present  day 
in  France,  which  takes  the  lead  in  so  many  elegancies, 
carving  is  an  unknown  art  amongst  the  mass  of  the  middle 
classes.  If  a  leg  of  mutton  is  brought  to  table,  the  master 
of  the  house  grasps  the  joint  in  his  left  hand  by  the 
knuckle,  and  holds  it  up  from  the  dish,  cutting  off  junks 
of  meat  with  a  knife,  commencing  from  the  knuckle  end, 
but  without  system.  When  about  enough  for  the  family  or 
company  has  been  severed  from  the  joint,  the  rough-hewn 
lumps  of  mutton  are  transferred  to  a  large  meat  dish,  a 
fork  placed  at  the  edge,  and  thedisH  handed  round  hs  the 
servant.  Veal  and  boiled  beef  is  cut  carelessly  into  lumps 
with  a  knife  and  fork,  and  handed  round  in  the  same 
way. 

And  yet  refined  manners  at  table  have  been  admired  by 
the  C-lite  of  all  ages.  Even  the  poet  Ovid,  so  long  ago  as 
the  Roman  era,  advised  those  who  sought  to  gain  the 
affections  of  others  to  be  careful  in  their  ways  at  table. 
He  instructs  his  readers — 

"  Your  meat  genteelly  with  your  finger*  raise, 
And,  as  m  eating  there'i  a  certain  grace,  ^ 

Bew.irc  with  greasy  hands  lest  you  le>mear  your  £ice. 

We,  who  have  the  assistance  of  forks,  and  Can  readily 
obtain  instruction  in  the  daintiest  and  most  economical 
methods  of  cutting  the  food  brought  to  table,  ought  to 
blush  to  be  behiniihnnd  with  the  ancients,  not  only  as 
there  is  in  **  citing  "  but  also  in  carving,  "  a  certain  grace "' 
most  desirable  to  be  achieved. 


56 


klNTS   ON    CARVING. 


Roast  Fowls  are  by  no  means  an  uncommon  dish,  and 
one  is  often  requested  to  carve  a  fowl,  who,  from  want  of 
practice,  is  obliged  to  blush  and  refuse.  As  sideboard 
carving  is  not  yet  sufficiently  general  to  render  the  chal- 
lenge impossible,  we  recommend  every  one  of  our  readers 
to  master  so  really  simple  a  thing  ;  for  nothing  makes  a 
person  look  more  stupid  than  a  bashful  refusal  to  perform 
such  a  little  service  for  host  or  hostess  upon  occasion.  It 
looks  as  though  one  would  eat  his  dinner  at  another's, 
expense,  but  would  not  even  put  out  a  hand  to  assist. 
Poultry-carvers  are  placed  to  divide  fowls  ;  the  poultry 
knife  is  short  and  thick,  and  pointed  and  sharp  at  the 
top.  _  The  great  art  in  dividing  all  kinds  of  birds  is  to  hit 
the  joint  at  once,  else 
there  is  an  awkward  fumb- 
ling about,  'cut  after  cut 
made,  and  a  stupid  delay. 
To  take  off  the  leg,  which 
should  be  the   first  joint 


..;^^^^^^^^ 
<^^^^^^^'' 


centre  of  it,  hold  it  firmly,  place  the  fork  under  the 
portion  to  the  left  of  the  knife,  and  raise  it  from  the 
dish  at  right  angles,  till  the  bone  snaps  ;  then  cut  right 
through,  and  help  the  two  halves  separately.  The 
wings  are  deemed  the  most  choice  portions  of  the 
fowl,  and  are  usually  served  first.  In  Fig.  5  a  little 
round  is  noticeable  just  in  the  bend  of  the  wing,  marked 
X.  This  is  the  gizzard  in  the  one  wing,  and  the  liver 
in  the  other.  The  liver  wing  is  generally  most  esteemed. 
When  carving  a  fowl,  it  is  usual  to  ?.sk  which  is  preferred, 
the  liver  or  the  gizzard  wing. 

Salmon. — Fig.  3    in  the   coloured  plate  represeiits  a 
slice  of  salmon  when  brought  to  table.    Salmon  should  be 

served  on  a  napkin,  and 
it  is  often  garnished  with 
sprigs  of  fennel  or  slices 
of  lemon.  A  silver  or 
plated  slice  or  knife,  Fig. 
B  6,  is  used  for  this,  as  for 


Fijj.   6. 


Fig.  5- 

removed,  thrust  the  fork  into 
the  breast  at  A,  in  Fig.  4. 
Take  one  careful  glance  at 
your  bird  before  you  touch 
it  with  the  knife ;  in  this 
glance  ascertain  where  the 
joint  is  likely  to  be  rela- 
tive to  the  width  of  the  leg 
and  the  width  of  the  body. 
Strike  the  knife  to  the  joint ; 
feel  for  the  centre  of  it,  where 
the  joint  is  united  ;  send  in 
the  tip  of  the  knife  upright ; 
press  it  down  straight ;  and 
then,  with  the  weight  of  the 
hand,  turn  the  knife  over,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  4.  Instantly 
the  joint  cracks,  and  is 
severed.  Now  cut  it  off  from 
the  side,  taking  a  nice  slice 
of  meat  with  it,  according  to 

the  line  indicated  from  A  to  c,  in  Fig.  5.  Having  re- 
moved one  of  the  legs,  take  off  the  wing  on  the  same 
side  in  a  similar  manner.  A  good-sized  piece  of  meat 
is  taken  off  from  the  side  of  the  breast  with  the  wing, 
and  is  almost  of  triangular  shape  ;  it  is  shown  by  the 
dotted  line  from  G  to  F,  and  from  F  to  H.  Remove 
the  leg  and  wing  from  the  other  side,  and  then  take 
the  "merry-thought"  off  the  breast.  This  is  done  by 
inserting  the  knife  under  the  point  of  the  breast-bone 
at  I,  in  Fig.  5,  and  sweeping  it  round  at  each  side  by 
a  circular  cut  from  I,  past  L  to  M.  Afterwards  separate 
the  remainder  of  the  breast  from  the  back  by  cutting  it 
••ight  through  the  small  rib  bones  at  the  straight  line, 
from  end  to  end  of  the  fowl,  marked  J  K  in  Fig.  5. 
This  last  piece  of  the  breast  is  generally  helped  entire. 
Now  only  the  back  remains.  Turn  it  over  on  the  dish 
with  the  outside  upward  ;  plant  the  knife  upright  in  the 


Fig. 


Fig.  7. 

other  kinds  of  fish,  because 
steel  spoils  the  flavour  of  fish. 
A  knife  needs  to  be  broad 
to  divide  the  flakes  without 
breaking  them.  A  fish-knife 
has  a  sharp  curved  point  to 
disengage  the  fish  from  the 
bones,  and  is  perforated  with 
holes  to  allow  any  water 
retained  about  the  fish  to 
run  off.  A  fork  is  not  used 
in  helping  fish.  With  the 
blade  of  the  fish-knife,  A  to 
B,  in  Fig.  6,  cut  through  the 
salmon  from  end  to  end, 
close  to  the  backbone,  at 
the  line  marked  A  in  Fig.  7. 
If  the  fish  is  large,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  make  one 
or  more  cuts  parallel  with  A. 
These  are  again  divided 
across  into  square  pieces,  as  shown  at  B.  This  part 
of  the  salmon,  which  is  the  prime,  is  called  the 
"  thick." 

Witli  each  slice  of  the  thick,  cut  also  one  of  the 
"thin,"  or  belly,  which  is  cut  down  in  smaller  slices, 
as  shown  from  E  to  F  in  the  illustration.  When  the 
upper  portion  is  consumed,  remove  the  centre  bone  with 
the  fish-slice  to  the  side  of  the  dish.  Cut  the  remainder 
as  before,  taking  care  not  to  damage  the  napkin  on 
which  it  is  laid.  Each  piece  of  fish  is  served  from 
the  dish  to  the  plate  on  the  flat  of  the  silver  slice. 
The  centre  of  the  salmon  towards  the  shoulders,  and 
the  centre  cuts  are  reckoned  the  best.  In  our  next 
article  on  this  subject  we  shall  give  instructions  for 
carving  the  other  dishes  figured  in  our  coloured  illus- 
tration, as  well  as  some  more  plain  joints  of  butchers' 
meat. 


lASSKLL  o    I1V./1  Di.  mjLi^    •/ilL'J'!. 


57 


HOUSEHOLD    DECORATIVE  ART. 

II.— LEATHER- WORK. 

To  make  flowers  and  fruit  in  leather,  it  is  advisable  that 
Nature  should  guide  the  learners  entirely  ;  never  trusting 
to  their  own  taste,  nor  to  paper  patterns,  when  natural 
leaves  and  productions  are  procurable.  It 
is  almost  impossible  to  give  a  really  practi- 
cal written  description  ;  however,  I  will  en 
deavour  to  explain  the  process  of  making 
two  or  three  of  the  easiest,  as  simply  as  I 
can,  but  really  recommend  those  desiring 
to  be  proficients  in  the  art,  to  take  a  couple 
of  lessons  to  learn  the  more  complicated 
species,  as  roses,  passion-flowers,  Sec. 

Camellias. — Cut  out  the  petals  (Figs. 
6,  7)  according  to  the  number  and  sizes 
required,  damp  and  mould  them  into  shape 
with  the  fingers,  and  give  them  as  natural 
.1  form  as  possible  ;  fasten  all  the  petals 
ogether  with  thread  and  liquid  glue,  and 
put  a  piece  of  wire  through 
the     whole     for     a     stalk, 

covered  with  skiver  leather.  Fi 

The    buds    are    made    by 


piece  of  leather  uncut  at  one  end,  rolling  the  strips 
round  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  The  anthers  are 
formed  by  a  thin  strip  of  leather  being  cut  into  small 
pieces,  and  each  portion  rolled  between  the  finger  and 
thumb,  the  end  of  each  stamen  being  tipped  with  liquid 
glue  ;  the  anther  can  be  easily  affixed.  The  piece  of 
leather  left  at  the  end  of  the  stamens 
should  be  rolled  up  as  a  stalk,  put  into 
the  interior  of  the  lily,  pulled  through  the 
hole  at  the  base,  and  then  glued  to  its 
proper  place.  The  bud  of  the  lily  is  formed 
by  merely  folding  the  whole  corolla  to- 
gether, veined  (see  P'ig.  8). 

To  make  Hops.—Qwi  twenty  petals  out 
of  skiver  leather  all  the   same   size,  the 
shape  of  the  single  petal,  B,  Fig.  lo;  then 
take  a  piece   of  wire,  and  wind  leather 
round  the  end  of  it,  as  in  A,  Fig.  lo,  fasten- 
ing it  well  with  liquid   glue  ;    this  inner 
body  should  be  somewhat  shorter  than  the 
hop  is  to  be  when  completed,  and  pointed 
at  both  ends.      Mould  the 
petiils  into  a  convex  form  at 
the  end  of  each  petal,  then 
glue  them  alternately,  com- 


Fig.  II. 


rolling  some  leather  chips, 
smeared  with  liquid  glue, 
into  the  proper  shape,  then 
covering  with  two  or  three 
petals,  and  gluing  down 
the  base  to  the  calyx,  tak- 
ing care  to  leave  the  upper 
part  of  each  petal  free.  The 
calyx  should  be  formed  by 
cutting  a  piece  of  leather  to 
pattern,  and  moulded  into 
shape  with  the  fingers  and 
the  handle  of  the  veiner. 

Dahlias,  Fig.  9,  are  fonned 
by  cutting  out  circles  of 
leaves,  each  circle  being 
mailer  than  the  other,  and 

ich  having  a  hole  in  the 
centre  ;  a,  fine  roll  or 
pledget  of  leather  is  passed 

through  these  holes,  and  holds  all  the  circles  together. 
White   Lilies. — Take    a   piece   of  leather   and   cut   it 
into    six   petals,  formed   of  one   piece,  thus  :   the   three 
largest    petals    which    alternate    with     the    others     are 
brought   uppermost,    while   the   three   smaller    ones   are 
placed  behind  ;   the  leaves  arc  then   to  be   veined,  and  I 
curled   or  moulded  into  shape,  as  in  the  natural  flower,  ' 
and  the  petals    will    require    to  be  glued  to  keep  them  i 
in   their    proper   places.      Moulds  can    be    procured    to  ' 
work  the  lily  on  ;  but  if  there  is  not  one  at  hand,  some-  j 
thing   should  be    adapted  to   place   the   lily  upon  while  ; 
modelling  it   as   near  the  shape  of  the  interior  as  pos-  , 
sible.      It   has   bi\  stamens  Avith  oblong  anthers,  which 
axe  made   by  cutting   strips  of  leather,  and  leaving  a  ' 


Fig.  10. 


mencing  at  the  bottom  and 
finishing  at  the  top  of  the 
flower  (c.  Fig.  10). 

In  constructing  Fruit, 
much  care  is  necessary  in 
the  formation  of  the  moulds, 
the  choice  of  specimens,  and 
the  manipulation  through- 
out. The  materials  required 
consist  of  some  gutta- 
percha sheets  of  various 
degrees  of  thickness,  and 
some  natural  moulds  ;  the 
rest  of  the  materials  are 
the  same  as  those  used  for 
other  work,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  two  fruit -moulding 
tools  of  different  sizes. 

To  construct  a  Peach. — 
Choose  a  hard,  unripe  speci- 
men, and  obtain  a  cast  of  the  exact  half  by  dipping  a 
piece  of  gutta-percha  sheet  into  hot  water,  and  pressing 
it  firmly  o\cr  the  peach,  previously  smeared  with  olive 
oil.  If  neatly  done  —  and  the  art  will  be  acquired 
by  practice— the  natural  division  of  the  fniit  may  be 
imitated.  Remove  the  cast  from  the  fruit,  smear  the  inside 
with  oil,  and  cut  a  piece  of  leatlier  larger  than  the  rnculd, 
dip  it  into  cold  water,  and  with  the  moulding-tool  press  it 
gradually  and  firmly,  with  a  circular  motion,  into  the 
mould,  then  set  it  aside  to  dry.  Next  pour  some  liquid 
glue  into  the  inside,  and  press  in  any  odd  pieces  of 
leather  or  shavings  until  the  half  is  filled.  Construct 
another  half,  and  join  the  two  parts  with  liauid  glue  ;  rub 
off  the  irregular  edges  that  remain  with  the  end  of  thq 


rig.  s. 


HOME   GARDENING. 


Inoulding-tool,  and  smear  with  liquid  glue,  to  keep  the 
parts  firm,  then  size  and  varnish.  Lemons,  apples, 
inelons,  plums,  or  any  similar  fruits,  are  formed  in  the 
same  manner.  Pears,  figs,  or  such  shaped  fruit,  require 
Casting  with  the  apex  at  one  end  and  the  base  at  another. 

Cherries  are  made  in  a  similar  way  to  grapes,  which  we 
described  in  our  former  article. 

Walnuts  should  be  made  by  forming  a  mould  of  gutta- 
percha from  the  half,  and  pressing  in  the  moist  leather  as 
usual,  then  filling  up  and  varnishing. 

Filberts  are  very  effective  when  made,  and  are  thus 
produced  : — Crack  several  nuts,  and  choose  as  many  half 
pieces  as  you  can  ;  cut  the  edges  smooth  with  a  knife, 
and  there  is  the  mould  ready.  Lay  one  of  the  halves 
upon  a  piece  of  basil,  run  a  pencil  round  the  edge,  and 
cut  out  the  piece,  which  should  then  be  dipped  into  water 
and  pressed 'into  the  half-shell  mould  and  set  aside  to  dry ; 
when  dry,  fill  up  with  leather  in  the  manner  described  for 
a  peach ;  remove  from  the  mould,  then  glue  the  two  halves 
together,  rub  the  edges  down,  and  the  nut  is  finished. 
The  bract  is  made  by  taking  the  natural  bract  of  the  nut, 
as  in  Fig.  ii,  laying  it  on  the  leather,  and  cutting  it  out 
from  it.  The  base  of  the  nut  is  glued  to  the  centre,  and 
the  rest  of  the  leather  is  brouglit  round  the  nut  so  as 
to  give  as  natural  an  appearance  as  possible.  Wlien 
several  have  been  formed,  they  should  be  glued  together 
by  their  bases,  to  resemble  a  cluster,  and  the  stem  and 
leaves,  which  are  formed  in  the  usual  manner,  affixed  and 
arranged  according  to  Nature's  own  design. 

Currants,  Qr^c,  are  formed  in  the  same  manner  as 
ivy-berries. 

Strawberries  are  constructed  like  grapes,  but  of  course 
the  shape  is  different ;  and,  when  the  fruit  is  finished,  the 
seeds  are  imitated  by  digging  up  the  leather  with  the  sharp 
point  of  a  pen-knife  ;  it  is  then  fastened  to  its  calyx  with 
glue,  &c. 

Raspberries  and  Mulberries  are  formed  by  rolling  up 
slips  of  smeared  leather  until  they  are  the  size  of  the 
seeds,  and  having  previously  formed  a  pyramidal  piece, 
the  seeds  are  to  be  fixed  to  it  until  they  are  clustered  into 
the  proper  size  and  form.  The  mass  is  then  to  be  fastened 
to  the  calyx,  previously  cut  out  by  pattern,  and  attached 
to  the  stem  as  usual. 

Wheat  is  made  by  rolling  up  leather  strips,  and  cover- 
ing the  seed  with  small  oval  chips,  rendered  concave  by 
means  of  pressure,  and  fastening  them  to  a  zig-zag  strip  of 
leather. 

To  make  Leather  Figures. — Choose  a  good  plaster  of 
Paris  cast,  or  a  statue,  and  proceed  as  follows  : — Oil  the 
figure  well  with  sweet  oil,  and  having  warmed  a  sheet  of 
gutta-percha  by  immersion  in  hot  water,  press  it  firmly 
with  a  cloth  into  every  part  of  the  cast  required  ;  allow  it 
to  cool,  and  remove  it  carefully.  The  mould  is  then  to  be 
oiled  inside,  and  the  leather  (having  been  previously 
stretched)  should  be  dipped  into  cold  water  and  after- 
wards pressed  into  the  mould,  the  inside  to  be  filled  with 
leather  chips,  as  in  the  fruit  process,  and,  when  dry,  re- 
^Tioved  ;  but  I  recommend  that  a  couple  of  lessons  be 
taken  in  this  as  well  as  in  the  modelling  of  flowers  ; 
as  to  excel  in  this,  the  highest  order  of  leather  mo- 
delling, practical  demonstration  is  better  than  verbose 
descriptions. 

Bee-hives  can  be  made  with  leather  stems  as  follows  : — 
Cut  a  piece  of  wood  to  the  shape  and  size  required  ;  wind 
and  glue  upon  it  the  stems,  beginning  at  the  top  and 
finishing  off  at  the  bottom.  To  join  the  stems,  cut  each 
end  to  an  angle,  so  that  they  fit  ;  join  them  with  liquid 
glue,  and  tie  a  piece  of  thread  round  to  hold  them  tightly 
together  till  the  glue  is  dry,  when  the  thread  can  be  cut 
off.  To  imitate  the  "  tying,"  mark  with  a  pen,  with  the 
darkest  stain,  lines  and  dots  from  top  to  iDOttom,  cut  a 
little  bit  out  of  the  lower  tier  to  make  the  entrance,  and 
make  a  handle  at  the  top  with  a  piece  of  stem.    And  with 


this  example  of  industry  we  will  conclude  our  lesson  on 
leather  work.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  instructions  we 
have  given  have  been  merely  rudimentary,  teaching  the 
reader  how  to  form  imitations  in  leather  of  single  natural 
objects.  We  may,  at  some  future  time,  give  some  designs 
for  the  grouping  of  these  together,  for  the  purposes  of  house- 
hold decoration.  Such  groupings  may,  of  course, be  infinite 
in  their  variety,  according  to  the  shape  or  requirements 
of  the  object  the  leather-work  is  intended  to  ornament. 
Frames  for  pictures,  and  mirrors,  brackets,  bookstands, 
and  similar  articles,  are  good  subjects  for  the  artist  in 
leather-work  to  try  his  hand  upon,  and  may  be  rendered 
highly  ornamental  by  a  tasteful  employment  of  this  simple 
but  effective  branch  of  the  household  decorative  art. 


HOME   GARDENING. 


THE  SMALL  SUBURBAN  GARDEN, 

Among  the  many  thousands  of  houses  which  have  been 
built  during  the  last  few  years  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
our  large  towns,  few  are  without  some  small  patch  of 
ground  which  may  be  turned  to  account  for  flowers. 
There  may  not  be  room  for  an  extensive  and  showy 
display,  but  there  is  usually  enough,  either  at  back  or 
front,  to  make  an  ornament  to  the  house,  and  to  afford 
some  degree  of  amusement  and  interest  to  the  owner. 
What  to  do  with  these  small  plots,  is  the  difficulty  with 
many  who  are  without  gardening  experience,  and  have  little 
time  to  acquire  it,  and  consequently  we  very  often  find 
such  spaces  either  very  injudiciously  filled,  or  neglected 
altogether.  We  shall  try  to  put  our  readers  in  the  way 
of  making  a  flower  garden,  even  if  the  space  at  their  dis- 
posal be  only  a  few  yards  in  extent,  and  this  at  a  very 
small  outlay  of  either  money  or  labour. 

We  must  ask  our  readers  to  keep  in  view  the  hints  we 
gave  in  our  last  paper,  as  to  the  planning  of  the  small 
garden,  and  the  preparation  and  improvement  of  the  soil. 
Taking  these  as  a  starting-point,  we  will  suppose  the 
beginner  to  have  put  his  piece  of  ground  in  order  by 
clearing  away  rubbish,  well  turning  and  breaking  up  the 
soil,  and  importing  mould  if  necessary.  For  getting  the 
ground  ready,  if  it  has  ever  been  used  as  a  garden  before, 
he  will  find  a  three- pronged  fork  far  more  useful  than  a 
spade.  It  will  be  more  effective  in  its  work,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  is  more  easily  handled.  But,  in  selecting 
either  spade  or  fork,  do  not  choose  a  large,  or  heavy 
implement.  Select  a  tool  that  you  can  wield  with  ease,  for 
by  so  doing  you  will  be  able  to  go  over  far  more  ground 
in  a  given  time,  than  if  you  chose  one  which  apparently 
would  turn  up  a  great  deal  more  at  a  stroke,  but  would 
entail  in  its  use  a  degree  of  fatigue  which  might  soon 
compel  you  to  desist  altogether.  People  very  often  fancy 
that  it  is  necessary  to  get  tools  for  their  work  of  the  same 
size  and  weight  as  those  which  a  regular  gardener  is  in 
the  habit  of  using,  but  this  is  a  mistake. 

With  such  operations  as  trenching,  manuring,  and 
making  pits,  all  of  which  are  most  important,  and  will 
require  a  full  explanation,  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  deal  at 
present.  Our  readers  who  may  desire  information  on 
those  subjects  will  find  it  as  we  proceed  ;  it  being  our 
intention  to  describe  all  the  various  gardening  operations 
in  their  regular  order,  as  they  are  successively  required. 

The  ground  prepared,  it  has  next  to  be  laid  out.  There 
must  be  the  space  in  which  the  flowers  are  to  be  grown, 
and — what  it  is  equally  important  to  provide  for— the 
means  of  getting  at  the  flower-bed  or  beds  from  all  points, 
for  planting  or  cultivation.  A  small  garden  should  have 
small  beds  ;  but  it  is  a  common  mistake  to  make  one 
large  bed  in  such  a  place,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  circle  or 
an  oblong  square.  If  the  garden  is  surrounded  by  an 
open. fencing,  the  best  arrangement  is  a  flower  border 
running  round  three  of  its  sides,  with  a  walk  up  the  centre. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


59 


If  there  is  sufficient  widtli,  a  middle  space  may  be  allotted 
to  flower-beds  in  addition.  But  if,  as  we  have  before  re- 
marked, a  wall  or  close  fence  encloses  the  plot,  make  your 
llower-beds  in  the  centre,  and  your  walks  around  the  sides. 

The  arrangement  of  side  beds  may  be  made  either  in 
the  usual  fashion  of  a  straight  and  uniform  line,  or  with 
tlie  outer  border  forming  a  waved  line.  The  latter  plan  is 
decidedly  preferable  where  the  available  space  is  not  so 
limited  as  to  cause  a  trivial  effect.  Besides  being  a  depar- 
ture from  the  tiresome  uniformity  which  ordinarily  meets 
the  eye,  it  affords  somewhat  better  means  of  tending  the 
ilowers,  as  the  indentation  of  each  curve  gives  a  more 
convenient  approach  to  the  plants.  But  in  these  and 
other  matters,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  lay  down  any  very 
definite  rules,  and  the  reader  must  be  guided  by  the 
suitability  of  the  plan  suggested  to  the  space  at  his 
disposal. 

As  to  centre  beds,  ^ 

beware,  in  any  case,     •  A 

of  the  mistake   to  /-  _..•#---;-._ 

which  we  have  be-  ' 

fore  alluded.  Itmay 
be  easy  enough  to         ^,  -' ' 
plant  a  large  bed,         *-  ., 
beginning  from  the  ""-L. 

middle   and  work-  '' 

ing  outward  ;  but 
when     the     plants  L  "^'"' 

come     to     grow,  '■'' 

it  is  impossible   to  Fig.  i.  Fig. 

tend  them  properly 
whhout  risk  of  in- 
jury. When  they 
require  trimming 
or  watering,  the 
nlants  are  difficult 
of  access,  and  you 
nust  step  upon  the 
bed  to  accomplish 
the  work.  For 
catering,  in  town 
^.irdens,  should  be 
:,iven  occasionally 
t )  every  individual 
plant ;  not  to  its 
;  oits  alone,  but 
■-Uoroughly  over  its 
i.aves,  to  remove 
iVom  them  the  dust 

and  other  pollutions  which  choke  their  pores.  And 
when  plants  are  in  flower,  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
from  them  continually  all  decaying  leaves  and  spent 
ijlossoms,  so  that  they  may  be  kept  in  health,  and  their 
period  of  blooming  may  t)e  prolonged  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. 

Accordingly,  for  any  central  space,  let  the  ground  be 
divided,  so  that  access  to  all  the  plants  is  freely  open.  If 
the  space  will  allow  the  formation  of  one  good-sized  bed 
only,  reject  the  form  of  either  circle  or  square  ;  there  are 
others  which  will  be  both  more  pleasing  to  the  sight  and 
more  convenient  from  the  gardening  point  of  view.  We 
.;ive  two  or  three  diagrams  of  suitable  forms  of  single 
beds,  Figs.  I,  2,  and  3,  which  will  suggest  others  to  our 
ingenious  readers. 

When  there  is  a  larger  space  available,  and  more  than 
one  central  bed  can  be  made,  the  ground  may  be  portioned 
out  in  geometrical  forms,  comprising  a  circle  or  an  oval, 
with  segments  of  a  circle.  Our  illustrations.  Figs.  4  and  5, 
suggest  figures  applicable  in  this  case,  always  remember- 
ing to  let  the  forms  chosen  satisfy  the  eye,  as  well  as 
afford  ready  access  to  the  plants. 

We  have  seen,  where  plans  similar  to  these  are 
adopted,  and  especially  where  the  garden  is  formed  on 


Fig  3. 


what  was  previously  meadow  land,  the  grass  left  on  the 
spaces  around  or  between  the  beds.  But  we  must  confess 
we  would  rather  relay  turfs  at  any  time  than  attempt  to 
renovate  old  and  coarse  grass,  which  can  never  be  made 
to  look  so  well  as  new ;  neither  do  we  approve  of  turf  for 
either  edging  or  lawn  in  very  small  gardens.  It  requires, 
in  summer  particularly,  incessant  clipping  and  attention 
to  keep  it  in  tolerable  order,  and  the  time  which  should 
properly  be  devoted  to  the  plants  is  thus  occupied  by 
their  surroundings.  What  is  best  for  the  purpose  is  a 
walk  of  neat  gravel. 

FORMATION   OF  GARDEN  PATH.S. 

In  the  case  of  paths,  we  have  heard  it  stated  that 
perfect  drainage  is  only  absolutely  essential  in  a  very 
damp  locality,  or  where  there  is  a  rush  of  water  from 

higher  ground  near 
at  hand ;  but  we 
beg  to  differ  in  this 
respect,  because  we 
look  upon  it  that 
*'  whatever  is  worth 
doing  is  worth  doing 
well,'  and  as  it  is 
merely  the  question 
of  a  little  extra 
labour,  there  is  no 
good  reason  why  so 
important  a  matter 
should  be  slighted. 
Ourplanis  to  shape 
out  the  paths  ex- 
actly, and  remove 
the  earth  in  their 
entire  course  to  the 
depth  of  eighteen 
inches,  making,  as  it 
were,  aclean,square 
trench;  then,  hav- 
ing spread  stones 
or  rubbish,  such  as 
broken  crocker)', 
burnt  brick  clay, 
or  some  similar 
hard  material,  so 
as  to  fill  to  the  sur- 
face, we  permit  it  to 
lie  for  a  time,  ram- 
ming it  down  every 
now  and  again,  until  it  has  become  perfectly  solid.  In 
a  week  or  more,  according  to  the  weather  and  labour 
bestowed,  it  will  be  sunk  to  a  distance  of  six  inches  from 
the  top  of  the  trench.  Then  place  upon  it  a  layer  of 
coarse  gravel,  from  three  to  four  inches  thick,  and 
let  it  be  well  rammed  down,  and  afterwards  rolled 
as  flat  as  possible;  and  as  soon  as  you  have  made  the 
surface  to  your  liking,  put  another  two-inch  layer  of 
finer  gravel  over  the  whole,  roll  it  as  before,  and  you 
will  have  a  path  that  will  discharge  any  amount  of  wet, 
and  never  give  way  or  become  rotten  or  untidy,  let  the 
weather  be  what  it  may.  The  gravel  for  the  purpose  may 
be  obtained  in  many  localities  at  a  very  slight  expense, 
and  it  is  not  necessary,  although  it  may  be  desirable,  to 
have  more  than  the  usual  bottom  of  well-beaten  earth  ;  but 
where  it  is  not  so  easily  procured,  stones,  shingle,  rubble, 
or  any  similar  material,  may  be  beaten  into  the  ground  to 
form  a  solid  path.  All  garden  paths,  great  or  small, 
should  be  somewhat  higher  in  the  centre  than  at  the 
sides,  to  allow  water  to  run  off  freely,  and  so  prevent 
their  netting  into  a  sloppy  and  unpleasant  condition  in 
wet  weather. 

In  the  choice  of  material  for  the  borders  of  beds,  tastes 
differ  widely,  some  preferring  a  permanent  edging  ■^'  '  '  - 


Fig.  5- 


6o 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR  PLEASURE. 


or  similar  material,  while  others  will  have  nothing  but 
flowers.  But  where  flowers  are  used  for  the  purpose,  it  is 
necessary  to  plant  very  closely,  or  one  of  the  chief  objects 
of  the  edging^namely,  to  keep  the  mould  from  being 
brought  down  on  to  the  path  by  rain,  &c. — will  not  be 
secured.  Nothing  answers  this  end  better,  or  looks 
neater,  than  geod  terra-cotta  tiles,  which  may  be  obtained 
at  the  rate  of  about  15  s.  the  hundred,  each  tile  nine  inches 
in  length.  Where  this  edging  cannot  be  procured,  rounded 
stones  are  sometimes  used  ;  and  in  small  gardens,  in  the 
vicinity  of  towns,  we  have  frequently  seen  borders  of 
oyster-shells,  or  broken  bricks  driven  into  the  ground 
with  the  corners  uppermost. 

Box  is  the  best  and  most  lasting  material  for  a  permanent 
green  edging,  but  it  must  be  planted  with  great  care,  to 
]:)rotect  it  against  frost.  The  soil  round  the  edge  of  the 
l)cd  to  be  formed  must  be  patted  down  firm  and  even,  or 
]jvel,  and  having  chopped  out  the  trench  in  a  slanting 
direction  towards  the  walk,  the  roots  of  the  box  must  then 
b,"  laid  against  this,  and  the  soil  pressed  down  tight  as 
ilie  trench  is  being  filled  up  around  them.  They  should 
b:  planted  in  March  or  September,  and  clipped  in  July 
0/  August.  An  edging  of  grass  is  objectionable,  as  we 
liave  already  remarked,  as  it  requires  constant  attention 
to  keep  it  tidy. 

GARDENING  OPERATIONS   FOR  NOVEMBER. 

Having  described  as  minutely  as  possible  the  principal 
work  to  be  done  so  far  as  regards  the  laying  out,  or,  more 
properly  speaking,  formation  of  a  new  garden,  wc  may 
now  proceed  to  give  some  instructions  to  those  whose 
gardens  are  already  laid  out,  it  being  our  intention  to 
furnish  throughout  the  course  of  our  work  a  general 
calendar  of  operations  in  the  various  departments  of 
gardening.  November  will  be  found  as  good  a  month  as 
any  for  carrying  out  any  alterations  in  the  laying  out  of 
the  garden  that  may  be  thought  desirable.  It  will,  how- 
ever, be  necessary  to  see  to  such  work  at  once,  as  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  frost  is  very  likely,  nay,  almost 
certain,  to  overtake  us  at  this  season  of  the  year,  and 
accordingly  not  a  moment  should  be  lost  in  fixing  upon 
the  changes  you  intend  to  adopt,  and  carrying  them  out 
with  all  possible  expedition ;  for  if  the  frost  does  come  it 
will  put  a  complete  stop  to  any  operation  of  importance 
for  the  time  being,  and  the  progress  of  your  garden  may  be 
very  seriously  delayed  in  consequence.  Any  deciduous 
trees  and  shrubs  (as  those  that  drop  their  leaves  in  the 
autumn  are  called)  that  it  may  be  thought  desirable  to 
move  should  be  taken  up  and  replanted  in  their  new 
places  without  further  delay  ;  but  evergreens  (those  that 
retain  their  foliage  the  whole  year  round)  will  not  neces- 
sarily require  to  be  so  hastily  dealt  with,  as  they  will  take 
no  hurt  for  a  week  or  two.  All  such  work  as  digging, 
trenching,  making  new  paths  or  renovating  old  ones, 
laying  turf,  (Sic,  should  be  seen  to  at  once,  for  every  fine 
day  lost  now  is  worse  than  a  month  at  any  other  time, 
and  especially  in  the  case  of  bad  weather  setting  in  for 
any  length  of  time,  no  matter  whether  it  be  wet  or  frost : 
indeed,  in  many  respects  the  former  does  more  mischief 
than  the  latter,  so  far  as  retarding  progress  is  concerned. 
You  should  also  be  thinking  now  of  providing  a  show  of 
blossom  for  the  following  spring.  Such  bulbs  as  ane- 
mones may  now  be  planted,  in  patches  of  six  or  more, 
three  inches  deep,  or  they  may  be  put  in  five  or  six  inches 
apart  all  over  a  bed  or  border ;  while  crocuses,  snow- 
drops, and  similar  small  kinds,  which  always  do  best 
when  planted  in  patches  of  a  dozen  or  more,  may  be  got 
into  their  respective  situations  as  soon  as  you  can 
manage  to  do  so.  Only  a  very  few  flowers  will  be  left 
in  the  garden  at  this  season,  though  there  are  some 
notable  exceptions.  The  chrysanthemum,  which  will 
grow  almost  anywhere  and  under  any  circumstances, 
will   nevertheless  thrive   all  the  better  for  a  little  extra 


care  ;  therefore,  those  in  flower  out  of  doors  should  have 
their  dead  and  dying  blooms  removed  at  once,  so  as  to 
throw  additional  strength  and  vigour  into  such  as  have 
not  yet  opened.  Small  gardens  will  require  to  the  full  as 
much  attention  as  larger  ones,  where  a  constant  display 
of  bloom  is  wanted,  and  as  we  presume  that  to  be  a 
principal  aim  of  all  flower  gardeners,  we  recommend 
everything  to  be  grown  in  pots  first  of  all,  as  you  will 
then  have  merely  to  sink  them  in  the  beds  ;  and  as  each 
one  fades  it  can  be  removed  and  replaced  with  something 
else  of  greater  importance.  As  an  example,  let  pots  of 
tulips  be  planted  between  hyacinths,  and  by  the  time  the 
latter  have  done  flowering  and  are  taken  up  the  former 
will  be  in  bloom.  The  vacancies  caused  by  the  removal 
of  the  hyacinths  may  in  turn  be  filled  up  with  pots  of 
nemophila,  stocks,  or  verbenas,  which  will  be  in  bloom  by 
the  time  the  tulips  are  off.  Another  very  good  plan,  by 
which  your  small  plot  of  ground  may  be  made  to  look  veiy 
cheerful,  if  not  exactly  gay,  during  the  winter  months, 
is  to  dress  it  out  with  dwarf  potted  evergreens,  to  be  sunk 
in  the  same  manner  as  already  stated  ;  taking  care,  of 
course,  to  select  hardy  sorts,  and  to  protect  them  against 
excessive  frost. 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR  PLEASURE. 

II.— THE  DOG:  PRINCIPAL  VARIETIES   {continued). 

Next  in  point  of  general  interest  to  those  varieties  of 
dogs  which  we  described  in  the  previous  paper,  come 
those  larger  animals  which,  on  account  of  their  strength 
and  courage,  man  allies  to  himself  as  the  protectors  of  his 
property  or  his  person.  Of  these  the  most  important  is  un- 
doubtedly the  English  mastiff,  one  of  the  finest  and  most 
powerful  of  all  the  many  varieties  of  dogs.  This  breed 
is  probably  that  which  was  so  eagerly  sought  by  the 
ancient  Romans  for  combat  in  the  circus,  and  was  then 
known  as  the  most  powerful  fi.ghting  dog  in  the  world. 
William  Edwardes  relates  that  in  161 5  an  English  mas- 
tiff killed  a  tiger  in  India  in  single  combat ;  but  it  is 
not  certain  whether  the  modern  mastiff  is  of  quite  such 
colossal  strength  as  these  ancient  animals.  Still,  he  is 
a  grand  dog.  The  height  to  the  shoulder  should  be 
from  twenty-six  to  thirty  inches  (some  reach  thirty-four 
inches)  ;  all  the  limbs  sturdy  and  strong.  The  head  is 
massive,  with  a  noble  forehead;  eyes  rather  small  and 
mild;  ears  small  and  pendant;  muzzle  broad  and  square; 
chest  broad  and  capacious ;  and  body  very  large,  with 
powerful  loins ;  tail  fine,  and  reaching  rather  below  the 
hocks.  The  handsomest  colour  is  fawn,  or  dark  buff,  with 
a  rich  black  muzzle  ;  but  very  handsome  dogs  all  black 
are  sometimes  met  with ;  brindled  and  red  dogs  also 
occur  ;  but  white  does  not  as  a  rule  look  well,  and  is  little 
valued. 

The  character  of  the  mastiff  generally  is  truly  noble. 
Indeed,  he  is  said  to  be  the  07ily  dog  from  which  even  his 
master  dare  take  away  a  bone.  Calm  and  quiet  to  all,  he 
takes  pleasure  in  the  rough  gambols  of  children,  and  an 
infant  of  a  few  months  old  may  be  fearlessly  cradled  in 
his  colossal  limbs.  But  let  him  be  set  at  any  living  thing, 
or  let  danger  assail  those  he  loves,  or  even  let  him  see 
violence  attempted  to  be  done,  and  all  his  fearful  strength 
is  exerted  with  a  courage  that  even  the  bull-dog  cannot 
exceed.  What  the  lion  is  among  wild  beasts,  the 
mastiff  is  among  dogs — the  strongest,  noblest,  most  dig- 
nified :  and  what  the  lion  is  not,  the  gentlest  of  them 
all. 

The  Bull-dog  was  probably  bred  from  the  mastiff 
originally,  and  the  old  and  powerful  breed  is  extinct.  The 
modern  bull-dog  is  a  highly  artificial  animal,  the  very 
shape  of  the  skull  being  obviously  the  result  of  art ;  the 
jaw  is  under-hung  (the  lower  jaw  projecting),  the  forehead 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


6i 


THE    ENGLISH    MASTIFF 


flat  and  hijjh,  and  deeply  sunk  between  the  eyes,  and  the 
muzzle  turning  upwards,  yet  broad  and  deep,  so  as  to 
cover  the  teeth.  The  chest  is  deep  and  full,  and  forclej^s 
powerful,  this  part  of  the  doi^  showing  the  mastiff 
character  ;  but  the  loins 
arc  often  weak,  the  dog's 
strength  being  chiefly  in  the 
neck,  fore-legs,  and  jaws. 
The  colour  varies  greatly, 
white  being  most  fashion- 
able, and  so  does  the  weight, 
which  maybe  anything  from 
fourteen  to  sixty  pounds. 
The  character  of  the  bull- 
dog is  uncertain  ;  some  are 
very  intelligent  and  peace- 
able, others  arc  uniformly 
surly.  Many  arc  apt  to 
be  friendly  with  all  unless 
something  sudden  occurs, 
when  they  will  attack  with- 
out the  slightest  warning. 
Hence,  although  they  arc 
^'cnerally  inoffensive,  unless 
I  he  temper  be  kftown  as 
trustworthy,  they  are  dan- 
L,"erous  dogs.  But  whatever 
the  disposition  be,  the  pure- 
Ijred  bull-dog  always  shows 
he  following  characters : 
le  always  flies  straight  at 
the  head  of  man  or  beast, 
and  at  no  other  part ;  he 
attacks  without  a  sound  or 
warning,    and   will   remain 

mute  if  beaten  to  death  ;  and  he  7iever  lets  go  till  killed 
or  made  insensible.  It  is  singular  that  the  slightest  cross 
of  alien  blood  makes  the  point  of  attack  uncertain. 
Though  the  bull-terrier,  for  instance,  may  be  of  equal 
courage,  he  will  fly  at  the 
legs  as  well  as  the  head — 
the  true  bull-dog  never. 

The  Bloodhound  is  now 
somewhat  rare.  A  good  dog 
tands  about  twenty -eight 
aches  at  the 'shoulder,  and 
;3  a  muscular  animal,  but 
not  nearly  so  massive  as  the 
:iiastiff.  The  ears  are  large 
and  pendulous.  It  is  un- 
necessary to  remark  on  the 
exquisite  power  of  scent  pos- 
cessed  by  this  breed.  The 
ispect  of  the  animal  is 
-enerally    quiet    and    very 

igacious,  and  the  disposi- 
tion gentle  if  not  roused. 

The  St.  Bernard  dog  is 
apparently  derived  from  the 
l)loodhound.  The  breed  has 
several  times  been  on  the 
point  of  extinction,  being 
kept  up  in  very  few  hands, 
and  it  is  much  to  be  re- 
;^Tetted  it  is  not  more  exten- 
sively propagated.  The  St. 
Bernard  is  a  really  magnifi- 
cent animal.  The  colour  is 
generally  orange  or  tawny, 

getting  lighter  or  even  white  on  the  belly,  and  what  arc  con- 
sidered by  the  monks  the  best  specimens  have  a  white  col- 
hir  round  the  neck,  and  a  white  streak  down  the  poll ;  but 
many  of  the  fificst  dogs  have  little  or  no  white  about  them. 


The  head  of  the  St.  Bernard  is  not  unlike  in  expression 
to  the  Newfoundland,  but  there  is  rather  a  deep  furrow 
between  the  eyes.  The  limbs  are  of  immense  size,  and 
the   whole    animal    colossal    in    his    proportions,   being 

especially  powerful  about 
the  loins.  This  gives  to  the 
breed  what  is,  perhaps,  its 
strongest  characteristic  —  a 
slinging  gait,  or  walk,  like 
that  of  the  lion.  Indeed, 
this  peculiarity,  combined 
with  the  size  and  colour, 
make  the  resemblance  be- 
tween a  lioness  and  this 
dog  very  strong.  Some 
uncertainty  exists  amongst 
naturalists  as  to  the  ideal 
type  of  this  particular 
species.  The  original  St. 
Bernard  breed  is  stated  to 
have  died  out  some  forty 
years  .ago.  That  which  we 
have  described  is  the  kind 
now  kept  by  the  monks  of 
St.  Bernard. 

The  Newfoundland  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  popular 
breed  of  any.  He  is  simply 
unequalled  in  the  water, 
and  has  been  picked  up  in 
the  middle  of  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  out  of  sight  of  land, 
or  of  any  other  ship  from 
uhich  he  had  probably 
jumped  overboard.  His 
,  is  of  the  noblest  kind  ;  generous, 
of    great    intelligence,    he    becomes 

Equally 


THE  NEWFOUNDLAND. 


character,  as  a  rul 
bra\c,   gentle,   and 

almost  part  of  the  family  to  whom  he  belongs 
good-natured  with   the   mastiff,  he  is  far  less  dignified, 

and  enters  into  all  their 
pastimes  with  a  zest  of 
which  the  larger  breeds 
elsewhere  mentioned  would 
^^  ,  be    ashamed ;     he    is,    in 

short,  not  only  a  good, 
but  eminently  a  compa- 
nionable dog.  The  large 
breed  has  been  known 
to  reach  thirty-four  inches 
at  the  shoulder,  and 
though  rather  smaller  now 
than  formerly,  thirty  inches 
is  often  met  with.  The 
head  is  splendid,  with  an 
expression  at  once  intel- 
lectual and  benevolent ;  but 
the  eyes  are  to  our  fancy 
rather  too  small  in  propor- 
tion. The  chest  is  well 
developed,  and  all  the  fore 
part  of  the  body  muscular 
and  powerful ;  but  there  is 
generally  a  weakness  about 
the  loins  which  gives  rather 
a  slovenly  gait  to  the  ani- 
mal compared  with  other 
large  breeds.  We  are  con- 
vinced that  this  defect  could 
be  bred  out  with  a  little 
care.  The  feet  are  large,  and  flatter  than  usdal,  whicli 
greatly  aids  the  animal  in  swimming,  an  ifxercise  it 
is  rcilly  fond  of.  The  best  colour  is  pure  black ; 
next  to  this,  we  prefer  a  dun  colour  inclining  to  red  ; 


62 


THE   TOILETTE. 


but  black  and  white  are  often  met  with.  Besides  the 
well-known  long-haired  breed,  there  is  a  variety  of  the 
large  Newfoundland,  with  a  short  coat  resembling  that  of 
a  mastiff,  but  thicker  and  more  dense  ;  this,  however,  is 
not  common.  There  is  also  a  curly-haired  variety  ;  but 
this  kind  of  coat  is  rather  troublesome  to  keep  in  good 
order,  unless  the-  animal  can  have  constant  access  to  the 
water.  We  give  an  illustration  of  this  very  favourite 
variety  of  dog.  • 

Besides  the  large  Newfoundland,  there  is  a  smaller 
variety,  known  as  the  Labrador  dog,  which  is  only 
about  twenty  inches  high  at  the  shoulder.  Peeler,  the 
celebrated  "dog  of  the  police,"  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable examples  on  record  of  canine  sagacity,  was  a 
Labrador  Newfoundland.  It  should  be  observed,  that 
although  the  Newfoundland  dog  is  generally  of  an 
excellent  temper,  there  are  many  individuals  of  a  very 
surly  character ;  and  the  variety,  though  bearing  the 
antics  of  children  with  great  complacency,  cannot  bear  to 
be  long  deliberately  teased  so  well  as  some  others.  The 
animal's  great  intelligence  seems  to  resent  such  unworthy 
treatment. 

Next  to  the  Newfoundland  naturally  come  the  Spaniels 
and  retrievers,  which  show  a  strong  resemblance  to  it 
in  conformation — indeed,  the  Labrador  is  often  called  a 
spaniel.  Of  these  we  propose  to  treat  in  our  next  article 
on  this  subject,  as  well  as  of  the  other  principal  varieties 
of  dogs  most  commonly  used  in  sport.  This  branch  of 
our  subject  being  exhausted,  we  shall  pass  on  to  the 
feeding  and  rearing  of  the  animal,  together  with  an 
account  of  the  principal  diseases  to  which  he  is  liable, 
and  the  most  approved  methods  of  treating  them. 


THE    TOILETTE. 


I. — THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE   SKIN   {continued). 

Sea-Bathing. — Sea  water  is  rather  more  stimulating 
than  ordinary  water,  and  this  difference  is  perhaps  the 
only  one  of  any  importance  to  be  considered  in  reference 
to  this  subject — that  is  to  say,  so  far  as  the  action  of  the 
sea  water  itself  upon  the  body  is  concerned.  It  can  be 
readily  understood  that  if  ordinary  bathing  is  sometimes 
followed  by  disagreeable  results,  because  it  is  employed 
in  an  injudicious  manner,  or  at  an  improper  time,  ill 
effects  are  much  more  likely  to  arise  under  similar  cir- 
cuinstances  when  the  skin  is  stimulated  by  sea  water. 
We  do,  indeed,  discover  that  sea-l9athing  occasionally 
does  harm  ;  it  is  said  not  to  "  agree "  with  this  or  that 
person  or  child,  and  such  an  opinion  is  now  and  then 
firmly  held  by  parents  and  others.  But  it  is  often  an 
unfair  conclusion,  for  the  simple  reason  that  proper  pre- 
cautions have  not  been  taken  to  use  the  sea  douche,  as 
before  observed,  fairly  and  at  the  right  time.  It  is  also 
true  that  in  some  exceptional  instances  sea-bathing 
cannot  be  taken  with  comfort  under  any  circumstances — 
when  the  best  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  its  dis- 
agreement. But  these  examples  are  rare ;  and  in  the 
majority  of  cases  in  which  it  seems  objectionable,  sea- 
bathing can  be  had  recourse  to  with  benefit,  if  it  be  used 
with  proper  regulations.  Now,  as  in  the  ordinary  bath, 
we  should  be  particular  not  to  bathe  when  the  surface  is 
too  much  cooled,  nor  allow  the  body  to  be  chilled.  Half 
should  not  be  out  and  half  in  the  water  for  any  length  of 
time,  but  the  whole  immersed.  The  bather  should  not 
go  into  the  sea  too  soon  after  a  meal,  nor  when  he  is 
exhausted,  but  when  moderately  warm  by  exercise,  or  on 
first  getting  up  in  the  morning,  if  he  or  she  be  in  very 
vigorous  health.    , 

In  the  case  of  children,  it  is  best  that  they  wait  till 
the  sands  have  become  thoroughly  warmed  by  the  sun, 
when  the  water  is  consequently  warmest.   They  should  not 


be  permitted  to  go  into  the  sea  late  in  the  evening,  es- 
pecially  if  the  weather  be  in  the  least  degree  inclined  to 
be  chilly.  The  best  time  of  all,  perhaps,  is  in  the  after- 
noon ;  but  there  is  no  reason  why  a  dip,  as  before  ob- 
served, should  not  be  taken  in  the  morning,  if  the  weather 
be  suitable.  The  bather  should  be  careful  not  to  alter  his 
usual  habits.  Children,  of  course,  dine  in  the  middle  of 
the  day.  They  are  ready  for  their  plunge  two  hours 
afterwards.  We  think  it  best  that  the  sea  water  should 
be  allowed  to  come  into  direct  contact  with  the  body, 
without  the  intervention  of  any  dress.  It  is  best  to 
follow  this  plan  where  it  is  convenient  to  do  so.  On 
entering  the  sea,  bathers  should  go  thoroughly  into 
it,  and  not  dabble  about,  to  get  chilled  knee-deep  in  the 
water.  There  is  more  harm  done  in  this  than  in  any 
other  way,  and  it  is  the  fault  of  young  ladies.  Bathers 
should  keep  moving  about,  frequently  dip,  and,  at  the 
outset  of  sea-bathing,  be  a  short  time  in  the  water.  The 
latter  is  a  most  important  consideration,  and  must  be 
noticed  a  little  more  in  detail.  When  an  individual  com- 
mences bathing,  it  is  best  that  he  or  she  take  one  or  two 
plunges,  and  then  leave  the  water.  After  the  next  two  or 
three  days,  five  minutes'  immersion  may  be  allowed  ;  but 
it  should  be  noticed  if  there  is  any  feeling  of  chilliness. 
If  so,  the  time  should  even  be  lessened,  when  a  glow  is 
felt  after  one  or  two  plunges  into  the  sea,  but  a  cold- 
ness if  the  bather  remains  longer  in  the  water.  It  may 
be  well  to  take  the  bath  twice  a  day  ;  but  for  short 
intervals  each  time.  The  majority  of  persons,  however, 
especially  if  they  bathe  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  water 
is  somewhat  warmed,  will  be  able  to  remain  immersed 
for  ten  minutes,  and  this  is  quite  long  enough  for  the 
majority  of  persons.  At  all  events,  when  the  first  sensa- 
tion of  chilliness  or  coldness  is  experienced,  the  bather 
should  leave  the  water.  Much  harm  is  done  by  a  pro- 
tracted stay  in  the  water,  so  as  to  check  the  reaction  of 
the  skin.  Instead  of  the  sea  water  acting  as  a  stimulant, 
it  then  acts  as  a  depressant.  The  bather  on  coming  out 
of  the  water  should  dress  at  once  and  rapidly.  The  con- 
veniences at  our  watering  places  are  not  what  they  should 
be;  towels  should  be  dry  and  warm,  and  it  should  be 
possible  to  have  a  pail  or  foot  bath,  with  warm  water 
to  stand  in,  especially  for  ladies  and  children,  so  as 
not  only  to  rinse  the  feet,  but  as  a  preventive  against  the 
body  being  chilled.  Reaction  should  be  encouraged  by 
vigorous  friction  of  the  body,  and  the  bather,  when  dressed, 
should  take  a  short  and  brisk  walk,  which  will  call  the 
circulation  into  activity,  if  it  be  at  all  inclined  to  flag. 
If  there  be  any  actua)  shivering  or  chilliness,  a  little 
warm  tea  or  wine  and  water,  or  some  warm  simple,  may 
be  required. 

We  have  finished  with  the  treatment  of  the  skin  in 
health,  and  now  proceed  to  speak  of  its  management  when 
it  becomes  disordered. 

DISORDERS  OF  THE  SKIN. 
Dry  Skin. — The  skin  may  be  dry  generally  or  only  in 
certain  places.  In  the  former  case  it  may  be  a  congenital 
disorder.  Every  now  and  again  one  sees  children  at  six 
months  or  a  year  old  exhibiting  a  peculiar  harsh,  dry,  and 
somewhat  wrinkled  state  of  skin.  They  never  perspire, 
feel  the  cold  very  much,  and  winds  chafe  their  skin.  There 
is  more  or  less  scaliness,  and  often  little  dark  plates  collect 
about  the  ankles,  knees,  and  other  parts  of  the  body. 
These  can  be  picked  off,  leaving  the  skin  harsh  and  rough, 
like  a  nutmeg-grater  almost.  In  these  severe  cases  mucli 
may  be  done,  under  medical  advice,  by  the  use  of  baths 
and  frictions,  with  oil  or  glycerine,  to  make  the  sufferer 
comfortable.  In  other  cases  a  dry  skin  is  not  an  affairwhich 
is  congenital,  but  it  comes  on  in  after  life — in  the  child  as 
well  as  the  adult.  The  skin  looks  dirty  and  muddy  besides 
feeling  dry  ;  it  itches,  and  scratching  produces  pimply 
eruptions.     This  state  usually  arises  from  a  neglect  of  the 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


63 


proper  use  of  the  bath  in  those  who  do  not  take  much 
exercise  and  who  are  not  very  strong.  In  other  Cases  the 
skin  generally  perspires  properly,  but  some  one  part  is 
harsh  and  dry,  such  as  the  face  or  hands.  Washing  the 
face  with  strong  soap  will  make  it  rough  and  uncomfort- 
able, and  so  will  exposure  to  cold  winds.  The  remedies 
here  are  simple — the  avoidance  of  all  irritants,  tepid 
bathing,  and  anointing  the  face  with  glycerine  and  water — • 
or,  what  is  often  better,  painting  it  over  with  a  little 
whiting  paste  at  night  for  several  times.  There  is  just 
one  remark  worth  making  here,  and  it  is  this  :  (Glycerine 
should  generally  be  used  to  the  skin  diluted.  It  has  much 
affinity  for  water,  and  if  the  skin  be  very  dry  and  harsh, 
pure  glycerine  may,  by  ;-apidly  uniting  with  the  water  of  the 
tissue,  occasionally  do  harm.  The  remark  just  made 
will  apply  to  the  skin  when  rough.  It  is  the  localised 
forms  of  dryness  and  roughness  that  trouble  persons, 
and,  as  before  observed,  these  are  often  the  result  either 
of  the  too  free  use  of  soap  or  the  action  of  irritants. 

Moist  Skin. — This  is  one  of  the  most  unpleasant  dis- 
orders to  which  the  skin  is  subject,  and  it  is  a  source  of 
very  great  annoyance  to  most  persons.  In  some  cases 
the  whole  skin  is  affected,  being  cold  and  clammy.  In 
children  it  is  a  sign—  especially  if  the  perspiration  occur 
particularly  about  the  head,  soaking  the  pillow  through 
and  through  at  night — of  deficient  nutrition,  and  of  a 
tendency  to  or  actual  rickets.  No  mother  should  make 
light  of  it,  but  consult  a  doctor  when  it  occurs.  The 
use  of  all  that  is  bracing,  plenty  of  fresh  air,  of  good 
milk,  and  steel  wine,  will  do  wonders  in  these  cases. 
In  young  persons  and  in  adults,  moist  skins  imply  a 
very  weak  constitution,  or  some  special  kind  of  debility, 
and  need  the  physician's  care.  We  shall  refer  here 
particularly  to  those  cases  only  which  are  partial— such 
as  uncomfortable  moisture  of  the  hands  or  feet  or  arm- 
pits. Every  one  knows  what  a  cold  clammy  hand  is. 
It  may  be  a  constitutional  peculiarity,  and  it  is  not  at  all 
unfrequently  seen  in  persons  of  a  lymphatic,  lethargic 
temperament.  Here  it  is  very  troublesome  in  warm 
weather.  It  is  possible  in  many  cases  to  find  out  nervous 
debility,  unfair  treatment  of  the  stomach,  an  inactive  skin 
as  a  whole  from  neglect,  or  some  cause  of  weakness. 
Locally  much  may  be  done.  Bathing  the  hands  or  feet 
in  very  hot  water  twice  a  day,  the  use  of  a  solution  of  alum 
and  salt  (two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of  these  to  a  pint  of 
water),  putting  on  prepared  chalk  made  into  a  paste, 
sponging  with  a  lotion  made  of  strong  ammonia  solution 
(one  part  to  four  or  five  of  water),  may  be  tried  without 
fear  and  with  success.  But  in  other  cases  the  perspi^ 
ration  is  offensive,  especially  about  the  feet.  In  thesi' 
cases  it  is  often  due  to  uncleanliness.  The  feet  should 
be  washed  most  sedulously  twice  a  day  with  warm  soap 
and  water,  and  then  bathed  with  a  solution  of  carbolii 
acid  in  water  (one  part  to  twenty  or  thirty).  Clean  sock 
must  be  put  on.  Oftentimes  the  perspiration  soaks  int" 
the  boots,  and  there  becomes  rancid,  and  the  unpleasant 
ness  will  not  be  removed  until  the  boots  are  once  and  for 
ever  dispensed  with. 


THE  AQUARIUM. 

FRESH     WATER     VEGETATION. 

Aliuouc-;!  the  aquarium,  as  herein  treated,  may  be 
viewed  chiefly  as  an  object  for  the  decoration  of  a  room, 
its  utility  as  a  means  of  amusement  and  instruction  should 
not  be  lost  sight  of.  The  development  of  vegetation,  the 
peculiarities  of  the  class  to  which  the  plants  belong,  the 
habits  of  the  creatures  that  may  be  introduced  into  the 
tank,  and  the  microscopic  wonders  that  are  invariably 
generated,  are  not  only  a  source  of  endless  recreation, 
but  may  be  turned  to  excellent  account  in  the  educa- 


tion of  a  family.  The  receptacle  having  been  provided, 
and  the  bed  of  the  aquarium  prepared  according  to 
the  instructions  previously  given,  the  next  operation  is 
to  choose  the  plants  and  place  them  in  their  proper 
position. 

The  best  and  most  lasting  of  all  aquarium  plants  is  the 
spiral  valisneria.  This,  however,  being  a  native  of 
southern  Europe,  is  not  easily  procurable  ;  but  -•"'  ■ 
established  in  your  tank,  it  will  grow  luxuriantl). 


VALISNERIA. 


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ANA 

most  prolific  of  the  river  weeds  is  the  American  water- 
thyme  {Ajiackaris  alsinastrnin),  but  this  is  a  plant  wc 
do  not  recommend  encouraging.  Of  its  introduction  into 
this  country  there  are  several  accounts,  the  most  probabl. 
being  that  given  by  a  Cambridge  gentleman,  who,  having 
received  a  plant  from  a  friend  in  Canada,  kept  it  for  a 
time  in  a  glass  jar,  but  not  seeing  it  develop  itself  into 
anything  interesting  or  beautiful,  ordered  it  to  be  thrown 
away ;  this  was  done,  and  the  drain  from  the  house 
emptying  itself  into  the  Cam,  carried  down  the  germs  of 
the  weed,  which  soon  spread  and  became  a  great  nuisance, 
as  it  nearly  filled  the  river.  Those  of  our  readers,  there- 
fore, Avho  introduce  this  plant  into  their  aquarium  should 
take  special  care  to  prevent  any  opportunities  of  its  bcin;.; 
similarly  propagated. 

Another  suitable  plant  is  the  common  frog-bit  {Hydro- 
charis  morsus-rance).      Its  habit  of  growth  differs 


FROG-BFT. 


siderably  from  either  of  the  above,  which  is  an  advan- 
tage where  variety  is  desirable.  Of  the  other  plants 
suited  for  our  purpose,  may  be  named  the  arum  {Calla 
paliistn's),  the  common  stone-wort  {Cftara  vulgaris),  the 
water-soldier  {Strntiohs  alvities),  and  the  spiked  water- 
milfoil  {Myripphyllnm  spicatunt). 

In  the '  largest-sized  tanks  small  water-lilies  may  be 


64 


THE   AQUARIUM-. 


introduced.  Of  these  there  are  two  kinds,  white  {Nymphea 
alba)  and  yellow  {Nitphar  biiteum),  both  of  which  are  to 
be  found  in  ponds.  A  disadvantage  attendant  on  the  use 
of  these  is,  that  lilies  die  down  in  winter,  and  their  leaves, 
if  not  removed,  encumber  the  tank  without  enhancing  its 
beauty.  The  common  water-shield  has  pretty  oval- 
shaped  leaves,  which  float  upon  the  surface,  and  from  the 
peculiar  way  in  which  they  unfold  themselves  are  an 
object  of  interest.  Reeds  and  rushes  arc  sometimes  used, 
but  require  a  deeper  foundation  for  their  roots  than  can 
be  usually  given. 

The  best  method  of  planting  the  weeds  is  to  tie  each 
of  them  to  a  pebble  and  sink  them  below  the  surface 
of  the  shingle.  Care  should  be  taken  to  arrange  them 
with  some  regard  to  effect,  the  shortest  being  placed 
in  front  and  the  longest  behind.  A  glass  of  aquatic 
plants  neatly  arranged 
is  as  ornamental  an  ob- 
ject as  a  fern  case,  and 
certainly  less  common. 

After  all  the  plants  are 
arranged,  a  little  duck- 
weed {Lcnina  minor)  may 
be  thrown  in.  These  float 
upon  the  surface  and  har- 
bour minute  insects, which 
serve  as  occasional  dainty 
morsels  for  the  fish. 

Before  the  intended  in- 
habitants of  the  aquarium 
are  introduced,  the  plants 
should  be  given  time  to 
establish  themselves— say 
about  a  fortnight.  If  it 
be  found  that  a  green  film 
overspreads  the  surface  of 
the  glass,  this  must  be 
taken  as  a  sign,  either  that 
too  much  light  has  been 
given,  or  too  many  plants 
have  been  introduced  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  water. 

If  the  aquarium  be  suf- 
ficiently large,  a  pretty 
effect  may  be  obtained 
by  building  up  the  rock- 
work  till  it  reaches  some 
distance  above  the  water, 
and  leaving  a  space  into 
which  a  fern  may  be 
planted,  as  shown  in  our 
illustration. 

If  it  be  intended  to  introduce  small  frogs  or  newts, 
which  are  quite  admissible,  the  aquarium  sliould  be 
covered  with  glass,  to  prevent  their  crawling  over  the 
sides.  They  may  appear  perfectly  contented  and  happy 
all  day,  but  newts  have  nocturnal  migratory  habits,  and 
are  most  likely  to  find  their  way  down-stairs  before  morn- 
ing, unless  prevented.  The  cover  of  a  bell-glass  should 
be  a  circular  piece  of  glass,  large  enough  to  project  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  over  the  rim,  with  a  round  hole  cut  in 
the  centre  to  admit  the  air.  This  also  answers  the 
purpose  of  keeping  out  the  dust  when  the  room  is 
swept. 

Amphibious  creatures  should  never  be  kept  entirely  in 
the  water.  To  give  them  a  resting-place,  a  little  island 
should  be  prepared  for  them,  in  this  manner: — Talce  a 
piece  of  cork  of  an  irregular  shape,  smear  it  over  with 
marine  glue,  and  then  sprinkle  it  with  sand  ;  let  it  stand 
to  dry,  and  then  place  it  in  water  for  some  time.  When 
"  seasoned,"  it  may  be  floated  on  the  surface  of  the 
aquarium.     The  newts  will  .soon  give  evidence  of  their 


AQUARIUM  WITH  ROCKWORK  AND  FERN. 


appreciating   this  provision    for    theif    convenience,  by 
climbing  upon  it  and  diving  from  it. 

THE  SELECTION    OF    FRESH-WATER  ANIMALS. 

The  iirst  specimens  of  animal  life  which  should  be 
placed  in  an  aquarium  are  the  molluscs.  Of  these,  the 
horny  coil  shell  {Planorbis  corne.us)  and  the  pond  mud 
shell  {Liinnea  stagnalis)  are  the  most  plentiful  and  best 
suited.  Both  these  aquatic  snails  may  be  found  in 
stagnant  pools  or  sluggish  rivers.  They  feed  upon  the 
weeds,  and  may  be  captured  by  drawing  a  net  along  the 
submerged  stems  of  rank  grass  or  rushes  that  grow  close 
to  the  shore.  They  have  been  termed  the  scavengers  of 
the  aquarium,  because  they  assist  in  keeping  down  the 
superabundant  vegetation,  and  consume  the  minute  green 
growth   that  accumulates  upon   the   sides   of  the  glass. 

They  are  very  active,  and 
the  motion  of  the  planorbis 
is  particularly  graceful. 

There  are  also  two 
kinds  of  mussel  that  may 
be  introduced,  the  swan 
mussel  {Anodon  cygneus) 
and  the  duck  mussel 
{Unto picioriim),  but  they 
possess  no  especial  recom- 
mendation, and  require 
careful  watching  lest  they 
die  and  pollute  the  water. 
Among  the  lively  crea- 
tures that  deserve  a  place 
in  the  '  aquarium,  there 
are  few  more  interesting 
than  the  common  water- 
spiders  {Argyroncta  aqna- 
tica).  These  form  especi- 
ally attractive  objects  on 
account  of  their  activity, 
and  their  habit  of  rising 
to  the  surface,  drawing  a 
globule  of  air  underneath 
the  water,  and  carrying  it 
down,  as  if  it  were  a  jewel 
attached  to  the  hind  part 
of  the  body.  If  the  aqua- 
rium be  in  good  condition, 
the  water-spider  will  some- 
times weave  a  web  and 
construct  its  nest,  and 
live  in  confinement  for  a 
considerable  period. 

There  are  several  varic- 
tiesof  thebeetlc  tobefound 
in  rivers  and  ponds,  but  only  two  that  can  be  safely  intro- 
duced into  the  aquarium — the  large  harmless  beetle  {Hy- 
drous piceiis),  and  the  little  whirligig  {Gyrimis  natator). 
The  former,  though  large  in  size,  is  distinguished. for  ith 
amicable  disposition ;  the  latter,  though  small,  makes  up 
for  its  insignificant  proportions  by  whirling  about  and 
pei-sistently  forcing  itself  into  notice. 

The  caddis-worm,  or  cad-bait,  is  a  favourite  object  for 
the  aquarium.  It  is  the  larvas  of  the  May-fly,  and  may  be 
found  in  the  shallows  of  rivers  and  streams.  With  minute 
pieces  of  twigs,  grains  of  sand,  and  other  obtainable 
materials,  these  worms  construct  grotto-like  nests,  the 
particles  of  which  they  fasten  together  by  means  of  silken 
threads,  secreted  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  silk-worm. 
The  methodical,  careful,  and  business-like  way  in  which 
the  caddis  builds  its  dwelling  affords  an  admirable  illus- 
tration of  the  instinct  possessed  by  the  insect  tribe  ;  and 
the  operation  may  be  easily  observed  in  the  aquarium,  by 
the  use  of  an  ordinary  magnifying  glass  placed  on  the 
ou<side  near  the  spot  where  the  creature  is  at  work. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


6S 


HOME     GARDENING. 

THE     CULTIVATION     OF     SMALL     GARDENS. 

In  the  outskirts  of  London,  and,  indeed,  of  most  towns, 

there  are  to  be   found   numbers   of  small   houses   at   a 

moderate  rental,  with  a  very  small 

patch  of  ground  at  the  back,  from 

twenty   to    thirty    yards    in    length, 

and  six  or  seven  yards  wide,  so  small, 

in  fact,  that  at   first  sight   it   might 

appear  questionable  whether  it  would 

be  really  worth  the  time,  trouble,  and 

necessary  expense   to  keep   it   in   a 

state  of  cultivation.     We  hope  to  be 

able  to  show  that  this  would  be  a 

mistake.     A  plot  of  ground,  however 

small,  is  far  too  valuable  to  be  wasted, 

especially  in  the  suburbs  of  towns, 

where  all    garden    produce   is   very    ■ 

expensive  ;  and  our  present  object  is 

to  show  those   of  our  readers   who 

have  small  gardens  of  this  kind  howto 

cultivate  them  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  laying-out  of  them  should  be  as 


endive,  onions,  spinach,  and  the  various  useful  herbs 
necessary  for  a  small  family,  and,  if  all  the  ground  were 
kept  continually  under  cultivation,  or,  in  other  words,  as 
soon  as  one  crop  is  done  with  it  were  cleared  off,  and 
another  put  in  its  place,  it  might  be  made  remunerative. 
Smaller  plots  of  ground,  such  as^ 
belong  or  accompany  dwellings  of  a* 
minor  description,  which  might  be 
better  understood  by  the  name  of 
yards,  if  they  were  only  paved,  would 
likewise  pay  the  tenant  lo  grow  use- 
ful pot  herbs,  and  such  crops  as 
onions,  lettuces,  radishes,  and  so 
1  orth,  and  as  such,  there  is  no  reason 
vhy  a  foot  of  soil  should  lie  idle.  In 
I  future  paper,  we  shall  again  revert 
lo  the  subject  of  gardens  on  a  some- 
what larger  scale,  and  how  to  make 
them  pay. 

Cauliflowers,  rhubarb,  sea-kale, 
and  even  asparagus  might  be  grown. 
A  few  of  the  most  useful  fruits,  such  as 
raspberries,  currants,  gooseberries — 
of    course,    small    sized — might    be 


simple  as  possible — either  Avith  a 
path  down  the  centre,  and  beds  on 
each  side  to  the  boundary  walls,  or 
else  with  a  path  running  round  the 
garden  at  about  two  or  three  feet 
from  the  wall.  Of  these,  the  latter 
is  preferable,  for  several  reasons  ;  it 
is  certainly  more  sightly,  and  enables 
one  to  reach  every  part  of  the  ground 
with  facility.  Of  course,  if  it  be 
merely  intended  to  use  the  garden  as 
an  ornament,  it  will  be  easy  enough 
to  fill  the  surrounding  beds  with 
flowers,  the  centre  being  laid  out  in 
grass,  with  a  few  small  beds  of  flowers  W 
in  the  centre,  as  described  in  our  * 
last  paper,  but  this  is  an  expensive 
matter,  as  all  the  plants  will  have  to 
be  procured  fresh  year  after  year, 
there  not  being  sufficient  space  to 
propagate  fresh  ones,  or  to  keep  a  stock  through  the 
winter  for  the  next  summer's  planting.  If  it  is  desired 
to  make  the  garden  remunerative,  flowers  must  be 
made  a  secondary  consideration,  and  the  principal 
part  of  the  space  should  be  filled  with  a  judicious 
selection  of  vegetables.  In  favourable  situations  such 
plot    would    grow    the    cabbages,   lettuces,   radishes, 

VOL,  I. 


planted  here  and  there  in  the  garden, 
currants  might  be  nailed  against  the 
wall  with  advantage,  and  space  might 
also  be  found  for  a  few  strawberries. 

GARDENING  OPERATIONS  FOR 
DECEMBER. 

Such  of  our  readers  as  are  desirous 
of  obtaining  an  early  spring  display 
of  bloom,  may  do  so  by  preserving  a 
few  autumn-sown  annuals  in  pots. 
Should  they  depend  upon  self-sown 
seedlings,  which  are  always  the  best, 
when  obtainable,  they  should  take 
them  up  out  of  the  ground,  and  plant 
two,  three,  or  four,  according  to  the 
size  and  habit  of  the  plant,  in  good- 
sized  pots,  which  should  then  be 
placed  in  a  frame  or  pit.  Of 
these  the  latter  will  be  found  to 
be  the  most  effective  for  protecting  these  or  any  other 
small  flowering  plants  or  shrubs  through  the  winter.  To 
form  a  pit,  the  ground  should  be  excavated  to  a  depth  of 
three  feet,  and  lined  all  round  with  brickwork  nine  inches 
in  thickness,  rather  higher  at  the  back  than  the  front,  so 
as  to  allow  of  the  covering  sloping  to  the  front.  We  have 
found   stout   boards   answer   the   purpose   fairly,  but   of 


66 


COOKING. 


course  they  are  not  so  good  a  protection  as  brick,  and 
they  will  want  renewing  each  season  ;  and  for  a  flooring 
or  bottom  there  should  be  a  layer  of  fine  coal  ashes  six 
inches  thick,  which  will  not  harbour  vermin,  or  retain 
the  moisture  that  runs  from  the  pots  after  watering.  In  ordi- 
nary winters,  a  frame  on  a  hot-bed  such  as  has  been  used 
for  forcing  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  year,  will  be  found  a 
sufficient  protection.  Both  pits  and  frames  are  covered 
Avith  the  ordinary  glass  sashes,  and  in  severe  weather  a 
bass  mat  is  the  best  additional  covering.  Those  who  are 
not  prepared  to  go  to  the  expense  of  glass  sashes,  will 
find  the  following  substitute  both  cheap  and  effective. 
Procure  some  cheap  calico  and  stretch  it  quite  tight  on  an 
ordinary  frame,  and  then  proceed  to  make  it  waterproof  by 
means  of  a  composition  for  which  Ave  subjoin  the  recipe. 
Get  some  thin  cheap  calico,  and  after  having  stretched  it 
on  your  frames  (or,  if  required  in  a  piece,  on  the  ground) 
quite  tight,  then'  cover  it  by  means  of  a  brush  with  a  com- 
position made  of  two  pints  of  pale  linseed  oil,  one  ounce 
of  sugar  of  lead,  and  four  ounces  of  white  resin.  The 
sugar  of  lead  is  to  be  ground  with  a  little  of  the  oil,  after 
which  add  the  remainder  and  the  resin,  and  mix  the 
ingredients  well  together  while  warm. 

Water  should  be  given  with  great  caution  in  winter, 
but,  Avhen  it  is  found  necessary  to  apply  it,  moisten 
the  soil  entirely,  without  spilling  any  on  the  foliage  if 
it  can  be  avoided.  In  wet  weather,  the  best  way  of 
admitting  air  to  plants  in  pits  and  frames,  is  to  tilt  the  glass 
sashes  up  behind,  as  by  this  means  the  rain  is  kept  out 
of  the  bed,  and  that'  which  falls  on  the  glasses  runs  away 
more  readily.  In  dry  weather,  these  plants  should  be 
fully  exposed,  except  in  the  case  of  frost,  when  it  will  be 
necessary  to  keep  the  sashes  close.  A  frame  with  one  light 
open  and  the  other  partially  closed,  is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
An  admirable  plan  for  protecting  small  shrubs,  when 
you  are  unable  to  afford  a  green-house,  is  to  drive  six 
or  more  stakes  into  the  ground  in  a  circle,  at  equal 
distances  from  each  other,  round  the  shrub,  and  bind 
them  together  with  two  hoops,  Avhose  size  and  diametrical 
proportions  must  depend  entirely  upon  the  size  of  the 
plant  or  plants  to  be  surrounded.  One  of  these  hoops 
is  to  be  nailed  or  tied  within  an  inch  of  the  top, 
and  the  other  about  half-way  down,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
This  framework  is  to  be  covered  with  waterproof  calico, 
as  in  the  previous  case.  Fig  4  represents  its  appearance 
when  completed.  The  third  and  last,  though  by  no 
means  the  least  important,  is  not  a  new  idea,  but  it  is 
equally  useful  in  its  way  for  the  protection  of  rectangular 
beds  of  plants.  It  consists  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
arches,  which  may  be  formed  of  hoops  from  an  old  tub, 
which  have  been  opened  and  pointed  at  each  end.  These 
should  be  thrust  into  the  ground  at  the  extreme  edges  of 
the  bed,  at  about  eighteen  inches  apart  all  the  way  down. 
Then  place  a  straight  stick  or  lath  on  the  top,  and  one  on 
each  side,  about  a  foot  from  the  ground  ;  tie  each  arch 
securely  to  these  laths,  and  you  will  have  a  frame  strong 
enough  to  hold  the  waterproof  calico,  as  at  Fig.  5.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  in  both  cases  the  material  used  as  a 
covering  reaches  the  ground,  where  it  must  be  secured, 
as,  without  this,  the  plants  would  be  as  well,  and  even 
better  off  without  any  covering  at  all.  To  give  air  to 
plants  thus  protected,  you  must  contrive  to  have  some  por- 
tion of  the  covering  movable,  as  shown  at  Figs,  i  and  4. 
This  opening  should  be  as  near  the  top  as  possible.  Open 
these  doors  or  windows,  as  they  may  be  termed,  whenever 
the  weather  will  permit,  but  close  them  at  night,  or,  in 
fact,  as  often  as  you  think  there  is  any  danger  of  their 
taking  harm. 

Keep  everything  as  tidy  as  possible,  and  if  you  have 
any  bulbs  still  out  of  the  ground,  get  them  in  without 
delay.  Cut  down  fuchsias  that  are  to  remain  out  all  the 
winter,  and  see  that  their  roots  are  protected  by  a  cover- 
ing of  coal  ashes,  sawdust,  or  similar  material.     It  is  a 


good  plan  to  take  up  tea-roses,  and  lay  them  by  in  a  shed 
or  out-house,  or,  in  fact,  in  any  place  where  frost  cannot 
reach  them.  Auriculas  and  other  plants  in  frames  should 
be  kept  moderately  dry,  and  they  should  also  be  kept 
free  from  weeds  and  dead  and  dying  leaves. 


COOKING. 

PUDDINGS— CAKES— FRITTERS — FISH. 

Sausage  Rolls. — Lay  one  sausage,  whole,  without  re- 
moving the  skin,  in  the  middle  of  the  rolled-out  pie-crust,, 
and  then  proceed  as  with  apple-rolls.  This  is  capital,. 
cold  or  hot,  for  hungry  boys. 

Beef  Pudding. — Cut  beef  into  bits  half  the  size  of  a 
walnut,  fat  and  lean  together ;  they  need  not  be  the 
primest  parts.  Make  them  into  a  pudding,  as  you  would 
make  apple-pudding,  seasoning  with  pepper,  salt,  all- 
spice, and  chopped  onions.  Put  in  a  little  water  to  make 
gravy.  People  that  can  get  them,  add  mushrooms  and 
oysters  ;  but  these  are  not  absolutely  necessary.  This 
pudding  takes  a  great  deal  of  boiling. 

Saffron  Cakes  or  Buns  are  a  nice  little  treat  for  chil- 
dren ;  pretty  to  look  at,  and  easy  to  make.  Their  slight 
medicinal  quality  is  stimulant— likely  to  do  more  good 
than  harm.  Their  tendency  is  to  help  digestion,  and 
they  are  said  to  kill  or  drive  out  intestinal  worms.  To 
make  your  saffron  loaves,  cakes,  or  buns,  buy  at  the 
druggist's  as  small  a  quantity  of  saffron  as  he  will  sell. 
Infuse  enough  of  this  in  jhe  water  with  which  you  make 
your  dough  to  give  it  a  clear,  light,  yellow  tinge,  and  the 
decided  taste  and  smell  peculiar  to  the  flower,  both  which 
it  will  retain  after  baking.  Then  make  your  cake  exactly 
as  the  gateau — directions  for  making  which  were  given  in 
a  previous  number  (page  37) — with  the  addition  of  a  little 
sugar,  and  taking  care  that  it  rises  well.  If  to  be  kept 
some  time,  make  it  into  good-sized  loaves  ;  if  to  be 
consumed  or  distributed  immediately,  make  into  small 
buns  or  rolls.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven,  neither  fierce 
nor  slack. 

Good  Comnio7i  Cake. — Mix  a  teacupful  of  good  yeast 
with  half  a  pint  of  milk  ;  warm  it  slight^  ;  stir  it  into 
two  and  a  half  pounds  of  flour,  and  half  a  pound  of  brown 
sugar,  and  set  it  to  rise.  Then  melt  half  a  pound  of 
butter  with  another  half-pint  of  milk,  and  add  it  to  the 
former  ingredients,  with  half  a  pound  of  washed  currants, 
or  a  few  caraway  seeds,  a  little  bruised.  Again  leave  it 
for  awhile  to  rise.  When  well  risen,  put  it  into  tijis,  and 
bake. 

Pancakes. — As  these  are  a  holiday  treat,  you  will  try 
and  make  them  as  good  as  you  can.  Shrove  Tuesday 
comes  but  once  a  year.  Allow  eight  eggs  to  a  pound 
of  flour.  Separate  the  yolks  from  the  whites.  With 
the  flour  mix  the  yolks,  a  pinch  of  salt,  a  little  milk, 
and  some  good  yeast.  The  quality  of  the  yeast  is 
more  important  than  the  quantity.  Beat  the  whites  of 
the  eggs  to  a  froth  with  a  little  milk  ;  this  is  done  to 
help  the  yeast  in  making  the  pancakes  light.  Mix  this 
with  the  flour  and  the  other  ingredients.  Stir  in  as  much 
more  tepid  milk  as  will  bring  the  v/hole  to  the  thickness 
of  batter.  Some  people  add  a  glass  of  rum  or  brandy, 
and  a  little  grated  nutmeg.  Cover  with  a  cloth,  and  set 
it  for  two  or  three  hours  somewhere  near  the  fire,  to  rise. 
Always  wipe  out  your  frying-pan  wimediately  before 
using  it.  You  may  have  hung  it  up  clean,  but  dust  falls, 
blacks  fly,  and  rust  goes  to  work.  When  the  pan  is  warm, 
put  in  a  liberal  quantity  of  dripping,  pork  lard,  or 
i3utter.  When  that  is  hot,  pour  into  the  middle  of  the 
pan  enough  batter  to  make  a  pancake.  As  it  fries,  keep 
raising  the  edges  with  a  knife  or  with  a  fish-slice.  When 
the  under  side  is  done,  turn  it  quickly,  taking  care  not 
to  break  it ;  to  do  this  cleverly  requires  a  little  practice. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


67 


When  the  pancake  is  cooked,  sprinkle  its  surface  with  a 
little  moist  sugar  after  it  is  laid  on  a  very  hot  dish  ;  and 
so  on,  until  your  pile  of  pancakes  is  finished,  sprinkling 
each  with  sugar  in  its  turn.  Over  the  top  pancake  squeeze 
the  juice  of  one  or  two  oranges.  The  oranges  are  quite 
an  excusable  extra.  Peel  them  before  squeezing,  and 
dry  the  peel,  if  not  wanted  for  immediate  use.  It  will 
serve  to  flavour  puddings  and  stews.  Boiling  water 
poured  over  it,  with  a  lump  of  sugar,  makes  a  pleasant 
drink  to  quench  feverish  thirst,  the  bitterness  and  essential 
oil  in  the  peel  being  slightly  tonic.  Some  people  prefer 
the  juice  of  lemons  with  the  pancake,  so  it  will  be  well  to 
give  them  the  opportunity  of  choosing. 

Apple  Pancakes.  —  Put  a  little  less  milk  into  your 
batter — that  is,  make  it  a  little  stiffer,  and  sweeten  it 
slightly.  Chop  apple  very  small,  mix  it  with  the  batter, 
and  proceed  as  before.  The  pancakes  will  require  more 
care  in  turning,  to  keep  them  whole,  but  they  are  very 
nice  when  you  do  succeed.  Stir  up  the  batter  every  time 
you  use  it,  to  mix  the  apple  equally. 

Apple  Fritters. — Peel  a  few  large  apples  ;  cut  out  their 
cores  with  an  apple-scoop,  and  cut  them  across  in  slices  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  Some  cooks  will  tell  you  to  soak 
them  an  hour  in  brandy,  in  a  soup-plate,  w-ith  a  little  sugar 
dusted  over  them  ;  but  that  expenditure  of  time,  trouble, 
and  materials  is  perfectly  unnecessary.  We  do  not  say 
that  it  does  no  good,  but  you  may  make  capital  apple 
fritters  without  it.  Let  your  batter  be  even  stiffer  than  the 
preceding,  with  the  allowance  of  one  or  two  more  eggs  to 
the  same  quantity  of  flour.  The  frying-pan,  which  may 
be  smaller  and  deeper,  should  also  contain  plenty  of  hot 
fat.  With  a  fork,  dip  each  slice  of  apple  first  into  flour, 
then  into  the  batter,  to  make  as  much  stick  to  it  as  you 
can  ;  then  with  your  slice  push  it  off  the  fork  into  the 
frying-pan.  Turn  it,  if  necessary  ;  but  there  should  be 
fat  enough  to  cover  it.  When  you  judge  the  apple  is 
tender,  take  up  your  fritters,  let  them  drain  on  the  slice 
an  instant,  tlien  pile  them  in  a  pyramid  on  your  dish. 
Fritters  should  be  fried  so  dry  as  to  be  eaten,  like  cake, 
with  the  fingers,  and  served  hot  enough  to  burn  the  mouth. 
Other  fruit  may  be  fried  in  the  same  way  as  apples.  We 
have  eaten  peach  fritters,  in  the  course  of  our  travels, 
but  hold  them  to  be  inferior  to  apple,  the  peach  being 
one  of  the  fruits  which  lose  flavour  by  cooking,  while 
both  the  apple  and  the  apricot  gain  by  the  process. 
Small  slices  of  meat,  cold  cooked  vegetables,  as  carrots 
and  celery,  joints  of  fowl,  &c.,  arc  all  excellent  fried  in 
batter.  It  is  worth  knowing,  not  only  that  a  great  many 
little  remnants  may  be  dressed  again  in  this  way,  in  a 
pleasing  shape,  but  (in  case  you  have  to  help  to  cook  a 
stylish  dinner)  are  actually  used  to  ornament  and  accom- 
pany other  dishes.  They  are  largelv  so  employed  both 
by  French  and  American  cooks. 

Parsnip  Fritters  {American). — Boil  the  parsnips  in 
salted  water,  so  as  to  flavour  them  through  ;  make  a  light 
batter  ;  cut  the  parsnips  into  rounds,  and  dip  them  in  the 
batter.  Have  ready  hot  lard  ;  take  the  parsnips  out  of 
the  batter  with  a  spoon,  and  drop  them  into  the  lard  while 
boiling.  When  they  rise  to  the  surface,  turn  them  ;  when 
browned  on  both  sides,  take  them  out ;  let  them  drain, 
and  set  them  into  the  oven  to  keep  hot.  Serve  them 
with  broiled,  fried,  or  roast  meats  or  fowls.  Proceed 
in  the  same  way  for  turnip  fritters,  to  be  used  as  garnish 
for  fried  meats,  hashes,  stews,  &:c. 

FISH. 

Perch,  Eels,  and  small  Pike  are  excellent  fried  ;  but 
frying  is  rather  a  costly  way  of  cooking  fish.  The  fat  it 
takes  would  be  better  employed  in  making  sauce  to  be 
eaten  with  them  boiled.  With  roach,  dace,  and  bream 
(the  bigger  these  are  the  better),  you  may  make  a  very 
nice,  light,  and  extremely  palatable  dish  in  the  following 
manner  : — • 


After  cleaning  your  fish,  salt  them  for  a  night.  Throw 
them  into  as  much  boiling  water  as  will  cover  them.  Let 
them  boii  about  five  minutes,  and  as  soon  as  the  flesh  will 
come  away  from  the  bone,  take  them  up,  and  ipick  it  oft 
clean  with  a  knife  and  fork,  taking  care  not  to  leave  any 
of  the  little  bones  in  it.  You  will  then  have  a  plateful  of 
fish  without  any  bone.  Boil  some  mealy  potatoes  ;  mash 
them  ;  season  with  pepper  and  salt  ;  add  a  bit  of  butter 
or  some  roast  meat  dripping,  and  mix  up  the  fish  with 
the  mashed  potatoes  equally,  so  that  there  is  not  more  of 
it  in  one  place  than  in  another.  You  may  then  turn  it 
out  on  a  dish,  and  serve  it ;  or  you  may  put  it  in  a  basin, 
and  set  it  before  the.  fire,  to  keep  it  hot  till  wanted. 
When  once  made,  it  will  warm  up  again  easily. 

Eels  are  occasionally  to  be  had  in  tolerable  plenty. 
There  are  two  easy  ways  of  cooking  them  which  are  con- 
venient, because  in  both  they  are  as  good  cold  as  hot. 
The  first  is — 

Potted  Eels.  —  For  people  with  good  stomachs  and 
hearty  appetites,  there  is  no  need  to  skin  eels.  There  is 
no  doubt,  however,  that  their  flavour  and  digestibility  are 
increased  by  skinning,  although  the  skin  contains  fat, 
which  greatly  helps  to  warm  us,  by  supplying  fuel  for 
the  slow  combustion  within  us,  by  which  our  animal 
heat  is  maintained.  The  pickled  eels  that  are  sent  in 
casks  from  the  northern  countries  of ,  Europe  to  the 
south  are  never  skinned.  After  cleaning  your  eels, 
and  cutting  off  their  heads,  cut  them  into  pieces  about 
two  inches  long.  Put  them  into  a  brown  earthen  pot, 
to  which,  if  there  is  not  an  earthen  cover,  you  have 
fitted  a  wooden  one.  Season  them  with  pepper,  salt,  and 
allspice  ;  if  you  have  parsley  and  thyme  in  your  garden 
put  in  a  few  sprigs.  Pour  over  the  eels  a  little  more 
vinegar  and  water  than  will  cover  them  ;  put  on  the  lid, 
and  set  the  pot  into  a  slow  oven,  or  on  the  ashes  on  your 
hearth.  They  should  not  be  too  much  done  ;as  soon  as 
the  flesh  will  come  away  from  the  bone,  they  are  done 
enough.  They  will  keep  some  time.  When  herrings 
are  cheap,  and  before  they  are  shotten,  you  may  pot  them 
in  the  same  way.  These  you  scale,  cut  oflf  the  heads  and 
tails,  and  cut  them  across  into  two  or  three  pieces. 

Collared  Eels,  though  a  little  more  trouble  than  potted 
eels,  make  a  very  good  and  handsome  dish.  For  this, 
the  larger  the  eels  the  better  ;  quite  small  eels  can 
hardly  be  collared.  Empty  your  eel ;  cut  off  its  head  ; 
open  it  at  the  belly  the  whole  of  its  length  ;  wash  it  ; 
take  out  the  backbone,  tearing  the  flesh  as  little  as 
may  be.  Dry  it  by  pressing  it  with  a  coarse  cloth. 
You  will  then  have  a  flat  strip  of  eel-flesh,  broad  at 
one  end  and  narrow  at  the  other.  Season  the  inner 
surface  of  the  eel  by  dusting  it  with  salt,  pepper,  and 
allspice.  Then  roll  it  tightly  upon  itself,  as  you  would 
a  ribbon,  beginning  at  the  broad  end,  until  you  have 
rolled  it  into  a  lump  something  like  a  short,  thick 
sausage,  blunt  at  both  ends.  Tie  it  with  broad  tape 
(not  with  string,  which  would  cut  into  the  flesh  when 
cooked),  to  keep  it  from  unrolling,  and  then  cook  in  an 
earthen  pot  with  a  lid,  exactly  as  you  do  potted  eels. 
One  large  eel  will  be  enough  to  do  at  a  time,  and  be  as 
much  as  there  is  room  for  in  your  pot.  If  undersized, 
you  can  collar  several  (rolling  each  one  separately)  at 
once.  When  you  want  them,  you  take  them  out  of  the 
pot,  and  after  cutting  off  as  many  slices  as  are  required, 
you  return  them  to  their  liquor  for  future  use.  They  will 
keep  thus  several  days  or  longer,  and  are  very  convenient 
to  have  in  store,  to  save  cooking  in  hot  weather. 

Conger  Eel  Pie. — In  many  parts  of  the  country-,  cor-  ~ 
or  sea  eels,  are  often  plentiful  and  cheap.  In  Co: 
where  they  put  everything  mto  a  pie,  conger  pie  is  uin-  >-.i 
the  most  approved.  Take  congers  not  thicker  than  your 
wrist  (they  may  be  less)  ;  empty,  and  cut  them  into  two- 
inch  lengths,  rejecting  the  heads.  Wash,  drain,  and  dr>- 
them  in  a  coarse  cloth.      Roll  the  pieces  in  tloiir.  then 


68 


COOKING. 


place  them  in  your  pic-dish,  seasoning,  as  you  do  so,  with 
pepper,  salt,  and  allspice.  You  may  sprinkle  amongst 
them  a  little  chopped  parsley  and  lemon,  or  cominon 
thyme.  Pour  over  them  a  tumbler  of  water,  with  a  table- 
spoonful  of  vinegar  in  it,  to  help  to  make  gravy.  Two  or 
three  hard  eggs  quartered  will  be  a  nice  addition.  Cover 
all  with  a  good  solid  crust,  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 
This  dish  may  be  eaten  either  hot  or  cold  ;  if  cold,  the 
pie  may  be  a  little  more  highly  flavoured  with  spice  and 
vinegar. 

Large  Conger,  Roasted,  is  very  good  and  easy  to  do. 
Take  a  cut,  about  a  foot  long,  out  of  the  middle  of 
one  of  the  largest.  Clean  it  without  opening  the  belly. 
If  you  can  manage  to  stuff  it  with  a  stuffing  made  of 
bread  crumbs,  chopped  parsley  and  lemon  thyme,  pepper, 
salt,  and  shred  fat  or  suet,  bound  together  with  a  raw  egg, 
your  roast  will  be  all  the  better,  as  well  as  all  the  bigger, 
for  it.  Tie  it  round  with  string,  and  after  a  good  dredging 
with  flour,  roast  it.  Put  into  your  catch-pan  a  lump 
of  butter  or  some  roast-meat  dripping,  and,  if  you  live  in 
a  cyder  country,  a  tumbler  of  cyder ;  if  not,  the  same 
quantity  of  one-third  vinegar,  two-thirds  water.  Baste 
well  your  roasting  conger  with  this,  dredging  it  with  flour 
from  time  to  time.  When  half-done,  change  the  end  by 
which  it  hangs  before  the  fire,  and  continue  basting  till  it 
is  done  enough.  Serve  the  gravy  with  it.  Large  conger, 
so  prepared,  can  be  baked  in  a  dish,  if  the  shape  and 
size  of  the  oven  allow  of  its  being  basted  now  and  then 
with  the  liquor  (the  same  as  you  put  into  the  catch-pan) 
in  the  dish,  into  which  you  may  also  put  a  few  potatoes. 
Baking  the  fish  is  less  trouble  than  roasting  it,  but  if 
cooked  in  this  way  it  is  more  liable  to  over-doing  and 
drying  up. 

Skate  is  a  wholesome  fish,  often  to  be  had  at  a  reason- 
able price,  as  it  bears  travelling  well,  and  is  indeed,  in 
cool  weatlier,  the  better  for  being  kept  a  couple  of  days 
after  catching.  It  is  best  in  autumn,  but  is  never  exactly 
out  of  season.  Choose  fish  with  the  brown  skin  clear 
and  healthy-looking,  the  flesh  and  under  skin  very  white. 
Young  skate,  called  "  maids,"  are  tender  fleshed  and  deli- 
cate ;  larger  fish  are  firmer,  and  altogether  more  profitable, 
having  thicker  flesh  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  gristle, 
for  they  have  no  real  bones.  The  upper  skin  should  be 
removed.  If  you  have  to  do  it  yourself,  strip  it  from  the 
middle  outwards.  Save  the  liver.  Cut  your  fish  into 
pieces  about  four  inches  square — some  out  of  the  thick 
parts,  some  out  of  the  thin.  After  washing,  throw  the 
thick  pieces  and  the  liver  into  boiling  salt  and  water  ; 
when  they  have  boiled  up  a  couple  of  minutes,  put  in  the 
thin.  They  will  take  from  ten  minutes  to  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  in  cooking.  When  they  are  done,  arrange  them  on 
your  dish,  and  make  for  them  some  liver  sauce,  for  which 
we  subjoin  a  recipe. 

Liver  Sa2ice.  —  Q\\o^  some  of  the  liver  into  pieces 
smaller  than  peas.  Put  some  af  the  water  in  which  the 
fish  has  been  boiled  into  a  saucepan  ;  thicken  it  with  a 
little  flour  and  butter  or  dripping  ;  add  some  vinegar, 
with  a  very  small  quantity  of  mustard  mixed  in  it. 
Then  put  in  your  chopped  liver  ;  let  it  come  to  a  boil, 
and  it  is  ready. 

Plain  Boiled  Mackerel,  with  Fentiel  Sauce.  —  If  the 
fish  have  roes  and  milts,  by  making  an  opening  near  the 
vent,  you  will  be  able  to  draw  the  entrails  at  the  opening 
made  by  the  removal  of  the  gills,  at  the  same  time  leaving 
the  roc  or  milt  in  its  place,  and  also  to  wash  the  inside  of 
the  fish  through  those  two  apertures.  The  mackerel  will 
thus  have  a  much  plump>er  appearance  than  if  the  roes 
-were  taken  out  and  laid  beside  them.  When  the  fish- 
kettle  boils,  throw  in  a  few  sprigs  of  the  freshest  light 
green  fennel  you  can  get.  Add  a  little  salt,  and  when 
the  water  boils  again,  throw  in  your  mackerel.  Skim 
carefully.  They  will  take  from  twenty  minutes  to  half 
an  hour,  according  to   the^'ei^.     When  done,  lay  your 


mackerel  on  the  strainer  in  your  dish,  previously  warmed. 
Have  ready  some  melted  butter,  not  too  thick.  Take  the 
boiled  fennel  out  of  the  fish-kettle,  chop  it  fine,  and  add 
enough  of  it  to  the  melted  butter  to  give  it  a  light  green 
tint.  Add  a  dessert-spoo-n  of  vinegar,  either  common  or 
flavoured  with  tarragon.  You  may  also  stir  in  a  very  little 
made  mustard,  but  so  little  as  scarcely  to  be  perceptible. 
When  well  mixed  over  the  fire,  serve  separately  in  a 
sauce-boat. 

Cod^  Heads. — In  some  places,  fishmongers  take  the 
heads  off  their  codfish  before  they  cut  up  the  rest  of  the 
fish  to  retail  it  by  the  pound.  In  that  case,  the  heads  are 
sold  cheap ;  and  when  they  can  be  had  for  somewhere  about 
twopence  each,  they  are  well  worth  buying.  They  are 
in  season  through  the  whole  of  autumn  and  winter ;  and 
we  have  enjoyed  many  a  cheap  fish-treat  with  a  dish  of 
cods'  heads,  which  contain  several  of  the  tit-bits  prized  by 
epicures — namely,  the  tongue,  the  cheek-pieces,  and  the 
nape  of  the  neck.  The  fishermen  in  the  northern  regions, 
who  take  cod  in  large  numbers  for  salting  (to  do  which 
they  are  obliged  to  cut  off  the  heads),  might  be  expected 
to  throw  them  away,  and  waste  them,  in  the  midst  of 
such  abundance.  But  instead  of  that  they  turn  them  to 
the  best  possible  account.  The  tongues  and  the  neck- 
pieces, as  well  as  the  sounds,  or  swimming  bladders  of  the 
fish,  are  cut  out  and  salted.  Even  the  fins  are  dried,  to 
furnish  glue.  The  only  inconvenience  attending  cods' 
heads  is,  that  if  there  are  several,  they  require  a  large 
kettle  to  boil  them  in  ;  but  they  can  be  cooked  one  or  two 
at  a  time,  reserving  the  flesh  from  the  second  batch  for 
next  day's  use.  After  taking  out  the  eyes,  wash  the  heads, 
drain  them,  and  if  you  can  let  them  lie  all  night  with  a 
little  salt  sprinkled  over  them,  they  will  be  none  the  worse 
for  it.  Put  them  into  a  kettle  of  boiling  water,  and  boil 
from  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  twenty  minutes,  according  to 
size.  Dish  them  on  a  strainer,  if  you  can,  and  help  with 
a  spoon. 

For  sauce,  oiled  butter  is  good — i.e.,  simply  set  a  lump 
of  butter  in  a  cup  before  the  fire  until  it  melts,  and  with  a 
spoon  pour  a  little  of  it  over  the  fish  on  your  plate.  In 
some  English  counties,  nice  mealy  potatoes  are  considered 
a  necessary  "  sauce  "  for  codfish. 

For  sharp  sauce,  take  a  few  table-spoonfuls  of  the  cods' 
head  boilings  ;  put  them  in  a  saucepan  with  a  lump  of 
butter  or  dripping,  and  a  table-spoonful  of  vinegar  ;  dust 
in  a  little  flour,  and  keep  stirring  in  one  direction  till  they 
are  all  mixed  smooth  and  come  to  a  boil. 

Both  these  sauces  go  well  with  any  boiled  fish,  and  are 
very  nice  served  with  many  sorts  of  vegetables.  To 
these  we  will  add  a  third,  which  will  be  found  equally 
simple  and  good. 

For  brown  sauce,  put  a  good  lump  of  butter  or  dripping 
into  a  saucepan.  Set  it  on  a  brisk  fire,  shake  it  round 
now  and  then,  and  keep  it  there  till  it  is  browned,  not 
burnt.  Take  it  off"  the  fire,  and  stir  into  it  a  good  table- 
spoonful  of  vinegar.  When  they  are  well  mixed,  pour 
it  into  your  sauce-boat,  and  serve.  The  mixing  of  the 
vinegar  with  the  hot  fat  had  better  be  done  out  of  doors, 
on  account  of  the  quantity  of  vapour  that  rises  when  they 
are  put  together.  Although  the  reverse  of  an  unhealthy 
smell,  it  may  not  be  agreeable  to  the  persons  in  the 
house. 

Any  meat  remaining  on  cods'  heads  after  a  meal  should 
be  separated  from  the  skin  and  bone  before  it  gets  cold. 
This  rule  applies  to  all  other  fish.  Arrange  it  neatly  on  a 
plate,  and  dust  a  little  pepper,  and  drop  a  little  vinegar 
over  it.  It  will  furnish  a  nice  little  delicacy  when  cold, 
or  you  may  warm  it  up  with  potatoes,  adding  any  sauce 
that  may  be  left,  in  the  way  we  have  already  directed  for 
roach  and.  bream  ;  or,  after  putting  on  it  the  cold  sauce 
left,  or  a  bit  of  butter,  you  may  sprinkle  over  it  bread 
crumbs  or  mashed  potatoes,  and  brown  them  before  the 
fire  or  in  the  oven. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


69 


THE   AQUARIUM. 

FRESH    WAIKR   ANIMALS    {coticludcd). 

As  temporary  residents  tadpoles  certainly  claim  a  few 
vords  of  notice.  They  arc  easily  obtainable  in  the  spring, 
Liid  their  gradual  development  into  frogs  affords  a  lesson 
in  natural  history  especially  interesting  to  the  young. 
They  should  be  introduced  in  the  proper  tadpole  stage, 
when  they  consist  but  of  an  oval  body  terminating  in  a 
pointed  tail,  which  is  actively  used  as  a  propeller.  Then 
may  be  observed  the  gradual  budding  of  the  hind-legs,  the 
appearance  of  the  head,  and  the  ultimate  change  into 
the  frog.  On  arriving  at  the  final 
stage  of  its  development  it  be- 
comes amphibious,  and  will  climb 
on  the  cork  island  that  should  float 
on  the  surface  of  the  aquarium  ; 
then,  of  course,  it  requires  its 
liberty,  and  should  be  placed  in 
the  way  of  finding  a  more  conge- 
nial place  of  retirement.  When 
the  plants  have  become  fairly  es- 
tablished, and  the  beetles  and 
snails  have  settled  down  in  their 
new  home,  it  will  be  time  to  con- 
sider what  fish  shall  be  chosen  to 
complete  the  furnishing  of  the 
aquarium.  For  the  sake  of  appear- 
ance precedence 
must  be  given  to  the 
golden  carp  ;  two  of 
these,  not  exceeding 
four  inches  long,  will 
be  sufficient  for  a  cir- 
cular glass.  The  most 
interesting  of  the  fish 
which  may  be  kept  in 
confinement  is,  how- 
ever, the  minnow ; 
these  little  creatures 
will  live  for  a  consid- 
erable time  —  some- 
times for  years — in  a 
healthy  condition,  and  become  so  tame 
that  they  will  take  food  from  the  fingers 
at  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  follow 
the  hand  that  feeds  them  round  the  glass. 
From  six  to  a  dozen  of  these  will  not 
be  too  many  for  even  a  small  aquarium. 
Sometimes  a  disease  will  attack  the  min- 
now, and  therefore,  before  being  placed 
in  the  aquarium,  they  should  be  carefully 
examined.  If  a  whitish  fluffy  spot  be 
noticed  near  the  tail,  the  fish  should  be 
kept  in  quarantine,  or  it  will  contaminate 
the  rest,  and  a  general  mortality  will 
ensue.       This   disease   usually   spreads 


np    Tur    FUOG. 


THE   LOACH. 


THE   COM.MO 


mon  carp,  Prussian  carp,  the  roach,  the  tench,  and  the 
gudgeon  ;  the  two  first  named  being  the  most  preferable. 

As  it  is  important  to  know  what  to  avoid,  it  should  be 
mentioned  that  the  stickleback,  though  an  amusing  little 
creature  when  kept  with  companions  of  its  own  kind,  is 
too  pugnacious  to  be  admitted  into  a  general  collection  ; 
and  the  same  objection  holds  good  with  the  perch. 

There  is  another  animal  that  may  be  safely  placed  in  a 
small  vessel  in  company  \vith  those  we  have  named,  and 
that  is  the  newt,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds— the  small 
newt  and  the  triton.  They  are  both  perfectly  harmless,  and 
the  latter  is  especially  attractive  on  account  of  its  bright 
yellow  body,  which  is  striped  with 
black. 

An  aquarium  furnished  with  the 
creatures  we  have  named  will  con- 
tain   sufficient    variety    in    form, 
colour,  and  habit  to  render  it  very 
attractive  and  interesting,  and  will 
need  but  little  attention  to  keep  it 
in  order.     Care  should  of  course 
be  taken  that  the  water  does  not 
get  too   warm   or   too   cold,  and 
that  no  more  food  be  given  than 
can  be  consumed.     The  best  food 
is  a  little  biscuit  powder,  kneaded 
up  into  pills  about  the  size  of  pin- 
heads,  and  shreds  of  raw  beef  cut 
with  a  pair  of  scissors; 
these  should  be  drop- 
ped    in    alternately, 
when    the    fish   will 
catch  the  bits  before 
they  sink  to  the  bot- 
tom.   This  operation 
should   not    be   per- 
formed more   fre- 
quently than  once  a 
da)-. 

As  it  is  not  desir- 
able to  disturb  the 
contents  of  an  aqua- 
rium oftener  than  can 
be  avoided,  two  or  three  inexpensive 
instruments  arc  required.  To  remove 
the  stones  at  the  bottom  a  pair  of  forceps 
should  be  obtained — a  wooden  glove- 
stretcher,  to  be  purchased  at  any  hosier's 
for  a  shilling,  answers  the  purpose  better 
than  anything  else  ;  to  remove  lighter 
matters,  such  as  decayed  leaves,  morsels 
of  food,  &c.,  a  glass  tube  open  at  both 
ends  is  the  most  ctTective.  By  putting 
one  end  of  the  open  tube  against  the 
debris  to  be  removed,  and  then  placing 
the  finger  over  the  other  end,  any  light 
substance  can  be  lifted  out  of  the  water  ; 


THE   TRITON 


gradually  from  the  tail  towards  the  head,  till  nearly  half    to  take  it  out  by  any  other  method  is  no  easy  task,  and  often 


the  body  becomes  coated  with  a  woolly  fungus,  the  fish 
moves  with  an  awkward  jerk,  and  then  occasionally  floats 
helplessly  on  its  back,  till  in  a  few  days  it  dies. 

The  loach  is  also  to  be  recommended  as  an  inhabitant 
of  the  aquarium.  It  agrees  well  with  the  other  fish,  soon 
becomes  tame,  and  invariably  thrives  ;  its  movements  are 
somewhat  curious,  for  instead  of  gliding  about  like  the  rest, 
it  lies  at  the  bottom,  turns  over  the  pebbles  in  search  of  food, 
and  jerks  itself  round  the  glass  with  a  spasmodic  motion, 
resting  occasionally  on  the  rockwork  that  lies  in  its  way. 
It  is  also  useful  in  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  for  it  picks  up 
the  stray  morsels  that  may  have  fallen  to  the  bottom,  and 
thus  prevents  the  water  becoming  fouled  by  decaying  frag- 
ments of  food  that  have  been  unobserved  by  its  more 
lively  neighbours.     To  the  above  may  be  added  the  corn- 


results  in  breaking  it  up  and  fouling  the  water.  When  the 
bottom  of  the  aquarium  becomes  dirty  from  an  accumula- 
tion of  sediment,  a  syphon  of  india-rubber  tubing  may  be 
used;  by  letting  the  tube  draw  the  water  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  vessel  the  refuse  will  pass  out  without  disturbing 
the  weeds,  and  clean  water  can  be  introduced  gently  to 
make  up  for  what  has  been  taken  out.  It  should  always  be 
borne  in  mind  that  an  aquarium,  properly  managed,  needs 
no  change  of  water  ;  in  warm  weather,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  add  a  little  water  to  make  up  for  evaporation. 
The  writer  has  kept  both  large  tanks  and  small  vessels 
for  more  than  a  twelvemonth  without  changing  the  water. 
An  aquarium  is  more  interesting  and  less  troublesome 
than  most  other  decorative  objects  that  involve  the  support 
of  either  vegetable  or  animal  life. 


70 


THE    TOILETTE. 


THE    TOILETTE. 

I. — THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE   SKIN   {continued). 

Pimples  and  Rashes  of  the  Face. — Infants  at  the  breast, 
when  they  are  much  wrapped  up  or  heated,  suffer  from  the 
development — on  the  cheeks,  neck,  arms,  body — of  little, 
vivid  red,  soft,  raised  pimples,  the  size  of  pins'  heads, 
sometimes  scattered  about,  often  congregated  together, 
and  accompanied  by  a  little  red  blush.  This  eruption  is 
called  the  "  red  gum,"  or  "  red  gown,"  "  tooth  rash,"  and  the 
like.  It  is  a  simple  affair,  due  to  congestion  and  slight 
inflammation  of  the  skin,  and  it  is  a  sign,  as  a  rule,  that 
the  babe  is  kept  too  warm.  Formerly,  when  infants  were 
half  smothered  in  clothes  and  close  rooms,  red  gum  was 
very  common  indeed.  As  regards  medicine,  it  may  be 
well  to  give  a  few  grain-s  of  carbonate  of  soda,  to  correct 
acidity,  two  or  three  times  a  day — in  the  food  is  as  good  a 
way  as  any — and  to  use  locally  several  times  a  day  a  simple 
lotion  composed  of  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  oxide  of  zinc, 
a  half  tea-spoonful  of  glycerine,  and  six  ounces  of  rose- 
water.  A  little  borax  and  glycerine,  or  lemon  juice  and 
water  will  also  be  of  service.  In  young  persons  who  are 
passing  into  adolescence,  "  pimples "  on  the  face  arc 
common,  in  the  shape  of  black  specks,  or  red  pimples, 
which  are  hard  and  raised,  and  often  exhibit  a  central 
yellow  spot  ;  a  little  fatty  matter  may  often  be  squeezed 
from  these  sf>ots,  and  from  its  form  it  has  been  mistaken 
for  a  worm.  The  extruded  mass  is,  however,  only  a  plug 
of  cuticle  and  fat  which  fills  up  the  tubes  of  the  little  fat 
glands.  The  disease  of  which  we  are  speaking  is  techni- 
cally called  acne.  Some  persons  think  that  acne  is  due 
to  a  superabundance  of  nutritive  fluids  in  the  body  ;  but 
this  is  not  the  case.  About  the  age  of  puberty  the  whole 
glands  of  the  body  become  active,  and  if  anything  inter- 
feres with  the  circulation  through  the  skin,  that  is,  makes  it 
sluggish,  the  glands  will  not  secrete  their  oily  matter  pro- 
perly, and  will  become,  therefore,  choked  up  with  secre- 
tion, and  the  collection  of  dirt  from  the  external  air  upon 
the  top  of  the  chokcd-up  gland  appears  as  a  black  speck  ; 
this  is  the  simplest  kind  of  acne.  It  will  be  seen  that  a 
vigorous  use  of  soap  and  water,  and  rubbing  with  a  fairly 
rough  towel  is  best  adapted  to  get  rid  of  acne,  because 
by  these  means  the  skin  is  roused  from  its  torpor  ;  but  in 
other  cases  the  glands  will  not  only  be  choked  up,  but 
inflamed,  the  acne  spots  will  be  red  and  tender,  and  the 
face  hot  and  uncomfortable.  Here  we  must  use  soothing 
remedies.  The  same  remark  applies  to  those  cases  of  face 
pimples  which  form  a  rosy  rash  in  middle-aged  females, 
or  in  those  who  drink.  As  regards  the  general  health, 
there  is  frequently  indigestion  present,  and  the  face  may 
flush  after  every  meal.  This  must  be  prevented,  as  the 
rush  of  blood  to  the  face  only  aggravates  the  acne.  The 
best  medicine  is  about  half  a  teaspoonful  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  with  a  little  ginger,  in  water,  an  hour  before  every 
meal,  and  aperients  must  also  be  regularly  taken  if  in  the 
least  degree  needed.  After  the  indigestion  is  gone,  the 
sufferer  may  take  five  drops  of  dilute  nitric  acid,  five  of 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and  a  tea-spoonful  of  tincture 
of  gentian  in  water,  twice  a  day.  Arsenic  may  be 
required  in  severe  cases  ;  but  it  should  only  be  taken 
under  medical  advice.  The  face  should  not  be  roughly 
used,  but  bathed  with  warm  gruel  and  water  night  and 
morning ;  soap  should  be  avoided,  and  the  following  lotion 
should  be  applied  several  times  a  day  with  a  piece  of 
sponge  ;  it  is  a  panacea  for  pimples  of  all  kinds  about 
the  face  : — Take  of  oxide  of  zinc  powder  sixty  grains  ;  fine 
calamine  powd^^  as  prepared  at  Apothecaries'  Hall, 
half-an-ouncc  ;  bichloride  of  mercury,  one  grain ;  gly- 
cerine, one  teaspoonful ;  and  rose-water,  six  ounces.  For 
use,  shake  the  lotion  up,  pour  out,  and  dab  on  to  the  face, 
allowing  the  powdery  substance  to  dry  on,  then  brush 
off  the  superabundant  powder  with  a  soft  handkerchief, 
so   as   to   make   the   appearance  passable.      Everything 


that  flushes  or  heats  the  face,  especially  beer,  should,  of 
course,  be  avoided.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  red 
blushes  of  the  face.  In  the  one  case  the  disease  is  in  the 
fat  glands  ;  in  the  other,  the  skin  substance.  The  same 
remedies  are  useful  in  each  case. 

Skin  Cosmetics. — This  is  the  place  to  say  a  few  words 
on  the  use  of  cosmetics.  Some  of  them  are  harmless, 
some  are  dangerous,  and  most  of  them  injurious  to  the 
skin.  Cosmetics  are  used  either  to  give  a  delicate  com- 
plexion or  to  heighten  the  colour,  and  they  include  soaps, 
lotions,  powders,  and  creams.  The  whites  are  formed 
of  magnesia,  starch,  bismuth  (which  hardens  the  skin), 
lead,  zinc,  white  precipitate,  &c.  The  red  paints  are 
rouge  and  carmine.  The  only  admissible  substances  are 
zinc,  magnesia,  and  starch  (violet  powder).  But  those 
who  use  these  should  be  very  careful  to  well  wash  their 
faces  night  and  morning,  so  that  no  cosmetic  powder  may 
remain  behind  to  choke  up  the  pores.  We  would  recom- 
mend to  all  who  "  ivill  use  something,"  the  use  at  night  of 
perfectly  freshly  prepared  or  well  preserved  elder-flower 
ointment,  and  the  use  of  the  following  lotion  as  a  cos- 
metic ;  a  little  practice  will  soon  enable  the  user  to  finish 
off  the  application  with  a  brush  in  such  a  way  that  it 
cannot  be  seen  : — Powdered  borax,  five  grains  ;  oxide 
of  zinc  powder,  two  drachms  ;  finely  powdered  calamine 
powder,  as  made  at  Apothecaries'  Hall,  two  drachms  ; 
glycerine,  eighty  drops  ;  dilute  nitric  acid,  four  drops  ; 
spirits  of  wine,  thirty  drops  ;  distilled  water,  four  ounces. 
Some  of  the  compounds  sold  under  the  name  of  milk  of 
roses,  bloom  of  beauty,  and  the  like,  contain  lead  or 
bismuth  in  large  quantities,  which  may  after  awhile 
harden  the  face  and  injure  the  complexion.  As  we  have 
already  said,  only  the  mildest  soaps  should  be  used  to  the 
face. 

Dandriff  or  Sciirfiness  is  a  common  and  troublesome 
complaint  affecting  children  and  grown-up  persons  alike. 
The  skin  scales  over  very  freely,  bran-like  pieces  being 
constantly  shed,  and  there  is  more  or  less  itching  ;  occa- 
sionally heat  and  redness  are  present.  The  scalp  is  the 
part  most  usually  affected.  In  some  cases  the  scurfiness 
is  a  symptom  that  there  is  debility  in  the  system  or  a 
shghtly  gouty  tendency,  when  internal  medicine  is  needed; 
but  usually  local  applications  suffice.  When  the  scalp  is 
rather  tender,  very  irritable,  and  inclined  to  inflame,  we 
know  of  no  better  application  of  a  simple  nature  than  an 
embrocation  made  of  equdi  parts  of  olive  oil  and  lime- 
water  well  shaken  together.  The  scalp  should  be  well 
cleansed  with  warm  water,  but  without  rough  handling, 
and  then  the  embrocation  should  be  applied  with  a  piece 
of  sponge  directly  to  the  scalp.  This  may  be  done  every 
night.  In  some  cases  the  washing  is  only  needed  everj" 
other  day ;  no  soap  should  be  used.  This  is  for  the 
irritable  cases.  In  the  more  indolent  instances,  where 
there  is  no  heat  of  head,  but  mere  scaliness,  it  may  be 
best  to  apply  at  once  some  slight  stimulant,  either  in  the 
form  of  ointment  or  a  wash,  according  to  the  taste  of  the 
user.  The  ointment  should  be  made  of  five  grains  of  the 
nitric  oxide  of  mercury  to  the  ounce  of  lard,  or  three  drops 
of  carbolic  acid  to  the  ounce  of  lard.  The  wash  should 
be  of  the  following  ingredients  : — Spirits  of  wine,  two 
drachms  ;  spirit  of  rosemary,  one  ounce  ;  strong  ammonia 
solution,  a  teaspoonful  ;  glycerine,  a  drachm  ;  and  rose- 
water,  six  ounces.  Where  the  disease  is  obstinate,  medical 
advice  must  be  sought.  The  lime-water  and  olive-oil 
embrocation  above  referred  to  may  be  scented  according 
to  taste,  and  is  the  best  application  for  general  use.  It 
should  be  mixed  in  small  quantities,  because  it  does  not 
keep  long  in  warm  weather. 

E7'uptions. — These  are  very  numerous,  and  occur  over 
different  parts  of  the  body,  and  it  would  be  an  unprofitable 
task  to  describe  them  in  any  fulness.  We  shall  thereforc 
make  some  general  observations  upon  them,  and  give  a 
few  plain  directions  how  to  treat  the  simpler  and  more 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


71 


common  forms.  Whenever  a  child  is  feverish  and  really 
ill,  and  any  eruption  shows  itself,  it  should  be  kept  very 
quiet  and  warm  in  bed.  It  is  not  difficult  even  for  a  non- 
medical person  to  sec  when  a  child  is  distinctly  feverish, 
by  the  flushed  face,  the  languid  look,  the  headache,  red 
tongue,  quick  pulse,  and  hot  dry  skin.  If  a  rash  shows 
itself  about  the  face  first,  and  there  be  much  s-ncezing, 
running  of  the  eyes,  and  a  little  cough,  we  suspect  measles. 
If  the  child  "comes  out"  with  a  scarlet  rash  of  uniform 
character,  if  the  skin  be  pungently  hot,  the  fever  very 
marked,  and  there  be  sore  throat,  with  a  strawberry  tongue, 
we  suspect  scarlatina.  If  the  rash  show  all  over  the  back 
first,  and  then  above  the  face  and  head  and  other  parts,  as 
little^  watery  heads,  it  is  probably  chicken-pox.  When 
modified  small-pox  occurs,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  fever, 
and  pains  in  the  back,  and  the  eruption  appears  first  of 
all  in  the  face,  which  is  distinctly  pitted  in  a  day  or  two. 
All  these  cases  require  medical  care. 

Red  Blushes  of  various  sizes  occur  about  the  bodies  of 
■children  in  summer-time,  and  are  known  as  rose-rash  ; 
they  demand  the  employment  of  a  slight  aperient  and  the 
use  of  a  little  weak  spirit  lotion,  or,  better  still,  smearing 
over  with  benzoated  zinc  ointment. 

Sometimes,  on  the  legs  of  young  people,  raised  red 
lumps  of  an  oval  shape  appear  ;  they  are  painful,  and 
they  look  like  circles  of  erysipelas,  or  as  if  an  abscess 
were  going  to  form,  but  this  is  never  the  case.  After  they 
have  existed  a  few  days  the  circumference  assumes  a 
"bluish  tinge,  and  then  as  the  places  disappear,  hues 
similar  to  those  seen  in  a  bruise  which  is  going  away  are 
noticed.  These  cases  require  rest,  quinine,  mild  aperients, 
and  the  outward  application  of  a  little  whitening  and  water. 
They  soon  get  well  with  rest. 

Whenever  a  child  about  a  month  old  is  attacked  with 
eruption  about  the  soles  of  the  feet  and  the  parts  adjoin- 
ing the  bowels  behind,  and  there  be  loss  of  flesh,  with 
sore  mouth  and  the  "  snuffles"  (cold  in  the  nose),  it  should 
be  taken  to  a  doctor. 

Very  frequently  mothers  are  distressed  by  the  occur- 
rence of  chafings  and  sore  red  patches  in  their  infants 
about  the  buttocks,  the  bend  of  the  thigh,  the  root  of  the 
neck,  and  the  armpits,  just,  in  fact,  where  two  portions  of 
skin  come  into  contact  ;  the  irritation  is  accompanied  by 
great  soreness  and  more  or  less  thin  discharge,  which 
stains  the  clothes  put  to  the  child  and  gives  them  an 
offensive  odour.  These  chafings  are  frequently  an  ac- 
companiment of  thrush  ;  in  that  case  we  should  treat  the 
thrush  at  once  ;  the  best  remedy  for  ordinary  cases  is  a 
mixture  made  of  chlorate  of  potash  and  honey.  For  a 
child  a  couple  of  months  old  we  should  give  as  follov/s  :  — 
Chlorate  of  potash,  ten  grains  ;  honey,  half  a  teaspoonful; 
hot  water,  an  ounce.  When  cold,  give  a  teaspoonful 
three  times  a  day,  and  wash  the  mouth  out  after  each 
time  of  feeding  with  a  little  honey  and  borax.  When 
there  is  no  thrush,  and  the  child  is  weak  and  thin,  or  very 
fat  and  flabby,  cod-liver  oil  and  steel  wine — five  to  ten 
drops  of  the  former  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  the  latter — 
should  be  given  twice  a  day  ;  but  the  local  treatment  is 
the  most  important.  When  the  chafings  are  slight  the 
parts  may  be  dusted  over  with  fuller's  earth,  or,  what  is 
very  much  the  best,  equal  parts  of  starch  powder  and  the 
finely-prepared  calamine  powder  made  at  Apothecaries' 
Mall  which  we  have  referred  to  so  many  times  before. 
The  object  is  to  keep  the  parts  very  dry  indeed ;  night 
and  morning  they  should  be  well  washed  with  oatmeal 
gruel,  but  gently  handled,  the  powder  bemg  used 
afterwards.  The  child  should  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean  and  dry,  its  napkins  changed  on  every  necessary 
occasion,  and  the  nurse  should  be  most  careful  that 
the  napkins  are  not  washed  in  soda.  Whenever  the 
c'.ild  is  changed,  the  powder  should  be  dusted  on  to 
tlie  sore  places.  In  severe  cases  it  may  be  advisable, 
when  there   is   much  discharge,  to    apply  an   ointment. 


and  there  is  none  better  than  the  lead  ointment  of 
the  old  London  P/iannacopa-ia,  spread  thinly  on  burnt 
rag,  and  changed  twice  or  thrice  a  day.  Where,  how- 
ever, the  case  is  severe,  there  is  something  radically 
wrong,  and  medical  advice  should  be  sought,  as  also 
in  those  cases  in  which  the  simple  remedies  named 
fail  after  perseverance. 


DOMESTIC   SURGERY. 


FRACTURES,   DISLOCATIONS,   BURNS,  AND  SCALDS. 

Fractures. — The  treatment  of  broken  bones  is  much  too 
important  to  be  entrusted  to  any  but  professional  hands, 
but  there  are  some  points  connected  with  the  early  care 
of  such  cases  which  may  be  advantageously  insisted  on. 
Thc  great  majority  of  fractures  are  what  is  technically 
called  "  simple,"  i.e.,  there  is  no  wound  of  the  skin  com- 
municating with  the  broken  bone ;  the  more  serious  cases, 
where  there  is  a  wound,  and  possibly  laceration  of  the  soft 
tissues  of  the  limb,  are  tenned  "  compound  ;"  and  when 
the  bone  is  broken  into  several  pieces,  the  fracture  is  said, 
to  be  "comminuted."  In  all  cases  of  fracture  it  is  most 
important  to  avoid  all  rough  manipulation  of  the  limb,  lest 
the  "simple"  fracture  should  become  "compound,"  by  the 
end  of  the  broken  bone  being  thrust  through  the  skin ; 
and  as  the  muscles  of  the  limb  itself,  if  excited  to  action, 
have  a  direct  tendency  to  produce  this  undesirable  result, 
the  patient  should  not  only  abstain  from  all  voluntarj' 
effort,  but  means  should  be  taken  to  restrain  all  involun- 
tary contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  limb,  as  will  be 
afterwards  explained. 

The  immediate  effect  of  a  severe  injur}'  likely  to  pro- 
duce a  fracture  is  ordinarily  a  certain  amount  of  faintness, 
and  this  need  give  no  alarm  if  the  patient  is  not  losing 
blood  at  the  same  time.  The  only  treatment  required. 
will  be  fresh  air,  with  perhaps  a  little  cold  water  sprinkled 
on  the  face,  the  head  being  kept  low  until  the  fiintness 
has  passed  off,  when  a  little  brandy  may  be  given  if  the 
patient  continues  exhausted. 

Since  severe  accidents  usually  happen  in  the  open  air, 
the  next  requisite  will  be  to  place  the  patient  under 
shelter  ;  and  the  method  of  conveying  an  injured  person 
safely  for  some  distance  is  a  matter  of  no  small  moment. 

In  the  case  of  a  brokdn  arm  the  sufferer  will  naturally 
support  the  injured  limb  with  the  opposite  hand  in  the 
position  least  painful  to  himself  When  this  has  been 
ascertained,  and  if  there  is  any  distance  to  travel  before  a 
surgeon  can  be  seen,  the  arm  should  be  supported  both 
by  handkerchiefs  arranged  so  as  to  sling  it,  and  also  by  a 
handkerchief  or  bandage  bound — not  too  tightly — round 
the  arm  itself,  so  as  to  support  the  parts.  A  piece  of 
card-board  (such  as  is  used  for  tying  up  gloves),  or  a  piece 
of  a  common  hat-box,  four  inches  wide,  may  be  advan- 
tageously placed  on  each  side  of  the  broken  bone  and 
secured  with  the  bandage  which  envelops  it  The  patient 
may  then  be  safely  driven  some  miles  in  a  carriage ;  and 
a  four-wheel  conveyance  with  good  springs  is  to  be 
preferred. 

If  one  of  the  bones  of  the  leg  is  broken  the  patient  is 
immediately  rendered  helpless,  and  the  greatest  care  will 
be  requisite,  lest  in  moving  him  great  pain  should  be 
inflicted.  ' 

By  far  the  most  satisfactorj'  way  to  carry  a  wounded 
man  is  on  some  form  of  litter  borne  by  four  bearers.  A 
hurdle,  or  a  small  door  taken  off  its  hinges,  is  a  very  good 
substitute  for  a  regular  "stretcher,"  and  cither,  with  a 
mattress  and  pillow,will  form  a  very  comfortable  temporary 
means  of  transport.  When  neither  of  these  is  at  hand, 
a  blanket  may  be  used  to  carry  a  patient  in  for  a  short 
distance,  or  if  four  poles  can  be  procured  and  fastened 
together  to  form  a  frame-work,  the  blanket  can  be  tied  to 
the  comers,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  Fig.  15,  and  will 


DOMESTIC   SURGERY. 


then  be  much  more  efficient  a.nd  easy  to  carry.  Whatever 
method  is  adopted  there  are  certain  rules  with  regard  to 
carrying  a  stretcher  which  should  be  carefully  attended 
to  : — A  stretcher  should  be  carried  by  four  men  rather 
than  by  two,  and  should  always  be  carried  by  the  hands 
and  not  on  the  shoulders  ;  the  drawbacks  to  the  latter 
proceeding  are  the  difficulty  of  finding  on  an  emergency  J 
four  men  of  the  same 
height,  so  that  a  level 
position  may  be  secured  ; 
and  also  that  any  tilting 
of  the  stretcher  may  throw 
the  patient  off  from  such 
a  height  as  seriously  to 
aggravate  his  injury.  Be- 
sides,    the     raising     and 


wheaten  straw  laid  along  each  side  of  the  broken  limb, 
and  bound  to  it  by  two  or  three  handkerchiefs. 

In  the  case  of  a  badly-sprained  ankle,  or  a  crushed 
foot,  it  will  be  sometimes  convenient  to  carry  a  patient  be- 
tween two  bearers  in  a  sitting  position,  or  semi-recumbent. 
The  first  method  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
tration, Fig.  1 6,  the  opposite  hands  of  the  bearers  being 

interlaced  under  thethighs 
and  behind  the  loins,  and 
the  patient  putting  his 
arms  round  the  bearers' 
necks.  This  method  is 
very  trying  to  the  bearers, 
and  could  only  be  en- 
dured for  a  short  distance. 
A  patient  is  much  more 


lowering  of  the  burden  is  n6t 
an  easy  matter,  and  is  apt  to 
frighten  the  patient  when  un- 
skilfully performed. 

It  is  not  advisable  that  the 
bearers  of  a  stretcher  should 
"keep  step."  If  only  two 
men  are  carrying  a  stretcher, 
and  they  march  "  in  step,"  the 
load  they  are  carrying  will 
be  swayed  to  the  rig?it  and 
left  side  alternately,.'  to  the 
great  discomfort  of  the  pa- 
tient ;  but  if  one  advances  his 
right  foot  and  the  other  his 
left,  the  burden  will  be  kept 
perfectly  even.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  case  of  four 
bearers,  only  here  the  front  and  rear  men  of  opposite 
sides  should  keep  step  and  be  out  of  step  with  their 
companions. 

A  temporary  splint  may  be  advantageously  applied  to  a 
broken  leg  before  the  patient  is  moved  on  to  the  litter,  as 
has  already  been  advised  in  the  case  of  a  broken  arm,  arid 
for  this  purpose  nothing  answers  better  than  some  clean 


i'/s  , 


easily  carried  in  the  semi-re- 
cumbent position,  if  placed  in 
the  arms  of  two  men,  arranged 
as  shown  in  the  illustration, 
Fig.  17,  their  opposite  hands 
firmly  interlacing  in  front,  and 
their  other  hands  being  placed 
on  each  other's  shoulders,  so 
as  to  support  the  patient  be- 
hind ;  thus  the  weight  of  the 
patient  falls  chiefly  on  the 
two  arms  behind  him,  and  he 
can  be  carried  for  some  distance 
without  fatigue. 

Another  way  of  carrying  a 
patient  is  upon  what  is  known 
among  schoolboys  as  a  "  sedan-chair,"  each  bearer  grasp- 
ing his  own  fore-arm  and  that  of  his  fellow  about  its  middle, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Fig.  19,  and  the  patient 
grasping  the  bearers'  necks,  as  shown  before  in  Fig.  16. 
This  is  a  convenient  way  to  carry  ladies  over  shallow 
streams,  <S:c.,  in  the  course  of  country  walks  or  at  pic- 
nics ;  and  as  on  those  occasions  sprained  ankles  are  not 
altogether  unknown,  a  disabled  member  of  a  party  may 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


73 


thus  be  transported  for  a  long  distance  with  relays  of 
bearers,  the  two  working  together  being  as  far  as  possible 
of  a  height. 

Dislocations. — A  dislocation,  like  a  fracture,  should 
always  be  submitted 
to  the  care  of  a  sur- 
geon as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. When  a  bone 
has  slipped  from  its 
socket  the  limb  is  use- 
less, and  there  is  more 
or  less  pain,  and  the 
neighbourhood  of  the 
joint  is  deformed. 

A  dislocation  of  the 
shoulder  is  at  once 
the  most  common,  the 
most  painful,  and  the 
most  readily  reduced 
of  these  accidents,  and 
we  venture,  therefore, 
to  give  a  few  hints  for 
its  treatment.  A  fall 
into  a  ditch  is  a  com- 
mon cause  of  this 
accident,  the  elbow 
being  caught  on  the 
bank  and  suddenly 
thrust  upwards,  when 
the  head  of  the  bone 
slips  out  of  its  socket 
and  into  the  arm-pit, 
giving  rise  to  ex- 
cruciating   pain    from 

its  pressure  upon  the  large  nerves.     This  being  an  acci- 
dent which  may  happen  to  a  rider  when  hunting,  or  when 
unable    to    obtain  assistance,  he   may   safely   make   an 
attempt  to  reduce  the  arm  him- 
self,   by    using    a    gate    for    the 
purpose  of  a  fulcrum,  as  shown 
in    Fig.    1 8.       Here,    lifting    his 
arm    over    the    gate     with    the 
other   hand,   the   patient    grasps 
the  lowest  bar  he  can  reach,  and 
allows  the  weight  of  his  body  to 
hang   on   tlie   other   side   of  the 
gate  until  by  the  pressure  of  the 
top  bar  the  bone  is  forced  into  its 
socket  with  a  snap. 

Another  method,  which  may 
be  safely  employed  by  a  by- 
stander, is  to  seat  the  sufferer  in 
a  strong  chair  and  to  put  the  foot 
on  the  seat  with  the  bent  knee 
under  the  dislocated  shoulder, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  20.  The 
arm  is  then  to  be  grasped  and 
forcibly  bent  over  the  knee,  when 
the  dislocation  will  probably  be 
reduced  ;  no  more  violent  efforts 
are  justifiable  in  the  hands  of 
non-professional  persons,  and  in 
any  case,  even  of  reduced  dis- 
location, the  patient  should  be 
seen   by  a  surgeon    as    soon  as 

it  is  convenient,  lest  any  other  injury  which  he  may 
have  sustained  at  the  same  time  should  have  been  over- 
looked. 

Burns  and  Scalds. — Burns  are  probably  not  quite 
so  frequent  as  scalds,  but  are  much  more  alarm- 
ing at  the  time  of  their  occurrence,  and,  if  severe,  are 
much  more  serious  in  their  results  than  scalds.  The 
slightest  form  of  burn,  viz.,  a  superficial  burn  or  scorch, 


merely  reddening  without  destroying  the  skin,  may  be  pro- 
duced by  a  slight  explosion  of  gas,  or  the  ignition  of  some 
article  of  clothing,  which  has  been  rapidly  extinguished. 
Here  the  pain  is  severe  for  the  moment,  but  rapidly  sub- 
sides as  soon  as  the 
surface  burnt  is  pro- 
tected. This  can  be 
readily  effected  by 
dredging  flour  over 
the  part,  and  wrapping 
it  up  in  cotton  wad- 
ding ;  or,  should  the 
part  burnt  be  one  not 
readily  covered  in  this 
way,  e.g.,  the  face,  by 
painting  it  over  with  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  collodion  and  castor- 
oil,  or  with  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver, 
such  as  the  nitrate- 
bath  of  photography. 
"When  the  burn  is  more 
severe,  little  blisters 
rapidly  form  on  the 
burnt  part,  and  these 
vesicles,  as  they  are 
surgically  termed,  re- 
quire careful  treatment. 
If,  as  is  sometimes  re- 
commended, these  ve- 
sicles are  left  to  them- 
I  .  selves,     the     contents- 

solidify,  and  a  jelly-like 
mass  is  left,  which  has  afterwards  to  be  got  rid  of 
by  poulticing,  to  the  great  discomfort  of  the  patient ; 
or,  even  if  this  coagulation  does  not  take  place,  the  thin 
scarf-skin  or  cuticle  raised  by  the 
blister  is  apt  to  be  torn  away  and 
leave  a  tender  surface  beneath. 
The  best  plan,  therefore,  is  at 
once  to  prick  the  bhstcrs  on  one 
side  with  a  needle,  or  to  make  a 
small  opening  with  a  sharp  pair 
of  scissors,  and  then  carefully  to 
squeeze  out  the  watery  contents, 
pressing  down  the  skin  gently 
but  firmly  with  a  piece  of  cotton 
wool.  When  this  has  been  done, 
the  case  may  be  treated  by  any 
of  the  methods  already  given  for 
slight  bums,  but  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  fresh  vesicles  may 
form  after  the  first  dressing,  and 
hence  great  care  must  be  taken, 
in  the  subsequent  dressings,  not 
to  tear  open  the  blisters  un- 
intentionally. Scalds  closely  re- 
semble slight  burns  in  both  their 
symptoms  and  treatment,  and 
need  not,  therefore,  be  treated  of 
at  greater  length.  Severe  bums, 
such  as  arise  from  the  clothes 
taking  fire— crinoline  accidents, 
as  they  have  been  called — are 
very  serious,  both  as  regards  the  life  of  the  patient,  and 
her  future  comfort,  should  she  survive  ;  and  medical  at- 
tendance should  be  immediately  obtained.  Lacking  this, 
however,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  immediate  danger  to 
the  sufferer's  life  is  due  to  the  violent  "  shock"  which  the 
system  sustains,  as  is  shown  by  the  faint,  semi-conscious, 
and  pallid  condition  in  which  the  patient  is  left  when  the 
conflagration  is  extinguished.     The  proper  treatment  will 


74 


THE    HOUSE. 


-ifif' 


be  to  restore  warmth  and  vitality  to  the  sufferer,  and  this 
can  be  best  done  by  wrapping  her  in  a  blanket,  and  placing 
her  in  bed  (or  before  a  fire,  if  it  is  winter),  with  hot  bottles 
or  bricks  so  arranged  about  the  legs  and  trunk  as  to 
impart  warmth  without  interfering  with  the  burnt  surface. 
In  the  case  of  a  child  (and  of  an  adult  too,  if  conveniences 
are  at  hand),  a  warm  bath  is  at  once  the  most  soothing 
and  appropriate  treatment,  since  the  warm  water  (the 
temperature  of  which  must  be  carefully  maintained  at  90°) 
soaks  off  all  the  charred  clothing,  &c.,  and  leaves  the 
burns  in  the  most  healthy  condition  for  dressing.  At 
Vienna,  baths  are  so  contrived  that  patients  suffering  from 
burns  or  obstinate  skin  diseases,  can  spend  days  or  even 
weeks  in  them,  and  anywhere,  with  care  and  attention,  the 
temperature  of  a  bath  could  be  kept  up  for  some  hours,  at 
least.  In  addition  to  external  warmth,  a  severely-burnt 
patient  will  bear  the  administration  of  some  hot  cordial 
drink,  and  then,  pending  the  arrival  of  a  medical  man, 
no  harm  can  possibly  be  done  by  enveloping  the  burnt 
parts  with  cotton  wadding. 

Burns  are  dangerous,  not  merely  from  their  immediate 
effects,  but  from  the  complications  which  are  apt  to  fol- 
low in  their  train.  Thus,  in  children  especially,  inflam- 
mation of  the  lungs  is  very  apt  to  follow  a  burn  about  the 
trunk  ;  and  again,  ulceration  of  the  bowel  is  found  to  be 
a  frequent  cause  of  death  in  these  cases.  The  friends  of 
.a  patient  who  has  been  burnt  should,  therefore,  be  careful 
to  call  the  attention  of  the  medical  man  in  attendance 
to  any  cough  or  difficulty  of  breathing  on  the  one  hand, 
or  to  the  occurrence  of  any  diarrhoea  on  the  other. 

With  the  best  care,  burns  are,  undoubtedly,  very 
fatal  accidents,  and,  as  prevention  is  better  than 
cure,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  urge  the  necessity 
for  wire  fire-guards  over  all  fire-places  to  which  children 
or  females  have  access.  Men,  from  the  nature  of  their 
clothing,  are  much  less  liable  to  burns  than  women, 
unless,  indeed,  they  indulge  in  the  pernicious  practice  of 
"  reading  in  bed  "  by  candle-light.  Even  when  the  first 
dangers  of  a  severe  burn  are  surmounted,  the  patient  will 
have  much  to  undergo  in  the  healing  of  the  wound,  and 
here  a  fresh  danger  comes  in — that  of  the  contraction  of 
the  tissues  in  healing,  so  as  to  lca^•e  great  deformity 
behind.  Patients  and  their  friends  are  sometimes  more 
to  blame  than  their  attendant  for  terrible  contractions  of 
the  neck,  arms,  &c.,  frequently  seen  after  burns ;  and  they 
do  not  carry  out  fully  the  surgeon's  instructions,  from  not 
understanding  their  importance,  and,  being  intent  only 
upon  healing- up  the  wound,  cannot  understand  the  neces- 
sity for  care  and  attention.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  an 
.axiom  that  the  quicker  a  wound  heals,  the  more  it  con- 
tracts, and  it  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  slower  a  wound 
can  be  made  to  heal,  the  less  likely  it  is  to  leave  unsightly 
contractions  behind.  In  order  to  prevent  contractions, 
it  is  often  necessary  to  confine  the  patient  to  an  irk- 
some position,  so  as,  e.g.^  to  stretch  the  neck,  or  to 
apply  a  splint  to  keep  out  the  arm,  and  these  should  be 
cheerfully  borne,  when  they  are  ordered  by  a  competent 
medical  man. 

It  may  not  be  inappropriate  here  to  give  a  few  hints 
as  to  the  best  method  of  extinguishing  the  flames,  when 
a  woman's  or  child's  dress  has  unfortunately  caught  fire. 
If  the  sufferer  has  presence  of  mind  enough  to  throw 
herself  on  the  ground  and  roll  over  and  over  until  the 
by-standers  can  envelop  her  with  soine  thick  and  non- 
inflammable  covering,  her  chances  of  escape  from  serious 
injury  will  be  much  increased  ;  but,  unfortunately,  the 
terror  of  the  moment  ordinarily  overcomes  every  other 
feeling,  and  the  sufferer  rushes  into  the  open  air — the  very 
worst  thing  she  could  do.  The  first  thing  for  a  by-stander 
to  do  is  to  provide  himself  with  some  non-inflammable 
article  with  which  to  envelop  the  patient,  and  a  coat  or 
cloak — or,  better,  a  table-cloth  or  drugget — will  answer 
the  purpose.    Throwing  this  around  the  sufferer,  he  should. 


if  possible,  lay  her  on  the  ground  and  then  rapidly  cover 
over  and  beat  out  all  the  fire,  keeping  on  the  covering 
until  every  spark  is  extinguished.  To  attempt  to  extinguish 
fire  by  water  is  useless,  unless  the  whole  body  of  flame 
can  be  put  out  at  one  blow  ;  and  for  one  lightly-clad 
female  to  attempt  to  succour  another,  when  other  persons 
are  at  hand,  is  simply  to  imperil  two  lives  instead  of  one. 
In  the  case  of  a  house  on  fire,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
death  is  more  frequently  the  result  of  suffocation  from 
smoke  than  from  contact  with  flame,  and  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  reach  the  open  air  by  crawling  along 
the  floor  (where  there  is  usually  breathing  space)  so  as  to 
reach  a  window,  or,  if  necessary,  by  enveloping  the  head 
in  a  thick  shawl  to  exclude  the  smoke  while  making  a  rush 
along  a  passage  or  down  a  staircase. 


THE   HOUSE. 

LIFE     ASSU  RANGE. 


In  furtherance  of  the  promise  contained  in  the  article  on 
"  The  House,"  in  a  previous  number  (page  39),  we  now 
proceed  to  explain  the  principles  upon  which  life  insurance, 
or  more  stricdy  life  assurance,  depends.  It  is  usual  to 
speak  of  the  insurance  of  any  doubtful  event,  such  as  fire 
or  loss  at  sea,  and  of  the  assurance  of  an  event  certain  to 
happen,  as  death. 

The  theory  of  life  assurance  depends  upon  calculations 
based  upon  the  uniform  mortality  which  has  been  observed 
to  prevail  among  large  numbers  of  individuals,  and  upon 
the  increase  of  money  at  compound  interest. 

From  the  death  registers,  mortality  tables  are  con- 
structed which  tell  us  how  many  persons  out  of  a 
certain  number  living  at  each  age,  die  annually.  From 
these  tables  the  actuar)'  computes  what  money  payment 
— usually  a  sum  or  premium  paid  annually  in  advance 
throughout  life — is  sufficient  to  provide  for  the  payment 
of  a  fixed  sum,  say  ^100,  at  death.  Several  tables 
are  in  use  for  this  purpose,  of  which  the  principal 
are  the  Northampton,  the  Carlisle,  and  the  English 
life  tables. 

The  following  is  a  simple  illustration  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  premium  for  a  life  assurance  is  deduced. 

Supposing,  according  to  any  table  of  mortality,  that  out 
of  500  persons,  all  aged  forty  years,  five  die  in  the  year,  and 
that  it  is  required  to  provide  ^500  for  the  families  of  those 
who  die,  the  contribution  of  each  of  the  500  will  clearly  be 
a  five-hundredth  part  of  ;^ 5 00,  or  £\.  In  practice,  how- 
ever, the  premiums  being  invested  at  compound  interest,  a 
less  sum  than  £1  would  be  required,  viz.,  such  a  sum  as 
invested  at  interest  for  the  year  would  produce  £\  at  the 
end  of  the  year.  An  addition  to  the  net  premium  thus 
deduced  is  then  made  by  the  office  for  the  expenses  of 
management,  and  to  provide  for  the  bonuses,  the  nature  of 
which  will  be  hereafter  explained. 

Upon  these  two  simple  principles  of  mortality  and 
interest,  the  whole  theory  of  life  assurance  depends,  and 
upon  them  contracts  have  been  undertaken  by  the  different 
companies  in  the  United  Kingdom  alone  amounting  pro- 
bably to  ^400,000,000  sterling. 

Life  assurance  is  an  institution  which  has  now  been  in 
operation  for  160  years,  the  first  company  dating  from 
1706,  and,  notwithstanding  the  large  amount  of  business 
transacted,  it  has  not  been,  we  may  say,  until  1869,  that 
discredit  has  been  cast  upon  life  assurance  companies. 

It  is  almost  essential  for  us  to  make  a  passing  allu- 
sion to  this  matter,  temporary  panic  appearing  to  have 
taken  possession  of  the  public  in  consequence  of  certain 
appeals  to  the  Court  of  Chancery,  which  resulted  in  the 
compulsory  winding  up  of  one  large  company. 

It  cannot,  accordingly,  be  too  clearly  understood  that 
the  collapse  in  that  case  arose  mainly  from  numerous  ill- 
considered  amalgamations  with  unsuccessful  companies, 


CASSELUS   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


75 


whose  business  was  acquired  at  an  excessive  cost,  and 
from  reckless  disregard  of  the  well-known  fundamental 
principles  of  life  assurance,  which  are  based  upon  un- 
chan<jjcable  and  mathematical  laws,  that  cannot  be  ignored 
with  impunity. 

The  public  were  very  much  indebted,  in  this  matter,  to 
the  intelligence  of  the  writers  in  the  daily  papers,  by  whom 
this  great  question,  one  of  the  gravest  importance  to  a 
large  portion  of  the  community,  was  very  generally  taken 
up.  Of  their  widely-expressed  opinions  on  this  point, 
these  remarks  are  an  echo. 

The  writer  of  this  article  long  before  pointed  out  the 
mischief  that  must  arise,  if  the  unsatisfactory  methods  of 
business  pursued  by  a  particular  class  of  life  assurance 
companies  were  persevered  in.  The  result  proved  that 
his  view  was  connect. 

The  absolute  necessity  of  life  assurance  in  the  case 
of  persons  whose  incomes  are  dependent  upon  their 
lives — and  this  is  so  with  the  far  greater  portion  of  the 
population  of  this  country — we  assume  to  be  admitted  by 
everyone. 

Tiiere  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  no  other  method 
exists  by  which  a  provision  can  be  so  well  made  for  a 
dependent  family,  as  by  a  pohcy  of  life  assurance,  for  the 
moment  the  contract  is  executed,  no  matter  whether  death 
take  place  the  next  day  or  twenty  years  after,  a  capital 
sum  is  provided,  which  can  be  invested  for  the  benefit  of 
the  family  of  the  assured,  or  applied  in  any  way  for  their 
advantage,  according  to  the  circumstances  and  require- 
ments of  the  case. 

No  investment,  in  either  a  savings  bank  or  a  friendly 
society,  will  answer  the  same  purpose— the  essential 
peculiarity  of  a  life  policy  being  that  the  amount  contracted 
for  is  paid  at  death,  whenever  that  event  shall  happen, 
and,  from  the  uncertainty  of  life,  it  does  occur,  over  and 
over  again,  that  claims  become  payable  and  are  honour- 
ably met,  very  shortly  after  the  policy  is  effected.  So  that 
a  young  man  with  a  fixed  income  derived  from  a  profession 
or  other  source,  need  not  be  deterred  from  marriage  on 
account  of  it  being  impossible  for  him  to  make  a  due  pro- 
vision for  his  wife  and  family^indeed,  we  may  safely 
say  that  by  means  of  life  assurance,  many  marriages 
take  place  which  otherwise  prudence  must  have  pre- 
vented altogether. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  by  a  person  who  has  made 
up  his  mind  to  effect  an  assurance  on  his  life,  is  to  fix 
upon  an  office.  There  are  two  descriptions  of  companies, 
viz.,  proprietary  and  mutual,  the  former  being  joint-stock 
or  trading  companies,  and  the  latter  private  partnerships 
on  a  large  scale — all  the  profits  of  the  business  belonging 
strictly  to  themselves,  while,  in  the  proprietary  companies, 
only  a  certain  proportion  of  the  profits  are  divided  in  the 
shape  of  bonuses  among  tlie  policy-holders,  the  remainder 
belonging  to  the  shareholders. 

There  are  numerous  good  companies  of  both  classes 
to  be  found.  We  feel  a  difficulty  in  pointing  out  how  a 
selection  should  be  made,  and  can  only  suggest  that  the 
applicant  should  make  choice  of  an  office  which,  above 
all  things,  regularly  publishes  full  and  intelligible  accounts, 
showing  clearly  the  amount  of  the  liability  and  the  sum  in 
hand  to  meet  it,  and  particularly  how  that  sum  is  invested. 
Probably,  one  of  the  best  tests  will  be  the  fact  that  the  state- 
ments of  the  office  fixed  upon  can  be  readily  understood 
by  the  intending  applicant  ;  for  the  accounts  of  many 
companies  are  so  mystified  as  to  be  unintelligible  to  the 
general  public. 

The  prospectus  of  the  company  should  next  be 
thoroughly  studied.  The  date  of  establishment,  though 
no  guarantee  in  itself,  still  affords  evidence  of  whether 
the  company  has  stood  the  test  of  time.  The  names  of 
the  directors  should  be  scrutinised,  to  see  if  they  arc  men 
of  business  and  of  good  standing  in  the  commercial  world. 
The  rates  of  premium  should  then  be  consuUed.     These 


vary  according  as  the  Northampton,  Carlisle,  or  other 
tables  arc  adopted  as  a  basis.  The  Northampton  tabic 
gives  an  unfavourable  view  of  life  at  the  younger  age ; 
—say,  up  to  forty-five — and  the  premiums  deduced  from 
it  arc  consequently  higher  than  those  that  are  based  on 
the  Carlisle  mortality  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Northampton  rates  are  decidedly  favourable  at  ages  above 
forty-five — the  exact  reverse  being  the  case  with  the 
Carlisle  table. 

The  applicant  would  accordingly  do  well  to  select  his 
office  according  to  his  age,  provided  always  that  the 
office  charging  the  higher  rate  of  premium  does  not  offer, 
which  it  very  possibly  may,  some  compensating  advan- 
tage ;  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  rate  of 
premium  is  not  the  only  point  to  be  considered  in  the 
choice  of  an  office— the  amount  of  bonus  addition  likely 
to  be  allotted  to  the  policy,  and  the  character  of  the 
company  for  liberal  conduct  and  honourable  dealing 
being  important  elements  to  be  taken  into  account. 

The  boiuis  system  will  be  explained  hereafter. 

The  annual  premium  per  ;^ioo  for  a  life  of  thirty  varies 
in  the  different  companies  from  £2  is.  8d.  to  £2  19s.  3d. ; 
at  sixty,  from  £6  is.  gd.  to  £j  15s.  The  rates  without 
participation  in  profits  are  of  course  less. 

Life  premiums  are  usually  paid  annually  in  advance. 
Some  companies  receive  half-yearly  or  even  quarterly 
payments. 

Assurances  may  also  be  effected  by  the  payment  of  a 
fixed  number  of  premiums,  which  are  of  course  much 
higher  than  those  quoted.  Some  companies  grant  endow- 
ment assurances,  by  which  the  sum  assured  becomes 
payable  at  death,  or  on  the  life  assured  attaining  a  certain 
age,  and  indeed,  generally,  contracts  can  be  entered  into 
with  the  large  companies  for  the  issue  of  policies  to  meet 
almost  every  conceivable  requirement. 

The  applicant,  if  at  all  likely  to  go  abroad,  should 
ascertain  the  regulations  of  the  company  with  which  he 
is  in  treaty  as  to  foreign  residence,  for  which  an  extra 
premium  is  charged,  according  to  the  healthiness  or 
otherwise  of  the  locality.  The  conditions  in  this  respect 
of  some  companies  are  much  more  liberal  than  those  of 
others.  It  is  now  very  usual  to  allow  free  residence  in 
any  part  of  the  world  distant  more  than  33°  north  or  south 
of  the  equator,  as  well  as  in  certain  other  healthy  places 
within  the  excluded  limits. 

Policies  become  void  if  the  person  assured  die  by  his 
own  hand,  by  duelling,  or  by  the  hands  of  justice,  or  if 
the  premium  be  not  paid  annually  within  the  thirty  d^^'s 
of  grace  which  are  allowed  from  the  date  of  the  same 
becoming  due. 

Tables  showing  the  amount  of  bonuses  declared  will  be 
found  in  the  prospectuses  of  most  of  the  offices,  and 
though  the  past  bonuses  afford  no  just  criterion  of  what 
the  future  results  may  be,  still  they  are  the  best  guides 
the  public  can  have  as  to  the  prospects  of  bonus 
additions  to  their  policies.  It  often  happens  that  the 
assured,  from  unforeseen  circumstances,  are  unable  to 
continue  their  annual  payments.  When  this  is  the  case, 
a  return  of  some  portion  of  the  premium  paid  is  made, 
such  return  being  called  the  surrender  value  of  the  policy. 
And  here  it  may  be  desirable  to  jxiint  out  that  in  such  cases 
a  return  of  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  premium  paid 
(usually  about  a  third,  without  interest)  can  be  looked  for, 
for  though  in  the  individual  case  no  claim  for  payment  of 
the  sum  assured  has  been  made  upon  the  company,  still 
other  policies  effected  at  the  same  period  having  become 
claims,  the  excess  of  premium  paid  on  the  policy  to  be 
surrendered  must  be  retained  by  the  company  to  meet 
the  losses  occasioned  by  premature  deaths. 

Loans,  also,  for  amounts  var>'ing  with  the  \'alue  of  the 
policies,  arc  advanced  upon  their  security,  usually  at 
five  per  cent,  interest.  We  propose  to  continue  our 
remarks  on  life  assurance  in  a  future  number. 


76 


ANIMALS    KEPT   FOR   PLEASURE. 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR   PLEASURE. 

II. — THE    DOG:    PRINCIPAL  VARIETIES  {continued). 

The  Water  Spaniel  is  a  moderate  sized  animal,  rather 
stoutly  built,  with  a  close  curly  coat,  which  is  generally  of 
a  brown  colour.  As  might  be  supposed,  he  is  very  fond 
of  water,  and  appears  to  be  specially  adapted  to  that 
element,  by  an  unusual  secretion  of  oil  in  the  coat.  This, 
however,  often  causes  rather  a  strong  odour  when  indoors, 
and  makes  him  less  suitable  for  a  domestic  dog. 

The  Setter  is  too  well  known  to  need  description,  and 
is  so  named  from  the  habit, 

either  natural  or  acquired,  of  ^asi^i 

crouching  when  he  comes  on  -  A 

the  scent  of  game.    Both  this  ^.^,.         ,. 

habit,  and  that  of  the  pointer, 
have  been  thought  to  be 
originally  the  natural  start  of 
surprise  at  coming  on  a  fresh 
scent,cultivatedand  improved 
by  successive  training.  The 
best  setters  are  more  or  less 
liver-coloured,  or  mixed  with 
white.  The  setter  makes  a 
capital  pet  dog,  being  very 
handsome  in  shape,  docile, 
and  intelligent.  Like  the 
little  cocker,  and  in  fact  all 
the  spaniels,  it  is  also  re- 
markably affectionate  and  ^'"^  '' 
mild  in  its  disposition.     For 

sportsmen  who  are  noted  pedestrians,  or  for  shooting 
over  wild  moorland,  setters  are  often  better  compa- 
nions than  pointers  ;  their  superior  speed  and  dash,  and 
harder  feet,  enabling  them  to  keep  on  with  vigour  after  the 
pointer  would  be  exhausted.  They  should,  however,  be 
allowed  to  wet  the  body  thoroughly  every  now  and  then, 
and  to  take  a  good  drink  at  intervals,  or  they  cannot  stand 
the  work. 

The  little  King  Charles  zxidi  Blenheim  Spa7iiels  are  known 
to  every  one.      They  certainly  are  little  beauties,  as  far  as 
looks  go — rand  often  are  affec- 
tionate, good  tempered,  and  ^.__     -:_' 

amazingly  clever  at  learning  •'  ■  '  '•*^-    " 

tricks  ;  but  too  often  also  are 

such  spiteful  little  wretches, 

as  to  be  a    nuisance   to  all 

save  their  fond  owners.     A 

great  deal  of  this,   however, 

we   suspect  to  be  owing  to 

bad  feeding  and  consequent 

indigestion. 

The  Retriever  is  scarcely 
a  distinct  variety,  being  bred 
from  any  dogs  likely  to  pro- 
duce a  suitable  animal.  It  is 
often  bred  from  the  water- 
spaniel  and  terrier  crossed, 
or  a  spaniel  and  poodle  ; 
but  the  dog  so  well  known 
under  that  name,  is  generally 
bred  from  the  spaniel  crossed  with  the  Newfoundland. 
Hence  it  much  resembles  rather  a  small  Newfoundland, 


^i-^,;^'^^^^?^^^^^ 


THE   GREYHOUND. 


such  perfection  through  successive  generations,  that  a 
well-broken  dog  will,  on  the  scent  of  game,  stand  with 
every  member  rigid,  in  the  exact  position  in  which  it  hap- 
pened to  be  at  the  moment.  This  habit  has  now  becorne 
almost  instinctive,  so  that  a  well-bred  dog  takes  to  it  with 
little  training  ;  and  it  is  recorded  that  a  brace  of  pointers 
have  stood  at  "point"  for  nearly  an  hour  and  a  half, 
without  moving  a  muscle,  whilst  a  sketch  was  made  from 
which  their  portraits  were  painted.  The  pointer  should 
have  a  rather  large  head  in  proportion,  with  a  broad 
muzzle,  the  lips  or  flews  slightly  projecting.     The  neck  is 

very  long,  and  set  on  at  the 
,~;^^_  shoulders  in  a  very  peculiar 

manner  not  found  in  any  other 
breed,  the  shoulders  being 
prominent,  and  higher  than 
the  head  when  the  animal  is 
in  motion.  The  chest  is  well 
developed,  something  in  the 
style  of  the  hound  ;  but  the 
tail,  like  the  shoulder,  is  alto- 
gether peculiar.  At  the  base 
it  is  rather  thick,  but  lessens 
somewhat  suddenly,  and  then 
continues  with  a  scarcely  per- 
ceptible taper  to  within  two 
-  or  three  inches  of  the  end, 

when  it  lessens  to  a  very  fine 
point.      Some    of   the    best 
■'''''^-  judges  affirm  that  this  forma- 

tion of  the  tail  is  the  proper 
criterion  of  good  blood,  and  that  its  absence  shows  a 
cross  ;  but  we  are  not  sure  this  can  be  maintained.  The 
pointer  is  intelligent,  and  of  an  extremely  mild  and  affec- 
tionate disposition.  When  properly  trained,  and  in  good 
condition,  it  is  always  willing  to  work  ;  and  no  words  of 
scorn  are  too  deep  and  bitter  for  the  conduct  of  those 
who  can  deliberately  shoot  the  poor  beast  with  small 
shot,  not  to  kill,  but  to  punish  him  for  disregard  to  their 
very  likely  contradictory  commands.  No  variety  is  so 
foully   abused  as  the   poor  pointer,  and  no  dog   merits 

or    needs    it   less,    and    the 
___  :: —  owner  himself  is   mostly  in 

fault. 

The  Greyhound  IS  in  shape 
the  very  ideal  of  light  and 
winged  speed,  and  when  well 
bred,  is  of  singularly  grace- 
ful outline.  All  the  bulk  of 
the  animal's  body  seems  col- 
lected in  the  capacious  chest, 
whilst  the  slender  limbs  are 
models  of  symmetry  and 
grace.  Our  engraving  will 
save  the  necessity  for  detailed 
description,  but  it  is  neces- 
sary to  remark  that  inferior 
breeds  of  this  dog  are  very 
apt  to  show  an  awkward 
and  ugly  droop  at  the  loins, 
which  not  only  spoils  their 
speed,  but  also  their  beauty  of  form. 
The  old  English  greyhound  must  have  been  a  larger 


but  with  a  sharper  muzzle,  and  a  sharper  look,  having  '  animal  than  the  present" breed,  as  it  was  used  to  hunt  the 
also  longer  legs  and  a  more  lively  carriage.  The  hand-  '  stag,  and  even  the  wolf  Indeed,  we  are  inclined  to  think 
somest  colour  is  black.  By  care  some  few  strains  have  that  the  original  breed  was  the  hairy  or  rough  variety  still 
been  perpetuated  without  a  recent  cross,  and  reared  to  known  as  the  Scotch  greyhound,  but  which  is  nearly 
nearly  the  size  of  a  Newfoundland  ;  but  there  is  always  extinct.  This  anirrial  is  both  larger  and  more  powerfully 
more  silkiness  in  the  hair  than  is  usual  in  that  breed.  ;  built  than  the  English  greyhound,  and  with  very  long  hair. 
A  good  retriever  is  a  wonderfully  handsome  and  intelli-  \  We  saw  recently  a  noble  animal  of  this  breed,  which 
gent  dog,  very  playful,  and  with  a  good  temper  nothing  was  considered  the  finest  specimen  in  England,  and  had 
can  exceed.  ;  taken  many  first  prizes.     It  was  as  tall  at  the  shoulder 

The  Pointer  is  a  very  characteristic  dog,  trained  to    as  the  largest  mastiff,  was  "  feathered "  down  to  the  toes, 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


77 


and  of  an  iron-grey  colour.  Like  the  modern  greyhound, 
the  dog  was  good-tempered  enough,  but  had  an  unmis- 
takably ferocious  look  about  the  head.  The  few  who 
possess  these  dogs  now  are  anxiously  endeavouring  to  per- 
petuate them,  and  we  trust  their  efforts  may  be  successful. 
The  greyhound  is  moderately  affectionate  and  intelli- 
gent, but  sometimes  snappish  to  strangers.  As  is  well 
known,  it  is  now  only  employed  in  coursing. 

The  other  hounds,  such  as  the  foxhound,  the  harrier, 
and  the  beagle,  do  not  belong  in  any  sense  to  the  house- 
hold, being,  as  a  rule,  only  adapted  for  the  pack.  They 
vary  in  size,  but  resemble  each  other  remarkably  in  shape 
and  qualities.  We  believe  them  all  to  have  been  originally 
derived  from  the  bloodhound,  crossed 
with  the  greyhound,  but  we  question  very 
much  if  there  be  not  a  dash  of  the  bull- 
dog in  some  celebrated  strains,  though  this 
has  been  denied  by  good  authorities. 

Hounds  are  kept  under  the  severest  dis- 
cipline, but  when  not  under  the  control 
of  the  huntsman,  whipper-in,  or  other 
attendants,  are  highly  dangerous  to 
strangers.  There  arc,  however,  individual 
dogs  which  have  shown  remarkable  attach- 
ment and  docility. 

Of  Sheep  Dogs  there  are  two  kinds,  the 
English  rough  sheep  dog,  which  very 
much  resembles  a  very  large  rough  terrier 
without  a  tail,  and  the  Scotch  coUie.  The 
English  dog  is  a  very  useful  animal,  having  a  splendid 
constitution  and  great  intelligence;  but  the  Scotch  collie 
is  a  far  superior  breed,  and  is  every  year  becoming  more 
highly  prized  in  England.  This  beautiful  breed  has 
a  very  fox-like  muzzle,  expressive  but  shy-looking  eyes, 
sharp  and  graceful  ears  turning  well  over  forwards,  and 
generally  a  white  line  down  the  forehead  between  the 
eyes.  There  are  both  smooth  and  rough  varieties — the 
latter  is  most  admired — but  his  coat  is  different  from 
that  of  the  Newfoundland,  the  hair  being  closer  and 
straighter,  and  not  so  long.  The  tail 
is  very  large  and  bushy,  and  when 
running  is  always  carried  high,  though 
in  repose  it  droops.  The  loins  are 
beautifully  arched,  and  the  whole  out- 
line remarkably  sprightly  and  graceful. 
Down  the  legs  the  coat  is  short.  The 
colour  varies  greatly. 

The  true-bred  collie   is  one  of  the 
most  intelligent  dogs  in  the  world,  and 
perhaps  surpasses  all  others  in  quick 
resource  and  readiness  of  invention  in 
cases  of  emergency.     It  is  in  minding 
sheep,  however,  that  its  capacities  are 
best  tested  ;    for  having  been  trained 
to  this  work  for  generations,   a  well- 
bred  collie  takes  to  it "  naturally,"  and  needs  compara- 
tively little  training.     A   Scotch   shepherd  said  his  dog 
"could  do  anything  except    carry  the  hurdles,"  and  the 
praise  was  not  exaggerated. 

The  Dalmatian  or  Carriage  Dog  is  doubtless  a  hound, 
the  well-known  spotted  skin  having  probably  appeared 
accidentally  from  some  cross.  As  a  rule,  they  seem  to 
care  most  for  the  stable,  and  hence  are  not  adapted  for 
domestic  pets,  though  inoffensive  and  good-tempered ;  but 
we  have  known  individuals  which  have  displayed  con- 
siderable intelligence  and  affection. 

Many  less  marked  varieties  have  been  omitted  from  our 
list,  and  we  will  only  add  in  conclusion  that  in  choosing 
a  dog,  care  should  always  be  taken  to  ascertain  his  dispo- 
sition. Individuals  of  every  race  may  be  troublesome  or 
even  actually  ferocious,  and  every  person  owes  it  to  society 
not  to  keep  a  dangerous  dog.  In  our  next  paper  we  shall 
enter  upon  the  subject  of  training  dogs. 


THE     HOUSEHOLD     MECHANIC. 

WOODS  USED  IN  HOUSEHOLD  CARPENTRY. 

Having  completed  our  survey  of  the  most  necessary 
tools,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  make  acquaintance  with 
the  few  sorts  of  wood  we  shall  at  first  require,  to  be 
able  to  at  once  proceed  with  a  practical  job.  In  starting, 
we  feel  that  a  few  words  on  the  all-important  subject  of 
seasoning  may  possibly  save  some  of  our  readers  much 
unnecessary  trouble  and  vexation.  When  a  living  tree 
is  cut  down  the  pores  or  veescls  between  the  fibres  will 
be  found  to  be  full  of  sap,  and  it  is  in  the  complete, 
though  gradual  extraction  of  this  sap,  that  the  success 
of  the  process  of  "seasoning"  consists. 
If  we  look  at  the  section  across  the  grain 
of  a  tree,  which  is  mostly  nearly  circular, 
we  shall  notice  a  number  of  annular  rows 
of  fibres,  or  rather  the  ends  of  them,  and 
it  is  from  between  these  rings  that  the 
sap  has  to  escape.  It  stands  to  reason 
that  the  cells  contained  between  the  rings 
nearest  to  the  surface  will  be  the  first  to 
lose  their  moisture,  and  that  the  heart  of 
the  wood  will  continue  wet  long  after  the 
outside  is  ready  for  use. 

It  is  also  well  known  that  in  the  process 
of  drying,  wood  contracts  considerably  ; 
but  the  inner  fibres,  being  protected  from 
the  influence  of  the  atmosphere  by  the 
outer  rows,  do  not  shrink  in  the  same  proportion.  The 
consequence  will  be  readily  seen  by  reference  to  the 
diagram.  Fig.  40,  which  shows  the  result  v^hich  is  almost 
sure  to  ensue  if  a  log  of  green  wood  is  merely  left  to  take 
care  of  itself  It  cracks  in  directions  mostly  radial.  To 
prevent  this,  it  is  common  to  grease  or  wax  the  ends  and 
sides  of  the  log  to  defend  it  from  the  results  consequent 
upon  a  too  sudden  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  The 
effect  is  much  more  completely  avoided,  however,  by 
having  the  logs  split  into  quarters  where  the  tree  is  of 
sufficient  size  to  warrant  it,  although 
this  plan  is  not  economical.  The 
only  safe  means  to  guard  against 
the  disastrous  effects  of  too  sudden 
drying,  is  to  expose  the  wood  very  gra- 
dually to  the  influence  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. It  is  considered  that,  in  the  case 
of  large  timber,  the  process  of  season- 
ing is  much  facilitated  by  an  immer- 
sion in  water,  which  is  said  to  dilute 
the  sap  anyhow  ;  it  is  of  the  highest 
importance  that  wood  should  be  quite 
dry  before  being  used,  as,  if  it  is  not,  the 
finished  work  will  warp  and  shrink  in 
a  manner  very  unsatisfactory  and  dis- 
couraging ;  none  of  our  readers  who  are 
fortunate  enough  to  possess  access  to  plantations  of  grow- 
ing timber,  must  imagine  they  will  be  able  to  cut  down  a 
tree  and  use  it  at  once  to  any  advantage.  It  will  be  found 
much  more  economical  to  purchase  just  the  required 
article  from  some  respectable  timber  or  hard-wood  mer- 
chant, who  will  only  supply  it  in  a  condition  fit  for 
immediate  use.  Shrinking  does  not  take  place  to  any 
sensible  degree  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  fibre. 

The  time  allowed  for  seasoning  should  in  no  case  be 
less  than  two  years,  and  in  the  large  hard  woods  must 
be  even  considerably  longer. 

We  have  selected  the  following  six  woods  as  being  at 
once  the  most  likely  to  be  used  in  household  carpentry, 
and  at  the  same  time  enough  for  our  present  purposes, 
and  shall  describe  the  more  valuable  and  exclusively 
ornamental  varieties  as  occasion  requires  : — 

Ash  {Fraxinus). — The  wood  of  this  tree,  which  is  a 
native  of  Britain  and  North  Europe,  is  one  of  the  toughest, 


78 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 


most  flexible,  and  elastic  of  home-grown  timbers,  and  for 
this  reason  is  eminently  suited  to  all  purposes  requiring 
these  qualifications,  such  as  the  construction  of  agricultural 
tools,  wooden  springs,  frames  of  railway  carriages,  wheels, 
&c.  ;  but  as  it  is  of  very  slight  durability,  it  is  not  suitable 
for  construction  of  out-door  work,  or  building  purposes. 

Some  specimens  may  be  found  dark  and  beautifully 
marked  in  grain,  and  are  then  much  prized  for  cabinet 
work. 

Beech  {Fac^iis  sylvatica)  is  a  tree  which  attains  con- 
siderable size  in  this  country,  the  wood  of  which  is  of  a 
reddish  brown  colour,  and  of  very  even  texture  and  fine 
grain.  It  is  much  used  in  small  turned  work,  handles  for 
tools,  common  furniture,  &c. ;  but  is  unsuited  for  building 
purposes,  owing  to  its  liability  to  be  attacked  by  a  small 
worm  and  dry  rot.  It  stands  water  well,  however,  and  is 
comparatively  cheap. 

Mahogany  {Swtetenia)  is  the  most  universally  known 
and  prized  of  the  furniture  woods,  as  its  immense  size  and 
great  soundness,  its  almost  perfect  immunity  from  dry  rot, 
its  freedom  from  shrinkage,  and  its  beautiful  appearance, 
render  it  the  most  valuable  of  all  woods  for  domestic 
purposes.  The  finest  in  grain,  or  Spanish,  is  imported 
from  Cuba,  and  is  mostly  cut  into  veneers,  which  are  over- 
laid on  common  and  cheaper  wood.  The  Honduras  is 
lighter  in  colour  and  weight  than  Spanish,  but  is  better 
for  solid  work. 

Mahogany  is  also  good  for  turning,  and  admits  of  a 
fine  polish. 

Oak  {Querais}. — It  is  from  the  numerous  varieties  of 
oak  that  our  strongest  and  most  durable  timber  for  heavy 
building  purposes  and  ship-building  is  selected,  the 
wood  being  of  immense  strength  and  large  size,  and 
peculiarly  unsusceptible  to  the  attacks  of  the  weather. 
There  are  many  different  varieties,  nearly  all  being  foimd 
in  the  temperate  zone.  The  growth  of  the  oak  is  slow, 
and  the  wood  is  consequently  hard  and  firm,  and  of  great 
tenacity,  the  best  being  of  a  light  brown  colour. 

The  darker  kinds  are  softer  and  less  durable,  but  being 
in  most  cases  beautifully  marked  with  crossings  of  lighter 
colour,  called  the  flower,  are  much  prized  for  ornamental 
purposes,  especially  in  church  architecture  and  carving. 

Oak  is  rather  difficult  to  work,  owing  to  its  great  hard- 
ness, but  is  susceptible  of  a  splendid  polish.  Wheel- 
wrights use  oak  almost  exclusively  for  the  spokes  of 
wheels,  the  rims  or  felloes  being  generally  ash,  and  the 
naves  elm. 

Pine  {Pinus). — Under  this  head  properly  come  all  the 
varieties  of  the  order  Conifera^  such  as  fir,  white  and 
yellow  deal,  larch,  &c.  The  different  species  of  pine 
supply  the  largest  part  of  the  timber  employed  for  build- 
ing purposes,  on  account  of  the  immense  size  and 
straightness  of  the  wood,  the  abundance  of  the  supply, 
and  the  ease  and  facility  with  which  it  can  be  worked, 
combined  with  its  durability  and  comparative  strength. 

A  large  proportion  is  imported  from  Russia  and 
Norway,  and  other  mountainous  countries  produce 
great  quantities.  The  durability  of  the  pine  tribe  is  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  resin  and  turpentine  con- 
tained. 

Yellow  deal^  as  it  is  called,  is  the  best  for  carpenters, 
is  even  and  straight  in  grain,  and  tolerably  free  from 
knots.  Some  varieties  are  entirely  without  these  knots, 
such  as  St.  John's  pine,  imported  from  Newfoundland, 
which  may  often  be  had  two  or  three  feet  wide  and  forty 
feet  long.     This  kind  is  very  soft,  however. 

The  white  kinds  are  harder  and  freer  from  resin,  but 
less  durable  if  exposed  to  variations  of  moisture. 

Larch  is  softest  of  all,  but  the  grain  is  large  and  coarse, 
and,  owing  to  the  immense  quantity  of  turpentine  con- 
tained in  it,  is  well  suited  for  out-door  work,  such  as 
fence-posts,  buried  work,  &c. 

It  is  perhaps  worth  while  here  just  to  touch  upon  the 


various  technical  terms  applied  to  the  sizes  into  which 
jDine  and  other  woods  are  cut. 

In  its  largest  state  (generally  about  one  foot  square  and 
of  indefinite  length)  it  is  known  as  timber,  and  when  cut 
into  three  slices,  these  are  known  as  deals — deal  being 
only  the  name  for  a  certain  size  of  pine,  and  not,  as  is 
erroneously  supposed  by  many,  a  species  of  wood  by 
itself.  A  smaller  size  than  deals,  about  seven  inches  by 
two  or  three,  are  termed  battens  ;  and  deals  ripped  into 
three  or  four  nearly  square  logs,  of  two  inches  by  three, 
or  three  inches  by  four,  are  known  as  quartering.  If 
sawn  into  slices  of  about  one  inch  by  nine  to  twelve  wide, 
these  slices  go  under  the  name  of  planks,  which  being 
again  sliced  form  boards.  If  sliced  diagonally,  from 
corner  to  corner,  feather-edged  or  weather-boards  will  be 
produced.  These  are  used  for  roofs  and  outsides  of 
sheds  to  throw  off  the  wet.  Thinner  slices  than  boards 
are  leaves  and  veneers,  each  different  thickness  being 
reckoned  by  its  size  in  inches,  or  parts  of  an  inch.  In 
the  midst  of  the  immense  variety  of  size  and  quality  it 
would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  give  any  idea  about  cost ;  ' 
but  pine  may  be  obtained  at  any  respectable  timber-mer- 
chant's at  a  cost  within  the  capacity  of  almost  every  purse, 
as  it  is  the  cheapest  of  all  woods. 

Walmtt  {jficglans  rcgia)  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  furni- 
ture wood,  and  is  procurable  of  large  size.  The  colour  of 
the  wood  is  grey,with  brown  or  black  blotches  and  streaks, 
which  deepen  in  colour  towards  the  centre  of  the  tree. 
The  grain  is  rather  large  and  coarse,  as  the  growth  of  the 
tree  is  comparatively  rapid.  Walnut  is  easily  worked,  and 
susceptible  of  a  fine  polish.  Its  principal  consumption  is 
for  gun-stocks,  for  which  it  is  admirably  suited,  owing  to 
its  light  weight  and  durability. 

JOINTS. 

Having  now  the  materials  and  tools  before  us,  let  us  go 
through  a  short  preliminary  course  of  what  may  fairly  be 
called  carpenters'  joints,  as  the  very  essence  of  carpentry 
is  a  thorough  knowledge  of  how  to  build  up  of  many  pieces 
a  fabric  of  the  greatest  possible  strength,  with  the  smallest 
outlay  of  material,  bearing  in  mind  the  influence  which 
humidity  or  over-dryness  exerts  over  all  kinds  of  wood. 
If  our  reader  is  new  to  the  work,  let  him  commence  by 
taking  a  log  of  quartering,  say  three  feet  long,  and  planing 
it  up  square,  testing  its  accuracy  as  directed  in  our 
remarks  on  the  square.  When  he  has  accomplished  this 
feat  satisfactorily,  he  may  saw  the  log  in  half  with  the 
tenon-saw,  and  will  then  have  two  logs  eighteen  inches 
long,  with  which  to  make  the  first  and  simplest  joint  in 
carpentry — the  cross  joint.  The  object  will  be  merely 
to  let  the  two  pieces  one  into  the  other  at  right  angles, 
until  their  corresponding  surfaces  are  flush  or  level,  that 
is  to  say,  the  part  where  the  joint  is  made  shall  be  no 
thicker  than  the  log  itself.  The  quartering,  we  will  say,  is 
three  inches  by  two,  and  we  will  make  the  joint  flat-wise. 
Lay  down  log  No.  i,  and  mark  a  line  across  it  with  the 
square  and  pencil  or  striking-knife ;  from  this  line  measure 
the  width  of  the  log  to  be  let  in,  and  also  draw  this  line 
across  with  the  square,  and  produce  each  of  these  lines 
round  the  narrow  sides  of  the  log.  Set  the  marking-gauge 
to  half  the  thickness  of  the  narrow  side,  and  mark  on  both 
sides  with  it  between  the  two  lines.  The  part  thus 
marked  off  must  be  removed  by  sawing  the  lines  across 
the  grain,  and  then  chiselling  the  piece  out,  thus  leaving  a 
gap  in  log  No.  I  three  inches  wide  and  one  inch  deep. 
Take  exactly  the  same  course  with  log  No.  2,  and,  if 
properly  done,  the  two  will  fit  exactly  together,  in  the  form 
of  a  cross.  This  joint  may  be  varied,  for  practice,  by 
placing  the  logs  obliquely  to  each  other,  instead  of  at  right 
angles,  in  which  case,  the  required  angle  must  be  got  by 
the  mitre  bevel,  instead  of  the  square.  Fig.  41  shows  the 
finished  joint.  This  joint  is  much  used  in  wooden  erections, 
especially  in  its  oblique  form,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUiUt.. 


79 


HINTS  TO  LETTER-WRITERS.— I. 

J  Aiosr  persons  have  to  write  letters,  and  it  is  desirable 
'  that  in  doing  so  attention  should  be  paid  to  a  number  of 
details.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  well-written  letter  is 
often  a  great  advantage  to  the  sender,  while  it  is  always  a 
pleasure  to  the  receiver.  The  result  is  promoted  by  the 
proper  choice  of  paper  and  envelopes,  pens  and  ink.  AH 
these  are  so  cheap  and  easily  obtainable  that  there  is 
seldom  any  excuse  for  the  use  of  inferior  materials,  which 
are  at  once  impediments  to  good  writing,  and  indica- 
tions of  neglect.  The  writer  should  endeavour  to  execute 
his  penmanship  in  a  free  and  legible  hand,  so  as  to 
be  neither  crabbed  and  inelegant,  nor  overloaded  with 
flourishes.  Some  f>ersons  of  distinction,  we  know,  have 
been  famous  for  their  bad  writing  ;  and  it  is  a  fact  that 
they  have  found  it  very  difficult  to  read  it  themselves. 
We  do  not  think  there  is  a  valid  excuse  for  this  sort  of 
thing,  and  we  are  sure  that  it  can  be  avoided  by  proper 
attention  and  practice.  The  opposite  evil  of  fine  writing, 
which  covers  a  sheet  of  paper  with  fancy  curves  and 
luxuriant  flourishes,  is  almost  as  much  to  be  deprecated. 
A  somewhat  compact  hand,  with  every  letter  defined,  is 
the  best  for  all  purposes.  It  need  not  be  formal  and 
precise,  without  character,  "  like  copper-plate,"  in  order  to 
be  good  ;  but  it  must  be  accurate  and  readable.  Some 
persons  think  it  beneath  them  to  dot  an  /,  to  cross  a  f, 
and  to  distinguish  between  such  letters  as  ii  and  ti  ;  but 
all  who  aspire  to  pleasing  those  they  write  to,  and  getting 
a  good  name,  will  be  mindful  of  such  matters.  It  may 
happen  that  the  character  of  a  young  writer  will  be  partly 
estimated  by  his  regard  to  correctness  in  his  letters  ;  and 
we  all  know  how  much  may  depend  on  the  estimate 
formed. 

Sf>elling  is  a  decided  accomplishment,  and  of  even  more 
importance  than  graceful  penmanship.  Therefore  let 
diligent  heed  be  given  to  this,  and  let  every  word  be 
spelt  as  accurately  as  in  a  printed  book. 

When  a  letter  is  written  in  a  scrawling  and  an  irregular 
hand  ;  when  the  lines  are  at  uneven  distances,  or  not 
straight  across  the  page,  when  the  characters  are  ill- 
formed,  the  paper  blotted,  and  the  spelling  bad,  it  has  an 
air  of  decided  vulgarity  and  negligence. 

Persons  who  really  ought  to  know  better,  and  who  have 
had  a  good  deal  of  instruction,  sometimes  fall  into  the 
error  of  using  small  letters  where  capitals  are  necessary. 
Thus  they  will  write  a  small  /,  when  speaking  of  them- 
selves, instead  of  using  a  capital  /,  and  they  will  even 
begin  proper  names  of  persons  and  places  with  small 
letters  if  they  do  not  happen  to  begin  a  sentence. 

There  is  another  fault  of  which  some  are  guilty,  and  it 
is  to  write  a  whole  letter  as  if  it  were  a  single  sentence. 
They  run  on  from  beginning  to  end,  joining  their  words 
with  ifs,  ands,  biits,  and  so  forth,  until  their  nante  at  the 
conclusion  winds  up  the  whole.  Of  course  such  persons 
never  think  of  their  stops  ;  and,  indeed,  the  use  of  stops, 
or  punctuation,  is  very  commonly  neglected  in  otherwise 
well-written  letters.  The  number  of  persons  who  carefully 
mark  the  stops  in  their  epistles  is  very  small  indeed.  The 
reason,  or  at  any  rate  one  reason,  is,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
teach  the  rules  for  the  use  of  stops  in  actual  practice. 
Such  as  master  the  art  in  any  respectable  measure, 
commonly  owe  it  to  reflection  and  habit. 


HINTS  ON  CARVING. 


Hare. — A  hare  is  considered  a  difficult  dish  to  car\'e, 
for  unless  very  young  the  bones  are  hard  to  divide.  The 
coloured  plate,  Fig.  8,  shows  the  proper  appearance  of  a 
roasted  hare  when  brought  to  table.  The  head  should 
be  set  to  the  left  of  the  carver.     If  the  hare  is  not  very 


young,  cut  thin  slices  the  length  of  the  back  from  G  to  H, 
Fig.  8.  Next  remove  the  shoulders  by  inserting  the 
knife  between  the  shoulder  and  the  side  at  the  dotted  line 
J,  feel  the  joint,  cut  down  through  it  with  some  strength, 
and  treat  it  as  the  leg  of  a  fowl  is  treated,  only  more 
vigorously.  None  of  the  adjoining  meat  is  cut  off  with 
the  shoulders  or  legs  of  a  hare.  Having  removed  the 
shoulders,  insert  the  knife  at  the  dotted  line  at  K  and  take 
off  the  leg.  Treat  the  other  side  in  the  same  manner. 
The  head  is  cut  off  by  inserting  the  point  of  the  knife 
at  M,  which  must  be  fitted  into  a  niche  between  the 
vertebra;  of  the  neck,  and  taking  a  circular  stroke  from 
M  to  N,  when  the  back-bone  has  been  divided  through. 
Cut  the  lower  from  the  upper  jaw  through  the  line  o 
to  P,  Fig.  8.  Then  place  the  point  of  the  knife  up- 
right at  Q,  and  split  and  cut  open  the  head  at  the 
line  visible  in  the  centre  of  the  skull  from  the  nose  to 
the  ears.  Many  persons  like  the  brain,  ears,  and  cheeks. 
If  the  hare  is  young,  cut  off  the  shoulders,  legs,  and 
head,  before  touching  the  back,  and  then,  instead  of  taking 
off  slices,  cut  the  back  across  the  narrow  way  in  several 
pieces  at  the  lines  marked  R  R  R  R,  in  Fig.  8.  This 
is  done  by  planting  the  knife  upright,  feeling  for  the  niche 
between  the  bones,  and  splitting  the  back.  The  ribs  are 
cut  right  through  on  either  side  lengthways,  and  separate 
pieces  served.  The  back  of  a  hare  is  considered  the  best, 
and  the  leg  the  next  most  choice  part.  The  shoulders  are 
not  usually  coveted,  as  they  are  apt  to  be  dry.  Never- 
theless some  like  them,  and  they  are  wholesome,  and 
prudent  carvers  will  find  a  use  for  them.  Serve  a  little 
seasoning  and  one  of  the  forcemeat  balls  with  each  piece. 

Rabbit. — A  rabbit,  roast  or  boiled,  is  carved  precisely  as 
the  young  hare  is,  the  back  being  cut  across  in  small  pieces 
after  the  shoulders,  legs,  and  head  have  been  removed. 
The  head  is  cut  up  last.  Every  part  of  the  rabbit  is 
good.  The  back  is  considered  the  choice  help,  especially 
the  centre  piece.  The  shoulder  is  preferred  to  the  leg. 
For  rabbit  pie,  cut  up  the  animal  in  the  same  way.  If 
roast,  serve  the  forcemeat  balls  and  seasoning  with  the 
meat ;  if  boiled,  a  little  onion  sauce.  The  kidney  is  con- 
sidered a  delicacy.  Each  one  may  be  cut  in  half  and 
served  separately  ;  and  though  not  much  to  look  at  it 
will  suffice  for  a  relish,  which  is  all  that  can  be  looked 
for. 

Turkey. — A  turkey  generally  appears  on  the  board  at 
Christmas,  if  at  no  other  time.  It  requires  more  skill 
to  carve  a  turkey  than  any  other  bird,  excepting  a  goose, 
and  on  the  carver's  operations  will  depend  how  far  the 
bird  will  go  in  point  of  economy.  The  breast  is  reckoned 
the  best,  and  the  wing  the  next  in  preference.  Gentle- 
men are  often  partial  to  the  drumstick,  the  slender  part 
of  the  leg.  Commence  by  cutting  slices  from  the  breast 
on  each  side,  as  shown  by  the  lines  at  A,  in  Fig.  9. 
If  seasoned  with  herbs,  the  seasoning  will  be  found  in 
doing  this  ;  a  little  seasoning  is  served  with  every  por- 
tion of  the  bird.  If  truffles  or  mushrooms  have  been  used 
in  stuffing,  open  "  the  apron,"  as  it  is  called,  by  cutting 
a  slit  at  C,  and  taking  out  the  seasoning  in  slices  ;  next 
remove  tlic  wings  at  the  dotted  line  D,  precisely  in  the 
same  way  as  from  a  fowl.  Draw  out  the  silver  skewer,  F, 
and  take  off  the  leg  at  the  joint  by  inserting  the  knife 
between  the  leg  and  the  side  of  the  body  at  E,  and  parting 
the  joint,  which  it  requires  some  strength  to  do,  without 
cutting  off  any  meat  with  it.  When  separated,  the  leg  :v.^- 
pears  as  shown  in  Fig.  10.  There  is  a  joint  at  the  d 
line  A,  which  must  be  severed,  and  the  two  pieces  sc: ,  j^ 
separately.  B  is  the  drumstick,  E  the  scaled  leg  of  the  bird 
which  is  part  of  the  drumstick  -,  c  is  called  the  cushion. 
The  drumstick  is  often  reserved  till  the  bird  is  cold,  and 
then  grilled  for  breakfast.  The  rest  must  be  carved  as 
you  would  a  fowl,  dividing  the  breast,  and  cutting  the 
back  in  half. 

Calfs  Htmd  is  a  very  delicate  and  by  no  means  an 


8d 


HINTS   ON   CARVING. 


uncommon  dish,  but  it  is  noteworthy  that  it  is  far  more 
economical  if  carved  in  the  manner  we  are  about  to  de- 
scribe, than  any  other  way.  Commence  by  making  long 
slices  from  end  to  end  of  the  cheek,  catting  quite  through, 
so  as  to  feel  the  bone  throughout  the  entire  stroke,  ac- 
cording to  the  dotted  lines  from  A  to  B  in  Fig.  ii.  With 
each  of  these  slices  serve  a  cut  of  what  is  called  the  throat 
sweet-bread,  which  lies  at  the  fleshy  part  of  the  neck  end. 
Cut  also  slices  at  D,  which  are  gelatinous  and  delicate,  and 
serve  small  pieces  with  the  meat ;  this  greatly  economises 
the  joint.  A  little  of  the  tongue  is  usually  placed  on  each 
plate,  and  about  a  spoonful 
of  the  brains.  The  tongue 
is  served  on  a  separate  dish, 
surrounded  by  the  brains, 
and  is  cut  across,  the  narrow 
way,  in  rather  thin  slices. 
Some  persons  like  the  eye.  It 
is  removed  by  a  circular  cut, 
marked  by  dots  at  E.  First 
put  the  knife  in  slanting  at 
F,  inserting  the  point  at  that 
part  of  the   dotted    line,  and 


more  than  does  that  from  a  leg  on  the  skill  of  the 
carver,  and  it  is  also  a  joint  which  may  be  made  to  go 
much  further  by  skilful  cutting.  Commence  by  thrusting 
in  the  fork  at  G  in  Fig.  12,  firmly.  Raise  and  half  turn  the 
shoulder  over  and  upwards,  holding  it  in  this  position  by 
means  of  the  fork ;  slash  lightly  in  with  the  knife  at  A,  but 
do  not  cut  quite  down  to  the  bone  ;  the  meat  now  flies 
open,  leaving  a  gap,  as  if  a  thick  slice  had  been  removed. 
Cut  a  few  slices  thickly  at  the  lines  marked  B,  and  then  at 
the  knuckle  side  at  those  marked  H,  making  both  slope 
so  as  to  meet  at  D.  Those  to  be  helped  to  meat  shpuld 
always  be  asked  whether  they 
prefer  the  knuckle  end  or  the 
thick  end.  The  cut  on  the 
blade-bone,  marked  c  in  Fig. 
12,  is  usually  reserved  till  the 
joint  is  cold,  and  so  is  that  at 
E.  The  circular  cut  F  removes 
the  fat,  a  slice  of  which  should 
be  proffered  with  each  piece 
of  lean.  Very  many  people 
think  the  most  delicate  cuts 
to  be    found    underneatk 


driving  it  in  to  the  ce7it7'e  under  the  eye  ;  then  wheel  the 
hand  round,  keeping  the  circle  of  the  dotted  line  with  the 
blade  of  the  knife,  the  point  still  in  the  centre.  The  eye 
wifi  come  out  entire,  cone-shaped  at  the  under  part,  when 
the  circle  is  completed  by  the  knife.  There  are  some 
gelatinous  pieces  round  the  eye,  which  are  generally  con- 
sidered very  desirable.  The  lower  jaw  must  next  be 
remaved  by  cutting  through  at  the  dotted  line  from  G  to  H, 
to  do  which  successfully  the  dish  must  be  turned.  Many 
persons  consider  the  palate  a  dainty,  and  it  should  always 
be  offered  at  table  to  the  guests  or  members  of  the  family. 
It  is  found  under  the  head,  of  course,  lining  that  part 
which  forms  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  For  the  proper 
appearance  of  a  calves'  head  when  brought  to  table,  refer- 
ence must  be  made  to  Fig.  4  in  the  coloured  plate. 

Shoulder  of  Mutton^  though  costing  less  per  pound,  is 
not  reckoned  by  some  managers  to  be  so  economical  a 
joint  as  a  leg.  Still,  there  are  many  persons  who  hold 
a  contrary  opinion,  and  a  shoulder  of  mutton  is  a  very 
frequent  joint  on  a  family  dinner-table.  ••The  palatable- 
ness  of  the  meat  served  from  a  shoulder  depends  much 


the  joint,  which  parts  are  represented  in  Fig.  13.  The 
cut  at  J  is  a  thin  slice  of  brown  meat,  followed  by  other 
slices  cut  in  succession.  From  K  to  L,  long  slices  can  be 
removed,  by  cutting  through  to  the  bone.  The  long  lines 
at  N,  and  the  short  ones  at  M,  indicate  the  situation  of 
similar  cuts.  Taste  varies  so  much  in  regard  to  which 
are  the  nicest  cuts  on  a  shoulder  of  mutton,  that  indi- 
viduals should  always  be  consulted  before  helping.  Every 
part  of  a  shoulder  of  mutton,  except  the  first  cuts,  should 
be  carved  in  thin  slices,  and  even  those  are  not  made  so 
thick  as  they  are  in  a  leg.  The  blade-bone  is,  in  our  opinion, 
the  choicest  cut  of  all  (that  marked  C  in  Fig.  12),  and  may 
be  eaten  hot,  if  the  remainder  of  the  shoulder  is  hashed, 
instead  of  bringing  it  to  table  cold ;  it  is  the  better  way  to 
hash  it,  for  the  meat  is  insipid  cold.  A  shoulder  of  lamb 
is  treated  similarly ;  so  is  a  shoulder  of  veal,  which  is  sent 
to  table  with  the  under  part  turned  to  the  carver,  who 
commences  by  serving  the  knuckle,  and  then  cuts  as  the 
under  part  of  a  shoulder  of  mutton  is  cut,  afterwards  turn- 
ing the  joint  and  carving  the  upper  part,  according  to 
Fig.  12. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


GARDENING. 

THE    WINDOW    GARDEl;. 

The  practical  result  of  good  gardening  is  to  keep  up  a 
show  of  blossom  or  ornamental  foliage  all  through  the 
year,  to  effect  which  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  seasons 
when  the  various  plants  arrive  at  perfection.  Supposing, 
therefore,  we  begin  our  year  in  winter,  though  few  flowers 
are  blooming  out  of  doors,  yet  our  window  garden 
may  be  gay  enough,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  list  of  flowers  which  bloom  at  that 
season,  all  of  which  are  available  for  our  pur- 
pose : — Pompon  chrysanthemum,  tree  carnation, 
Chinese  primrose,  polyanthus,  single  garden 
anemone,  mignonette,  musk,  Neapolitan  and 
Russian  violet,  wallflower,  scarlet  geranium, 
myrtle,  camellia,  China  rose,  heaths,  daphne. 

Besides  these  there  are  many  more,  but  as 
these  require  more  attention  and  greater  space 
for  growth  than  most  of  our  readers  will  be 
able  to  spare,  we  shall  leave  their  names  until 
a  future  number,  and  say  a  few  words  upon  the 
culture  of  each  of  those  given  in  our  present  list. 

Pompon  Chrysanthetnunis  are  especially  suit-  f'g 

able  for  winter  window  decoration,  both  on 
account  of  their  size  and  variety  of  colour.  Though 
naturally  dwarf  plants,  they  will  admit  of  still  further 
dwarfing,  by  having  the  points  of  the  shoots  "  laid"  at  the 
end  of  August.  In  potting  you  will  require  rich  light  soil, 
give  plenty  of  water  afterwards,  and  when  they  have  done 
flowering  remove  them  into  a  yard  or  spare  window,  and 
protect  them  from  sharp  frosts.  You  can  increase  your 
stock  by  dividing  the  roots  or  suckers,  in  April  or  May. 

Tree  Carnation. — Make  cuttings  in  spring,  repot  in 
May,  again  in  September  ;  pinch  off  the  points  of  the 
early  shoots  when  you  first  repot,  so  as  to  retard  the 
flower-buds.  Train  upon  a  wooden  frame  or  up  the 
sides  of  the  window. 

Chinese  Primrose.—  Sow  in  April  or  May  under  a  square 
of  glass  ;  pot  and  repot,  twice, 
as  the  plants  increase  in  size. 
Use  sandy,  fibrous,  rich  earth, 
and  see  that  you  have  free 
drainage.  When  past  flowering 
treat  as  chrysanthemums,  and 
repot  for  the  second  season. 

Polyanthus  takes  a  mode- 
rately large  pot,  rich  loamy 
soil,  and  should  be  watered 
with  liquid  manure. 

Single  Garden  Anemone. — 
The  roots  of  these  and  their 
bulbous  brethren,  are  the  bet-  'i^ 
ter  for  being  taken  out  of  the 
earth  when  flowering  is  over, 
and  stored  for  the  summer. 
This,  however,  must  not  be  Fig 

done  until  the  foliage  withers, 

which  shows  that  nature  is  resting.     Good  plants  may  be  | 
had  by  putting  in  the  roots  early  in  winter,  and  keeping 
the  pots  in  a  dark  cool  place  until  their  leaves  appear. 

Mignonette. — To  bloom  through  the  winter,  select  from 
the  box  or  bed,  and  repot  a  strong  woody  plant,  train  it 
up  a  frame  of  sticks,  and  water  sparingly. 

Musk — grown  either  from^  seed,  cuttings,  or  division  of 
the  roots.  Keep  very  moist  while  growing,  and  dry  while 
the  plant  is  sleeping. 

Violets,  Neapolitan  and  Russian. — Repot  in  May,  ex- 
pose to  the  air  as  much  as  possible,  either  in  a  border, 
yard,  or  window-box.  Use  well-manured,  rich  earth, 
watering  freely.  When  the  runners  appear,  nip  them  back, 
so  as  to  concentrate  the  strength  in  the  main  root.  In 
September  repot  into  light  loamy  good  soil,  and  place  in 

VOL.  I. 


your  window.     Give  all  the  air  you   can,  and  wash  the 
leaves  frequently. 

Wallflowers  may  be  made  to  bloom  in  winter  by  cut- 
ting back  in  spring  or  summer,  and  from  their  perfume 
are  always  a  favourite  adjunct  of  the  window  garden. 

Scarlet  Geraniums. — The  sweet-scented  and  oak-leafed 
are  the  best  for  winter  growing,  and  will  go  on  flowering 
up  to  February.     Of  their  treatment  we  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  speak  under  the  head  of  pelargoniums. 

Myrtle.  — ]^o  foliage  is  prettier  and  fresher. 
The  plant  will  last  for  years,  is  easily  propa- 
gated by  cuttings,  and  although  apt  to  grow  too 
large  for  its  share  in  a  window  case,  can  be 
kept  within  bounds  by  pruning.  Sandy  loam, 
mi.xed  with  heath  and  a  little  silver  sand,  is  the 
best  soil  in  which  to  grow  myrtles.  Repot  once 
a  year ;  wash  the  foliage  now  and  then,  as  soot 
smuts  blister  the  delicate  green  leaves. 

Camellias.— Choose  the  double,  which  are  the 
best  flowering  sort,  and  treat  in  the  same  way 
as  the  myrtle.  A  very  simple  way  of  striking 
camellia  cuttings  is  by  merely  putting  a  spray 
(first  nipping  off  the  flower-bud)  in  a  small  medi- 

1.  cine  bottle  half  full  of  water  ;  let  the  stalk  just 
enter  the  water.     Hang  up  the  bottle  in  a  light 

warm  place,  and  in  a  short  time  you  will  have  a  well- 
rooted  young  plant  to  pot. 

China  Poses. — Plant  in  midsummer,  or  even  later  ;  use 
rich  loamy  soil,  well  drained.  Strike  at  any  time  from 
cuttings. 

HeatJis — being  rather  capricious  in  their  growth,  must 
be  planted  in  heathy  soil  well  mixed  with  silver  sand  and 
leaf  mould,  thoroughly  drained,  and  kept  free  from  wet. 
The  pot  must  be  rather  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  plant.  Give  plenty  of  air,  and  protect  carefully  against 
hard  frosts. 

Daphne — although  not  very  ornamental,  and  apt  to 
straggle  in  its  growth,  will  nevertheless  always  find  a  place 
where  sweet  perfume  is  accoptable.  Heath  soil  and  loam 
is  the  most  suitable  earth. 
Be  careful  to  keep  off  frost, 
or  even  a  sudden  chill,  and 
remove  from  the  window  at 
^  night.  Indeed,  we  may  here 
observe  that  this  rule  should 
apply  to  all  winter  flowers. 
The  temperature  falling  so 
suddenly  inside  the  room  by 
the  dying  out  of  the  fire, 
renders  the  plants  extremely 
sensitive  to  the  change  in  the 
outside  atmosphere.  If  such 
a  misfortune  as  a  frost-bite 
occurs,  remove  the  plant  to  a 
dark  place,  and  let  it  recover 
itself;   light  will  blister   and 

2.  decay  the  surface  affected  by 
the  frost. 

These  flowers  will  have  shed  their  beauty  in  j[anuan% 
when  you  should  have  your  bulbs  ready  to  fill  their  place. 
Of  these  the  following  will  flower  in  January  and 
February  :— Hyacinths,  narcissus,  jonquils,  tulips,  cro- 
cuses, snowdrops,  and  scillas.  The  pretty  effect  a  selec- 
tion of  these  will  produce  when  well  arranged,  is  shown 
in  our  illustration,  Fig.  2. 

The  treatment  of  these  several  sorts  is  much  alike. 
Plant  in  soil  mixed  with  leaf  mould  and  well-rotted 
manure,  early  in  autumn,  say  September.  Keep  in  the 
dark  until  well  rooted,  which  process  is  encouraged  by 
having  a  saucer  supplied  with  water  below  the  pot. 
When  the  roots  are  thoroughly  grown,  which  will  generally 
take  place  in  eight  weeks,  remove  the  pots  to  the  light, 
and  the  flower  and  foliage  stenas  will  soon  show.     Greac 

6 


82 


GARDENING. 


care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  drainage  act  quickly,  as 
although  the  plant  should  be  well  supplied  with  constant 
moisture,  it  must  not  get  clogged  with  wet  earth.  If  the 
flowers  of  the  hyacinth  begin  to  show .  before  the  stem 
has  sprung  up  far  enough  to  let  them  dev<;lop  fully,  you 
can  force  its  growth  by  twisting  a  paper  funnel  and  placing 
it  over  the  plant ;  flowers  always  seek  the  light,  so  the 
hyacinth  will  strain  to  reach  the  greatest  light  as  shown 
by  the  aperture  at  the  top  of  the  funnel. 

By  the  time  your  bulbs  have  finished  flowering  there 
are  many  pretty  spring  flowers  ready  to  blossom,  so  we 
will  suppose  you  have  been  preparing  a  stock  of  prim- 
roses, violets,  ranunculus,  anemone,  Indian  pink,  forget- 
me-not,  and  lily  of  the  valley. 

Of  these,  Primroses  are  perhaps  the  most  popular, 
reminding  as  they  do  of  country  lanes  ;  they  require  no 
further  care  than  good  drainage,  and  to  be  planted  in  light 
soil  mixed  with  leaf  mould. 

Violets  we  have  already  described. 

Ranuncidtts,  A7iemoue.—These  are  treated  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  single  anemone  mentioned  before. 

Indian  Pink,  Forget-me-not. — Sow  in  November,  thin 
out  if  too  thick,  keep  cool  and  dry. 

Lily  of  the  Valley. — Take  close  plump  roots  and  pack 
tightly  in  the  pot,  shake  in  a  light  sandy  soil,  and  place  in 
a  saucer  constantly  half-full  of  water. 

To  follow  the  early  spring  show  you  have  a  large  and 
very  beautiful  family  of  flowers,  known  as  annuals. 
We  scarcely  need  say  that  an  ''  annual "  is  a  plant  which 
is  sown,  blossoms,  goes  to  seed,  and  dies  in  a  year. 
Some  annuals,  it  is  true,  may  be  made  to  live  on  for 
several  years,  but  this  is  only  by  coaxing  nature  into 
an  unusual  course,  by  picking  off  the  buds,  oi-  pruning 
back.  The  annuals  suitable  for  our  purpose  are  those 
not  requiring  artificial  heat,  and  therefore  designated 
hardy  and  half-hardy  ;  of  these  the  following  list  will 
suffice  to  keep  up  the  summer  supply  : — Mignonette, 
lobelia,  mesembryanthemum,  portulaca,  balsam,  cocks- 
comb, convolvulus,  anagallis,  calandrinia,  nemophila, 
and  mimulus. 

The  treatment  of  these  small-seeded  annuals  is  alike. 
Sow  in  March  or  April  under  a  pane  of  glass,  thin  out, 
and  transplant  when  large  enough.  They  will  then  be 
ready  to  fill  your  window  in  June,  or  even  the  end  of 
May,  and  continue  flowering  until  the  harder  wooded 
perennials  are  ready.  Of  these,  the  favourite  sorts  suit- 
able to  the  window  are  : — Pelargoniums  of  various  sorts, 
fuchsia,  salvia,  and  calceolaria. 

For  low-growing  plants  to  fill  up  the  case,  you  should 
keep  up  a  supply  of  lobelia,  musk,  and  moss.  Mignonette 
never  comes  amiss  for  an  odd  corner,  and  the  common 
wild  mosses,  grown  in  flower-pots,  form  a  lovely  relief  to 
the  bright  colours  of  the  geranium. 

Pelargoniums.,  usually  known  as  geraniums,  are  pro- 
pagated by  cuttings  made  from  March  up  to  the  end  of 
August. 

The  scarlet  geraniums  are  not  quite  so  suitable  for 
window  gardening  as  the  large  florists'  geraniums,  which 
grow  luxuriantly  in  the  house,  and  often,  too,  under  the 
most  adverse  circumstances.  In  taking  cuttings  you  should 
select  well-ripened  stems,  removed  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  flowering  shoot ;  let  them  be  about  three  inches  in 
length,  and  cut  across  a  joint  with  two  or  three  joints 
above  ;  the  cutting  should  not  be  sunk  deeply  in  the  soil, 
an  inch  is  quite  deep  enough. 

Pelargoniums  require  forcing  every  year  ;  first  you 
must  prepare  them  for  the  operation  by  hardening  the 
wood  in  the  open  air.  When  they  have  been  out  of  doors 
three  or  four  weeks,  cut  back  the  young  shoots,  giving  the 
plant  the  form  required  ;  this  is  the  fittest  opportunity  for 
cuttings,  as  you  then  make  a  better  selection,  and  do  not 
damage  the  plant. 

After  pruning,  the  plant  should  be  kept  pretty  dry  until 


the  young  shoots  break  away,  then  they  must  be  repotted 
into  sandy  loam,  leaf  mould,  and  fibrous  earth.  Take  care 
to  nip  off  any  decaying  roots,  water  freely,  and  shade 
from  the  glare  of  sunlight.  Plants  repotted  in  February 
will  flower  in  June,  and  you  can  go  on,  keeping  up  a  con- 
tinuous show  by  merely  taking  care  to  repot  at  proper 
seasons,  beginning  when  the  plant  is  young,  or  by  nipping 
off  the  first  young  shoots,  thus  obliging  the  parent  stem  to 
send  out  fresh  flower  stems. 

Fancy  or  dwarf  geraniums  are  much  grown  now,  and  if 
nicely  pruned  form  lovely  little  shrubby  plants.  These 
require  more  water  while  sprouting,  and  should  have 
smaller  pots  in  proportion,  while  the  addition  of  a  little 
heath  soil  is  a  great  advantage.  The  best  time  to  make 
cuttings  of  any  geranium  is  in  March  and  April,  and  then 
you  should  take  the  little  side  shoots,  and  having  struck 
repot  them  once  or  even  twice  during  the  summer. 
Before  leaving  the  subject  of  propagation  by  cutting,  we 
must  impress  upon  the  window  gardener  that  to  have 
a  good  strong  plant  to  stand  the  winter  he  must  strike 
his  cuttings  not  sooner  than  March  or  later  than  June. 

Some  of  the  fancy  geraniums  bloom  almost  continually. 
This  is  a  grand  object  to  achieve  in  a  window  garden, 
so  we  advise  our  readers  to  buy  a  plant  of  Gaines'  scarlet, 
Rollisson's  purple,  or  the  Prince  of  Orange,  a  strong  young 
plant,  any  one  of  which  may  be  had  for  three  or  four 
pence  at  a  nursery  gardener's  ;  and  here  let  us  observe 
that  the  first  outlay  is  the  last,  as  a  good  stock  can  always 
be  kept  up  by  propagation,  or  exchange.  Those  geraniums- 
which  are  kept  in  foliage  all  the  winter  require  con- 
siderable care  ;  the  leaves  will  grow  yellow  and  drop 
off  if  you  do  not  keep  them  moist,  which  is  best  done  by 
syringing,  or  washing  delicately  leaf  by  leaf  with  a  small 
sponge  or  bit  of  flannel,  an  operation  which  can  be  easily 
done  after  the  day's  work,  if  you  are  careful  to  draw  the- 
plant-case  into  the  room,  and  avoid  any  chance  of  frost 
catching  the  damp  leaves.  While  plants  are  blooming,, 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  moderately  moist. 

Fuchsia. — There  is  nothing  more  graceful  or  ornamental 
than  this  queen  of  window  plants,  and  on  the  whole 
nothing  more  simple  in  its  cultivation.  Propagated  like 
the  pelargoniums  from  cuttings,  the  plants  require  much 
the  same  treatment,  that  is  to  say,  repotting,  pruning, 
and  hardening.  One  thing,  however,  the  fuchsia  is  more 
greedy  of,  and  that  is  water ;  you  can  scarcely  water  a 
healthy  plant  too  much,  always  understanding  that  the 
pot  has  a  quick  and  thorough  drainage.  Give  all  the  air 
possible,  and  when  the  lovely  bells  fall  and  the  leaves- 
turn  yellow  put  the  plant  out  of  doors  to  drink  in  life 
and  vigour  from  the  pure  breath  of  heaven.  Take  care 
however,  that  it  does  not  get  frost-bitten  ;  prune  and 
remove  into  smaller  pots  for  the  winter  in  October  or 
November,  and  set  it  somewhere  where  neither  frost  nor 
excessive  damp  can  reach  it. 

In  March,  when  the  plant  is  shooting,  you  must  form 
it  carefully.  Slips  pulled  off  close  to  the  old  wood  in 
April  will  strike  well,  and  make  neat  plants  for  flowering 
in  autumn  ;  the  parent  plant  must  be  repotted  in  a  slightly 
larger  pot,  and  kept  well  watered  by  syringing  the  stem, 
rather  than  deluging  the  root. 

The  best  form  in  which  to  train  a  fuchsia  is  that  shown 
in  Fig.  I.  The  plant  throws  out  more  graceful  branches, 
and  takes  up  less  room  in  the  winter  ;  the  stem  will  go  oxv 
growing  until  it  attains  a  considerable  thickness.  Liquid 
manure  is  good  for  fuchsias  while  they  are  preparing  to 
bud,  but  should  not  be  given  after  flowering,  and  the 
flowers  should  never  be  wetted,  or  they  will  drop  off 
before  their  time. 

Salvias. — The  scarlet,  by  proper  management,  may  be 
contemporary  with  the  chrysanthemum  as  well  as  the 
pelargoniums,  and  all  the  precaution  necessary  is  to  top 
your  cuttings  taken  in  early  summer,  and  force  the  plant, 
to  go  over  its  preparation  for  flowering  again. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


8j 


DOMESTIC    MEDICINE. 

DISEASES   INCIDENTAL  TO   CHILDREN. 

In  treating  of  the  diseases  which  are  incidental  to  child- 
hood, we  shall  content  ourselves  with  noticin;^  those  of 
common  occurrence.  Now,  as  most  of  our  ailments  are 
the  result  of  our  own  imprudence  or  misfortune,  it  might 
be  expected  that  childhood  would  be  free  from  disease  ; 
but  it  is  really  the  most  dangerous  part  of  life,  if  we 
exclude  age,  which  has  been  called  second  childhood. 
The  organisation  of  an  infant  is  a  very  sensitive  one, 
capable  of  being  injured  by  many  things,  especially  by 
improper  food,  by  bad  air,  by  cold,  and  by  heat.  In 
some  large  towns  it  is  very  difficult  to  rear  children  ;  in 
Liverpool,  for  example,  one  child  in  every  four  dies 
before  attaining  the  age  of  twelve  months.  It  would  be 
well  if  people  would  regard  the  constitution  of  a  child  as 
a  thing  requiring  great  consideration  and  care.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  the  life  of  a  child  is  endangered  by  affec- 
tions of  its  nervous  system,  such  as  convulsions  ;  or  of 
its  bowels,  such  as  diarrhoea  ;  or  of  its  breathing  appa- 
ratus, such  as  bronchitis  ;  but  these  are  by  no  means  the 
only  dangers  with  which  childhood  has  to  contend.  In 
these  papers  we  propose  to  treat  shortly  of  the  following 
diseases  of  children  : — i,  convulsions  ;  2,  diarrhoea  ;  3, 
dentition  ;  4,  bronchitis  and  croup,  and  nervous  croup  ; 
5,  eruptive  fevers  ;  6,  whooping  cough  ;  7,  certain  skin 
diseases  ;  and  8,  worms. 

I.— CONVULSIONS. 

These  are  of  common  occurrence  in  young  children, 
owing  to  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  their  nervous 
system  ;  still  a  child  is  not  always  convulsed  when  it 
is  said  to  be  so.  Nurses  arc  very  fond  of  talking  about 
"  inward  convulsions,"  which  often  mean  nothing  more 
than  a  few  slight  twitches  about  the  muscles  of  the  face, 
especially  of  the  lips.  Such  twitches  often  precede  or 
forbode  an  attack  of  convulsions,  but  are  not  themselves 
entitled  to  this  name.  When  a  real  fit  comes  on  it  is 
too  easily  perceived.  The  twitching  of  the  face  is  no 
longer  slight,  but  of  the  nature  of  a  jerk  ;  the  muscles  of 
the  trunk  and  limbs  are  alternately  stiffened  and  relaxed  ; 
and  if  the  muscles  of  the  chest  and  body  are  much 
affected,  the  child  becomes  blue  from  the  way  in  which 
the  fits  interfere  with  respiration. 

Causes. — What  are  the  causes  of  such  fits  ?  They 
vary  in  different  cases  ;  but  they  may  be  resolved  into 
three  or  four  principal  classes.  First,  some  fault  in  the 
food  of  the  child.  The  food  may  be  unfitted  to  the 
tender  wants  of  the  infant.  It  may  be  artificial  milk 
instead  of  maternal ;  or  it  may  be  bad  milk  instead  of 
good.  And  even  in  the  case  of  a  child  fed  with  its  own 
mother's  milk  it  may  happen  that  a  sudden  derangement 
of  the  mother's  milk — as,  for  example,  by  a  fright — will 
occasion  a  convulsion  in  the  child.  Another  error  of  diet, 
recognised  as  an  occasional  cause  of  fits  in  children,  is 
giving  too  much  food  at  one  time — gorging  the  stomach. 
Another  common  cause  of  fits  is  the  irritation  caused  in 
sensitive  children  by  the  process  oi  teething.  It  is  amaz- 
ing how  one  or  more  teeth  pressing  on  the  gum  may  irri- 
tate and  derange  a  child.  Prolonged  diarrhaa,  exhaust- 
ing a  child,  will  be  occasionally  followed  by  a  convulsion. 
Worms  in  the  bowels  are  often  a  cause  of  convulsions  in 
children ;  and  may  be  suspected  to  be  the  cause  in  any 
particular  case  if  they  have  been  noticed  before  the  occur- 
rence of  the  fits.  Our  list  of  the  causes  of  such  attacks 
would  be  incomplete  if  we  did  not  specify  bad  air,  such 
as  is  met  with  in  close,  ill-ventilated,  unhealthy  rooms. 
Formerly,  in  the  Rotunda  Lying-in  Hospital,  Dublin,  a 
large  proportion  of  the  children  used  to  die  of  fits.  No 
less  than  a  sixth  of  the  children  died  within  a  fortnight 
after  their  birth  of  the  disease  known  as  the  lock-jaw  of 
infants,  in  which  not  only  the  muscles  of  the  jaw,  but  the 


other  muscles  of  the  body  are  affected  with  a  stiffness. 
The  children  attacked  with  it  almost  invariably  died. 
Dr.  Joseph  Clarke  entirely  abolished  this  disease  in  the 
Rotunda  by  securing  the  better  ventilation  of  the  v/ards 
by  a  system  of  shafts.  We  mention  this  disease,  not 
only  because  it  is  of  the  nature  of  fits,  but  also  because 
its  complete  extinction  in  the  Rotunda  is  one  of  the  reost 
striking  instances  that  can  be  brought  forward  of  the 
good  effects  of  fresh  air. 

Treattnent. — When  a  child  is  attacked  with  convul- 
sions, pending  the  arrival  of  the  doctor,  two  or  three 
things  maybe  done  by  those  in  attendance.  First,  let 
them  be  advised  not  to  be  too  excited  or  too  officious. 
It  is  very  alarming  to  see  a  child  convulsed,  but  generally 
children  do  not  die  in  fits,  and  the  best  service  will  be 
that  which  is  rendered  in  quietness.  The  things  which 
it  is  generally  right  to  do  are  to  admit  plenty  of  air  ta 
the  child's  face  and  mouth,  and  to  put  it  into  a  warm 
bath  in  such  a  position  as  to  give  it  plenty  of  air  in 
breathing.  The  further  treatment  of  the  child  will  be 
best  judged  of  by  the  medical  man  ;  but  if  from  any 
cause  his  arrival  be  delayed,  the  steps  to  be  taken  must 
depend  on  the  probable  causes  of  the  attack.  If  the 
child  should  have  taken  doubtful  food,  this  source  of 
irritation  must  be  rectified.  If  it  have  taken  a  large 
quantity  of  food,  there  would  be  little  harm  in  trying  to 
excite  vomiting,  in  the  interval  of  the  fits,  by  tickling 
the  mouth  with  a  feather  or  with  the  finger.  If  the 
child  be  in  an  exhausted  state  from  previous  diarrhoea  or 
other  causes,  a  little  simple  food  should  be  introduced, 
either  breast-milk  or  fresh  milk  and  water,  or  barley 
water,  or,  .if  the  child  be  very  much  reduced,  a  little 
very  weak  brandy  and  water  sweetened  with  sugar.  If 
the  gum  is  red  or  swollen  over  a  coming  tooth,  nothing 
gives  such  relief  as  lancing  the  gums  ;  this,  of  course, 
can  only  be  done  by  a  medical  man.  But  the  medical 
man  is  sometimes  foolishly  opposed  by  parents  in  this 
matter.  We  need  scarcely  remark  that  in  the  actual  fit 
the  child  will  not  be  able  to  swallow,  and  during  this 
time  the  attendants  should  be  careful  to  let  it  have  plenty 
of  air. 

Before  leaving  the  treatment  of  children  subject  to 
convulsions,  we  should  say  the  great  duty  of  friends  is  to 
preserve  such  children  from  the  causes  of  them,  which 
we  have  specified,  and  in  every  way  to  strengthen  the 
children.  It  should  be  remembered  that  fits  imply  a 
morbid  sensitiveness,  which  is  often  constitutional.  By 
good  food,  by  pure  air,  by  plenty  of  sleep,  and  regular 
living  on  the  part  of  the  parent,  such  sensitiveness  is 
diminished,  and  with  it  the  chance  of  fits. 

II. — DIARRIKKA. 

This,  like  the  preceding,  is  a  very  common  ailment  of 
children.  It  is  the  cause  of  much  of  the  mortality  of  young 
children  ;  and  where  it  is  not  fatal  it  often  greatly  weakens 
and  injures  the  system.  It  is  so  common,  and  it  injures  a 
child  so  slowly  and  gradually,  that  it  is  on  the  whole  too 
lightly  regarded.  We  shall  describe  the  general  causes 
of  it,  and  some  domestic  means  by  which  it  will  often  be 
remedied  ;  but  if  these  fail  we  advise  parents  not  to  neg- 
lect to  get  medical  advice  for  diarrhcea.  A  child  with 
diarrhaM  should  especially  not  be  neglected  when  it  looks 
pale,  when  it  is  cold  and  clammy  in  the  skin,  and  when  it 
lies  with  its  eyelids  half  closed.  The  diarrhoea  of  children 
may  be  divided  for  practical  purposes  into  two  classes  : — 
I,  that  which  occurs  in  very  young  children  in  the  first 
few  weeks  or  months  of  life  ;  and  2,  that  which  occurs  in 
children  about  and  after  the  age  of  six  months,  during  the 
period  of  teething.  Both  these  forms  of  diarrhoea  arc 
most  apt  to  occur  and  most  difficult  to  cure  during 
summer  and  autumn. 

I.  The  Diarrhaa  of  very  Young  Children. — This 
generally  depends  on  error  of  diet,   on   artificial   food, 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 


or  on  something  faulty  in  the  milk  of  the  mother.  The 
motions  of  the  child  are  generally  green  in  colour,  and 
frequently  passed.  The  child  cries  much,  or  gives  other 
signs  of  uneasiness  in  the  bowels.  Very  often  some 
degree  of  vomiting  exists  along  with  this  diarrhoea. 
Such  a  case  as  this  is  eminently  one  for  good  domestic 
management.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  rules  that 
will  suit  every  case  ;  but  wise  women  will  find  out  what 
food  agrees  with  a  child  and  what  seems  to  poison  it. 
This  kind  of  diarrhoea  is  often  seen  in  children  that  are 
fed  with  the  bottle,  or  in  other  artificial  ways.  And  it  is 
wonderful  how  such  children  will  often  improve  as  soon 
as  a  wet-nurse  is  got  for  them.  The  green  motions 
become  yellow,  the  wrinkled  skin  looks  plump  and  fresh 
again,  and  the  expression  of  the  face  alters  from  an  aged, 
haggard  look  to  a  happy,  well-fed  appearance.  Where  a 
'.vet-nurse  cannot  be  procured,  the  best  artificial  food 
should  be  given,  and  of  this,  generally  speaking,  the  best  is 
that  which  is  made  of  milk  and  water  in  equal  proportions, 
or  in  the  proportion  of  two-thirds  milk  to  one-third  water. 
It  should  be  sweetened  with  a  little  sugar,  and  given  at  a 
temperature  of  90?  to  95*^  Fahr.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
moment  that  the  milk  should  be  fresh  and  free  from 
all  acidity.  In  the  way  of  domestic  medicine,  a  tea- 
spoonful  or  two  of  lime-water  may  be  given  mixed  with 
the  food,  or  a  teaspoonful  of  the  following  mixture  may 
be  taken  two,  three,  or  four  times  a  day  : — 

Chalk  mixture         ...         ...         ...     6  drachms. 

Water  6         „ 

Bicarbonate  of  soda  ...         ...     6  grains. 

Where  this  diarrhoea  depends  on  any  temporary  fault  of 
the  mother's  health,  this  must  be  rectified  by  appropriate 
means,  especially  by  simple  diet  and  quietness  of  mind. 
If  the  diarrhoea  is  not  quickly  removed  by  domestic  care 
and  treatment,  medical  advice  should  be  taken  on  the 
subject. 

2.  Tlie  Diarrha'a  of  Tcetliing  Children.  —  Many 
children  never  cut  a  tooth  without  having  some  diarrhoea. 
If  it  continues  long,  or  if  it  is  associated  with  vomiting, 
or  if  the  child  is  getting  obviously  thinner,  then  it  should 
be  regarded  seriously,  and  the  doctor  should  be  sent  for. 
The  domestic  treatment  of  it  will  consist  in  the  most' 
careful  regulation  of  the  mother's  living,  favouring  good 
milk  on  her  part  ;  where  the  child  is  brought  up  by  the 
hand,  in  giving  suitable  food,  especially  milk  as  above 
directed.  If  this  produces  vomiting,  then  give  barley- 
water,  or  barley-water  and  milk,  until  the  stomach  settles 
a  little.  If  the  child  is  very  exhausted,  and  lies  with  its 
eyes  half  closed,  then  a  little  very  weak  brandy  and 
water  may  be  administered.  For  example,  a  teaspoonful 
of  pale  brandy  may  be  put  into  a  wineglassful  of  water 
and  sweetened  ;  of  this  a  teaspoonful  may  be  given  fre- 
quently. If  the  motions  are  green,  and  the  skin  hot 
and  dry,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  the  above  chalk  mixture 
may  be  given  every  three  or  four  hours.  If  there  is 
sickness  or  sweating,  the  following  mixture  will  often 
answer  better  :  — 

Dilute  sulphuric  acid  ...         ...     12  minims. 

Compound  tincture  of  cardamoms        i  drachm. 

Simple  syrup...         ...         ...         ...     2        „ 

Water i^  ounce. 

A  teaspoonful  or  two  teaspoonfuls  to  be  taken  (according 
to  the  age  of  the  child)  every  three,  four,  or  six  hours. 

When  diarrhoea  occurs  in  older  children  than  those  of 
a  year  or  two,  it  should  not  be  checked  immediately, 
especially  if  it  have  followed  close  upon  some  obvious 
error  of  diet.  It  may  even  be  proper  in  this  latter  case 
to  give  a  very  small  quantity  of  castor  oil  or  Gregory 
powder.  If  the  diarrhoea  continues,  then  the  above 
mixtures  may  be  procured  in  twice  the  quantity,  and  a 
dessert-spoonful  or  a  table-spoonful  given  every  three  or 
four  hours.     Generally  speaking,  it  will  be  safe  to  begin 


with  the  chalk  mixture,  and  if  this  is  not  effective  the 
other  may  be  tried.  If  the  case  is  urgent,  however,  or 
the  child  delicate,  or  the  summer  very  hot,  it  will  be 
proper  to  take  medical  advice  at  first. 

Inflammatory  Diarrhasa. — Sometimes,  particularly  in 
young  children  fed  with  the  bottle  in  unhealthy  large 
towns,  diarrhoea  resists  all  remedies,  and  changes  its 
character ;  the  motions  losing  altogether  the  appearance 
of  ordinary'  motions,  becoming  green  and  sour,  consisting 
largely  of  slime,  perhaps  mixed  with  a  little  blood ; 
sometimes  they  resemble  spinach  or  chopped  vegetables. 
Vomiting  is  apt  to  set  in.  The  little  patient  gets  very 
pallid  and  thin,  and  soft  and  flabby.  The  case  is  not 
now  one  of  simple  diarrhoea.  It  requires  the  best 
medical  skill,  and  should  at  once  be  removed  from  the 
sphere  of  domestic  medicine. 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 

JOINTS  {continued). 

The  next  kind  of  jointing  we  will  try  to  describe  is 
morticing.  For  simplicity,  we  will  use  logs  of  the  same 
size  as  before,  and  will  suppose  that  it  is  required  to  join 
the  end  of  No.  2  log  into  the  middle  of  the  narrow  side  of 
No.  I  (Fig.  42),  a  T-shaped  piece,  of  course,  being  the  result. 
Plane  up  true,  as  before,  and  square  a  line,  A  B,  on  No.  2,  at 
three  and  a  quarter  inches  from  the  end,  and  continue  the 
line  all  around  the  log.  Now  take  the  mortice-gauge 
(Fig.  II,  page  24)  and  set  the  two  points  to  the  width 
of  the  mortice-chisel,  which  should,  in  this  case,  be  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch,  and  then  adjust  the  pair  of  points 
to  mark  on  the  narrow  edges  of  the  log  two  parallel  lines, 
each  at  an  equal  distance  from  its  respective  side.  The 
gauge  is  easily  set  by  tapping  with  a  hammer  to  about  the 
right  place,  and  then  tested  by  pricking  holes  from  one 
edge,  and  then  reversing  the  action  to  the  other  edge, 
until  the  marks  made  from  either  side  coincide,  and  when 
once  set  correctly,  the  screw  should  be  tightened,  to 
prevent  the  points  shifting.  Mark  the  narrow  edges  of  the 
log  with  these  points  from  the  square  marks  A  and  B  to  the 
end,  and  then  across  the  end  to  join  them,  and  remove 
the  wood  on  either  side  as  far  as  these  marks,  as  shown 
by  the  dotted  lines,  the  cut  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  to 
be  taken  with  a  rip-saw,  and  the  transverse  cut  with  the 
tenon-saw.  It  only  remains  to  smooth  off  the  roughness 
left  by  the  saw,  and  this  part  of  the  joint,  which  is  called  the 
tenon,  is  finished.  In  the  middle  of  log  No.  i  mark  round 
the  log,  with  the  square,  two  lines,  A  B,  A  B,  at  a  distance 
from  each  other  equal  to  the  width  of  N  o.  2,  viz.,  three  inches, 
and  mark  the  narrow  edges,  A  A,  between  these  lines  with 
the  gauge  in  the  same  position  as  before,  and  as  the  logs 
are  of  equal  thickness,  the  marks  will  fall  in  the  middle 
in  this  case,  as  on  No.  2.  If  we  now  look  at  our  marks, 
we  shall  find  we  have  two  parallel  lines,  a  a,  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  apart,  and  three  inches  long.  Turn  the  log 
completely  over,  and  make  the  same  gauge  marks  on  the 
bottom,  and  a  corresponding  oblong  slit  mark,  bcde,  placed 
exactly  opposite  A,  will  be  the  result.  Next  lay  the  log  on 
the  stool  or  bench,  and  fix  it  in  the  most  convenient 
manner  (it  is  usual  with  carpenters  to  sit  on  the  work  to 
keep  it  steady),  and  take  the  chisel,  and  holding  it  with 
the  edge  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  hole  to  be 
cut  somewhere  between  the  two  gauge  lines,  and  the  blade 
quite  upright,  hit  it  a  smart  blow  with  the  mallet.  Now, 
with  the  chisel,  take  a  cut  a  little  further  either  way,  but 
always  keeping  the  flat  side  of  the  blade  towards  the  end 
you  are  approaching,  and  gradually  advance  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  at  a  cut,  to  the  end  of  the  required  slit, 
or  mortice,  as  it  is  termed.  When  the  line  A  is  reached, 
the  tool  is  reversed  from  the  place  where  the  cut  com- 
menced till  it  comes  to  the  B.  Once  below  the  surface, 
the  blows  of  the  mallet  must  be  smart  and  swift,  and  the 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


85 


chisel  will  be  required  to  be  used  obliquely  sometimes, 
in  order  to  prize  out  the  slips,  which  would  otherwise 
clog  the  hole.  About  the  depth  of  two  cuts  should 
reach  the  centre  of  the  block,  when  the  log  must  be 
turned  over,  and  worked  from  the  other  side,  until  the 
two  holes  meet  in  one  and  so  form 
the  mortice.  Even  though  the 
wood  to  be  morticed  were  very 
thin,  it  would  be  necessary  10 
commence  from  both  sides,  or 
the  edges  of  the  work,  supposing 
the  chisel  to  come  right  through 
from  either  side  to  the  other, 
would  be  splintered  and  uneven 
from  being  forcibly  bulged  out. 
The  oblique  ends,  E  F,  of  the 
hole  are  afterwards  cut  from  the 
top  of  the  log,  to  make  room  for 
the  wedges,  11 1,  in  No.  2.  Clean 
out  the  ragged  parts  inside  the 
mortice,  with  a  wide,  thin-bladed 
chisel,  and  drive  in  the  tenon; 
from  the  under  side,  it  should 
project  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
through  the  top.  Now  drive  in  the 
wedges,  H  l,  lightly,  saw  off  all  that 
projects  above  the  surface,  and  plane 
smooth.  If  the  directions  have  been 
attended  to,  and  the  work  accurately 
done,  the  joints  should  fit  exactly,  with- 
out play  or  looseness,  and  the  shoulders 
should  come  well  up  to  the  under  side 
of  the  block.  Should  it  be  required  to 
remove  the  tenon  from  the  mortice, 
before  finally  wedging  up,  the  mor- 
ticed block.  No.  I,  must  be  tapped  on 
the  side  from  which  the  tenon  enters 
it.  The  weight  of  the  block  and  the 
force  of  inertia  will  cause  it  to  jerk 
out  a  little  at  each  tap.  Any  at- 
tempt to  force  it  out  from  the  top 
would  spread  the  fibres  in  the  tenon, 
and  rivet  it  more  firmly  in  its  place. 
This  joint  will  tax  the  powers  of  the 
novice,  but  will  be  found  capital  prac- 
tice, and  in  after  work  we  shall 
have  constant  need  of  it,  as  it  is 
about  the  most  important  joint 
in  carpentry.  The  correct  pro- 
portion for  the  thickness  of  the 
tenons  is  rather  more  than  one- 
third  the  total  thick- 
ness of  the  morticed 
log,but  the  drawing  is 
purposely  made  with 
the  tenon  larger  for 
distinctness.  Forthe 
best  work,  two  tenons 
are  used,  as  Fig.  43, 
ranged  side  by  side 
on  the  end  of  the 
log,  and  fitting  into 
two  corresponding 
mortices,  in  which 
case  the  lines  A  BCD 
arc  sawn  down  with 
the  half-rip  saw,  the  space  E  being  removed  with  the  mor- 
tice-chisel. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  join  beams  together  end-wise, 
and  in  Fig.  44  we  show  one  of  many  methods  of  doing 
this.  The  ends  of  the  logs  A  and  B  are  shaped  as 
there  shown,  leaving  a  space  at  c  where  the  diagram 
is  shaded,  and  into  this  space  the  rectangular  piece  C  is 


driven  tightly,  thereby  closing  the  joint  well  up  at  the 
angles  F  G,  which  are  the  holding  part  of  the  joint.  At  D 
and  E,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  holes  are  bored  with 
an  auger,  and  wooden  pins  driven  in,  making  all  secure 
and  immovable.  It  must  be  remembered  that  no  joint, 
however  well  constructed  and 
executed,  is  so  sound  and  strong 
as  the  same  size  of  solid  wood, 
and,  therefore,  piecing  should 
be  avoided,  if  consistent  with 
efficiency. 

We  next  come  to  dove -tail- 
ing, which,  though  not  by  any 
means  difficult,  will,  neverthe- 
less, require  considerable  care 
and  dexterity  to  produce  accurate 
work.  We  will  suppose  we  re- 
quire to  make  a  box  two  feet 
long,  one  foot  thick,  and  one  foot 
deep,  of  inch  material.  For  this, 
we  shall  want  ten  feet  six 
inches  of  inch  board,  twelve 
inches  wide,  but,  as  deal  is  only 
usually  nine  inches  wide,  we  shaH 
have  to  glue  up  three  inches  more, 
to  make  the  right  width.  Cut  up 
the  planks  into  lengths  of  two  feet 
one  inch  each,  and  strip  down  ten  feet 
three  inches  wide,  and  cut  also  into 
the  same  lengths.  Plane,  or  shoot,  as 
it  is  called,  one  edge  of  each  width, 
perfectly  true,  and  square  carefully, 
testing  the  accuracy  with  the  square 
and  straight-edge,  and  then  with  a 
brush  smother  the  planed  edges  with  hot 
glue  rather  thin.  Now  place  the  pieces 
edge  to  edge,  and  press  evenly  and 
smoothly,  so  as  to  force  out  all  the 
superfluous  glue,  sliding  the  edges  a 
little  across  each  other.  Be  very  care- 
ful to  bring  the  pieces  back  flush  and 
level.  It  will  be  necessary  to  leave 
these  boards  for  some  hours  under  pres- 
sure, and  when  perfectly  dry,  if  properly 
done,  the  glue  joint  will  be  stronger 
than  the  wood  is  itself.  The 
essence  of  success  is  the  com- 
plete exclusion  of  the  excess  of 
glue.  These  pieces  must  be 
carefully  planed  up  smooth, 
and  the  edges  shot  and  squared. 
Next  square  up  the 
ends,  and  reduce  the 
length  of  two  pieces 
to  two  feet  and  a 
quarter  of  an  inch 
for  the  front  and 
back,  and  of  two  for 
the  ends  for  one  foot 
and  a  quarter  of  an 
inch.  The  quarter 
inch  is  for  a  slight 
overplus  it  is  usual 
to  leave  until  the 
joint  is  finished, 
when  it  is  planed 
off  true.  Now  rule  off  on  the  end  of  each  of  the  four 
pieces,  and  on  both  sides,  a  space  equal  to  the  thickness 
the  wood  is  reduced  to  and  the  above  overplus.  These 
marks,  <?<:^<',  will  show  the  exact  size  of  the  interior  of  the 
box,  when  complete.  The  dove-tail  joint.  Fig.  45,  consists 
of  the  pin  A  and  the  dove-tail  B— the  pins  bemg  usually 
made  first — and  should  be  on  the  end  or  short  side  of  the 


86 


COOKING. 


box.  Take  the  mitre-bevel  and  set  it  to  about  60°  or  70°, 
the  exact  angle  is  not  important,  and  set  off  on  the  edge 
of  each  end  of  A,  the  two  outside  pins,  and  any  co-n- 
venient  number  of  pins  between  them,  the  bevel  being 
reversed  to  mark  the  two  sides  of  each  pin.  Produce  the 
bevel  round  both  faces  of  the  board,  with  the  square,  as 
far  as  the  gauge  lines  e  e.  Now  fix  the  board  firmly  in  the 
bench,  end  up,  and  with  the  dove-tail  saw  (Fig.  24,  page  43) 
cut  the  gashes  c  c  c.  Lay  the  board  flat  on  the  bench, 
face  downwards,  and  take  a  sharp  chisel  and  a  mallet,  and 
give  a  cut  exactly  on  the  square  line,  ^,  between  each  pin. 
Turn  the  piece  over  and  cut  from  the  other  side  gauge-line 
until  the  pieces  between  the  pins  are  removed,  taking  care 
that  the  pins  should  not  be  injured  in  the  process.  Care- 
fully square  the  spaces  with  the  chisel,  without  using  the 
mallet,  and  trim  off  the  roughness  left  by  the '  saw  on 
the  pins. 

Next  take  the  'front  or  back  (2)  of  the  box  and  lay  on 
the  bench  inside  uppermost,  and  place  on  it  the  end  A 
on  edge,  with  its  inside  edge  touching  the  square  mark  e, 
and  with  its  top  and  bottom  edges  flush  with  those  of  2. 
Now,  with  the  point  of  the  striking-knife,  mark  off  the 
bevels  on  the  edges  of  each  pin,  and  produce  the  lines 
■with  the  square  across  the  end  of  B  and  to  the  square 
mark  on  the  other  side,  with  the  mitre-bevel.  Saw  the 
lines  h  h  with  the  dove-tail  saw,  and  remove  the  spaces 
/  i  by  chiselling  out  across  the  square  line,  and  K  K  by 
sawing.  The  pins  on  the  ends  of  A  will  then  exactly  fit 
the  dove-tails  in  B.  The  four  corners  of  the  box  require 
to  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  the  pins  being  worked  on 
each  end  of  the  shortest  side,  or  cnd,z.x\<S.  the  dove-tails  on 
each  end  of  the  longest  or  side  of  the  box.  Glue  in  firmly, 
and,  after  the  work  is  dry,  carefully  plane  ofif  the  project- 
ing ends.  The  appeai-ance  of  the  joint  will  then  be  as 
■  shown  in  Fig.  46,  in  which  the  end  grain  of  the  wood  is 
shaded. 

The  bottom,  which  should  be  of  thinner  wood,  may  be 
nailed  or  screwed  on,  and  the  top  should  have  a  ledge 
round  the  front  and  end  edges  which  will  shut  over 
the  body.  A  narrow  slip  of  wood  (about  three  inches) 
nailed  round  the  bottom  and  nicely  bevelled  or  mitred  at 
the  corners,  will  much  improve  the  appearance  of  the 
work  and  add  to  its  strength. 

For  small  common  work,  it  is  a  very  frequent  practice 
to  mitre  up  the  edges  to  an  angle  of  45''  and  glue  them 
together,  and  then,  when  dry,  to  make  little  saw  cuts 
obliquely,  alternately  inclined  upwards  and  downwards, 
and  glue  thin  slips  of  veneer  into  these  niches.  This 
jTiethod  is  much  easier  than  dove-tailing,  and  is  tolerably 
strong.  It  is  known  as  the  mitre  and  key-joint.  There 
are  several  modifications  of  the  dove-tail  joint,  such  as 
Fig.  47,  which  shows  only  from  the  side,  and  not  in  front. 


Fig.  47. — THE   LAP   DOVE-TAi;,. 

This  arrangement  is  used  for  drawers  in  cabinet  work. 
The  mitre  or  secret  dove-tail  has  the  pins  and  dove-tails 
woi'ked  on  a  bevelled  edge,  and  when  joined  up,  neither 
can  be  seen  at  all.  These,  however,  are  required  chiefly 
for  the  higher  class  of  cabinet  work. 

In  our  next  paper  we  shall  give  instructions  for  making 
^nd  fixing  a  carpenter's  bench. 


COOKING. 

FISH  [continued).     PLAIN  SOUPS. 

Plain  Broiled  Mackerel. — Moderate-sized  fish  are  the 
most  convenient  for  broiling.  Open  them  at  the  belly 
the  whole  of  their  length.  Remove  the  head  ;  you  may 
leave  the  tail — it  v/ill  make  the  dish  look  more  important. 
In  districts  where  fish  is  a  rarity,  it  is  common  to  leave 
every  fin,  even  on  fried  fish — that  is,  on  fish  truly  fried  by 
plunging  them  in  boiling  fat — for  the  sake  of  improving 
their  appearance  ;  it  makes  them  look  half  as  big  again. 
When  the  fish  is  opened,  and  laid  flat  on  its  back,  you 
may  remove  the  bone  ;  but  leaving  it  will  help  you  to 
handle  it,  and  save  all  tearing  of  the  flesh.  Dry  the 
inside  of  the  fish  with  a  napkin  ;  sprinkle  it  with  a  little 
pepper  and  salt.  Grill  the  inside  of  the  mackerel  first. 
After  turning  it,  while  the  back  of  the  fish  is  exposed  to 
the  fire,  lay  on  the  upper  surface  a  few  little  bits  of  butter. 
These  will  melt  and  enrich  the  fish  while  the  broiling  is 
being  completed.  As  soon  as  done,  serve  at  once.  No 
special  sauce  is  usually  served  with  broiled  mackerel. 
Those  who  like  it  can  add  a  few  drops  of  catchup,  or 
other  flavouring.  When  broiling  is  not  convenient, 
mackerel  so  split  open  can  be  fried.  In  that  case,  the 
tail-fin  is  best  cut  off.  The  fish  must  be  well  dried  on 
both  sides,  between  the  folds  of  a  napkin,  and  then  rubbed 
with  flour  before  frying.  Putting  butter  to  it  afterwards 
is  needless.  No  sauce  is  absolutely  required,  but  anchovy 
sauce  may  be  sent  up  with  it. 

Potted  Mackerel.— C\e.a.n  the  fish  in  the  way  directed 
for  plain  broiled  mackerel ;  cut  off  the  heads  and  tails, 
and  divide  each  fish  across  into  three  pieces,  so  as  to 
have  the  shoulders,  the  middles,  and  the  tails.  After 
washing,  let  them  drain.  Have  an  earthen  pot,  a  pate 
dish,  with  a  cover  of  the  same  material.  A  common 
glazed  deep  stoneware  pot,  with  a  wooden  cover,  will  do 
in  case  of  need.  At  the  bottom  put  a  layer  of  mackerel  ; 
season  with  salt,  ground  pepper,  whole  pepper,  bay-leaf, 
and  cloves.  Then  put  in  more  mackerel,  and  season 
again,  and  so  on,  until  all  is  in  its  place.  Over  this  pour 
a  little  more  vinegar  than  will  cover  the  mackerel.  If, 
however,  the  vinegar  be  very  acid,  or  if  it  be  desired  to 
keep  the  fish  for  any  time,  the  vinegar  must  be  diluted 
with  cyder,  water,  or  beer  ;  because,  in  either  case,  too 
strong  vinegar  would  dissolve  the  fish,  instead  of  allowing 
the  flesh  to  remain  firm,  which  it  will  do  if  the  strength 
of  the  liquid  is  nicely  adjusted,  even  after  the  back-bone 
has  become  so  soft  as  to  be  eatable.  Cover  the  dish  or 
pot  with  its  lid,  and  set  into  a  slow  oven  for  an  hour 
or  two — if  very  slow,  it  may  pass  the  night  there. 
Mackerel  so  potted,  and  closely  covered,  will  keep  good 
for  a  week  or  a  fortnight,  or  longer.  It  may  be  eaten 
with  a  little  of  its  own  liquor  poured  over  it,  to  which  a 
little  salad  oil  is  a  great  addition  when  people  are  not 
frightened  by  the  words  "  eating  oil."  With  the  accom- 
paniment of  a  well-dressed  salad,  it  makes  a  nice  cool 
supper  dish  after  a  fatiguing  evening's  work.  It  is 
economical,  because  the  mackerel  can  be  bought  when 
they  are  plentiful  and  cheap,  and  kept  in  this  way  till 
their  season  is  over.  Potted  mackerel,  too  (being  classed 
with  hors  d^oeuvres,  works  of  supererogation,  side  dishes, 
kickshaws),  may  be  presented  even  at  wealthy  tables,  as 
a  supplement  to  any  meal. 

Pickled  He7'rings,  French  Way  (excellent  cold). — 
Towards  the  end  of  the  herring  season,  the  fish  is  often 
very  cheap  ;  but  it  is  better  to  pay  a  trifle  more  before 
they  are  shotten.  Choose  herrings  which,  retaining  their 
shape,  are  plump,  and  not  too  bloodshot  about  the  eyes — 
i.e.,  which  have  not  been  crushed  together  in  large  heaps, 
either  in  the  fishing-boats,  or  in  casks,  or  baskets.  If 
many  of  the  scales  come  off,  it  is  a  sign  they  have  so 
suffered.  For  this  reason,  when  you  live  near  the  coast, 
the  fishings  of  small  boats  are  often  to  be  preferred.    The 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


87 


herring,'  is  one  of  the  fishes  which  die  almost  instantly  they 
arc  out  of  the  water.  Comparatively  few  people  have  seen  a 
live  herring.  Scale  your  herrings  ;  draw  the  entrails, 
leaving  the  milts  and  roes  in  their  place  ;  cut  off  their 
heads,  wash  them,  wipe  them  dry  with  a  cloth  ;  salt  them 
four-and-twenty  hours  in  an  earthen  vessel.  Then  put 
them  into  a  well-tinned  or  enamelled  saucepan  with  whole 
pepper,  cloves,  sliced  onions,  and  bay  leaf.  Pour  over 
the  fish  enough  vinegar  and  water  to  cover  them,  set  them 
on  a  brisk  fire,  and  let  them  boil  two  minutes.  Take 
them  off  the  fire,  and  let  them  get  nearly  cold  in  the 
saucepan  before  you  put  them  into  the  covered  dish  in 
which  they  are  to  be  kept  for  use.  Arrange  them  in  that 
with  care  not  to  break  them  ;  pour  the  liquor  over  them, 
put  on  the  lid,  and  set  them  in  a  dry  cool  place.  Sprats 
and  pilchards  may  be  pickled  in  the  same  way  ;  indeed, 
all  that  is  directed  for  herrings,  is  applicable  to  the  latter 
of  those  fishes  especially. 

Fresh  Herrings,  Broiled. — Frying  herrings  is  a  needless 
expenditure  of  fat ;  their  flesh  is  quite  oily  enough  in  itself 
to  broil  them,  and  they  will  need  no  butter  to  be  eaten 
with  them,  particularly  if  they  are  salted  for  a  night,  which 
renders  them  firmer,  and  improves  their  flavour.  Scale  the 
fish,  draw  the  entrails  without  opening  them  ;  score  them 
crosswise  on  each  side  in  two  or  three  places,  cutting  the 
flesh  down  to  the  backbone,  but  not  dividing  that.  Heat 
your  gridiron,  and  then  lay  your  fish  upon  it  over  a  clear 
fire,  into  which  (if  of  coal  cinders)  you  have  first  throv/n  a 
little  salt.  While  the  fish  arc  broiling,  raise  them  gently 
now  and  then  to  prevent  them  sticking  to  the  bars. 
When  well  done  on  one  side,  turn  them  to  the  other 
without  breaking  the  skin.  Although  they  should  not  be 
dried  up,  they  require  thorough  cooking,  especially  if  they 
have  roes  and  milts.  Serve  on  a  hot  dish,  immediately 
they  are  taken  off  the  gridiron.  They  need  no  sauce, 
but  a  little  salt  and  a  hot  mealy  potato  are  proper 
accompaniments. 

Siamese  Herrings,  Broiled  as  Tivins. — Scale  your 
herrings,  cut  off  their  heads,  open  them  at  the  belly  the 
whole  of  their  length,  from  the  tail  upwards.  Flatten 
them  ;  with  great  care,  draw  out  the  backbone,  and 
remove  any  little  bones  that  have  not  come  away  with  it. 
Sprinkle  the  inner  surface  of  each  fish  with  pepper,  salt, 
and  a  dust  of  flour.  Then  place  them  together  in  pairs, 
pressing  the  two  inner  surfaces  into  as  close  a  contact 
as  you  can.  Lay  them  on  the  gridiron  ;  when  the 
nndermost  fish  is  broiled,  turn  them  with  a  pair  of 
tongs  or  between  a  couple  of  spoons  without  separating 
them.  When  thoroughly  broiled  and  served  on  their 
dish,  each  person  can  have  a  pair  of  herrings  still  holding 
together,  as  his  rightful  portion. 

Red  Herring. — Lay  a  red  herring  in  a  deep  dish,  pour 
boiling  water  over  it,  and  let  it  lie  there  five  or  ten 
rainutes,  according  to  the  degree  of  dryness  and  saltncss. 
Take  it  out  of  the  water,  peel  off  the  skin,  open  it  at  the 
belly,  and  by  laying  hold  of  the  head,  carefully  draw  out 
the  backbone  and  every  little  bone  that  springs  from  it. 
Lay  the  herring-flesh  on  a  board,  and  cut  one-half  of  it 
into  long  narrow  strips  or  fillets,  the  whole  length  of  the 
fish,  the  other  half  into  small  squares.  Make  some 
buttered  toast ;  cut  each  round  of  toast  into  quarters.  In 
tiic  middle  of  each  quarter  lay  a  square  of  herring-flesh, 
encircling  it  with  one  of  the  narrow  strips.  This  will  give 
you  mock  anchovy  toast.  Slice  bread  and  butter  ;  lay 
squares  and  fillets  of  herring  upon  it  ;  place  another  slice 
of  bread  and  butter  over  it,  and  you  have  mock  anchovy 
sandwiches.  Put  a  few  bits  of  herring-flesh  into  a  mortar ; 
pound  them  well.  Put  them  into  a  saucepan  with  a  lump 
of  butter,  and  some  flour  and  water.  Keep  stirring  in  one 
■direction  till  they  are  mixed  thoroughly  and  smooth. 
"When  it  boils,  you  obtain  mock  anchovy  sauce,  to  be 
eaten  with  beefsteaks  or  fish.  N.B.  If  this  and  similar 
sauces  oil  in   the  making,  the   introduction  of  a  small 


quantity  of  cold  water  will  set  all  to  rights.  The  same 
pounded  herring-flesh  fnay  be  used  in  a  similar  way  to 
essence  of  anchovies,  for  heightening  the  relish  of  several 
brown  soups — hare;  soup  for  instance. 

PLAIN  SOUPS. 

Boil  some  water  in  a  saucepan,  with  a  clove  of  garlic 
chopped  small,  and  a  small  quantity  of  salt.  Cut  very 
thin  slices  of  bread  into  a  soup-tureen,  pour  over  them 
a  table-spoonful  of  good  eating  oil,  grate  a  little  nutmeg 
over  them,  and,  when  the  water  boils  galloping,  pour 
it  over  the  bread.  This,  which  is  the  genuine  Provenfal 
water  boiled,  does  not  read  like  a  very  substantial  mess  ; 
nevertheless,  a  hundred  thousand  families  in  the  south  of 
France  have  nothing  else  but  this  for  breakfast,  and  enjoy 
good  health,  notwithstanding.  You  may  make  the  same 
kind  of  thing,  only  better,  thus  :  If  you  dislike,  or  have 
not,  garlic,  chop  two  or  three  onions  into  a  saucepan  of 
new  milk,  or  skimmed  milk,  or  even  butter-milk.  Put 
slices  of  bread  and  butter  into  your  soup-tureen,  grate 
nutmeg  on  them,  and  pour  your  boiling  milk  over  them. 
Let  the  tureen  stand  to  soak  three  or  four  minutes  before 
the  fire,  before  serving.  Instead  of  buttering  the  bread, 
you  may  use  unbuttered  slices,  and,  to  make  up  for  the 
deficiency  of  oily  matter,  boil  some  finely-chopped  suet 
with  the  milk,  which  will  be  found  a  \-ery  tolerable  sub- 
stitute. 

Cabbage  Soup  (from  "  Wholesome  Fare,  or  the  Doctor 
and  the  Cook"). —  Please  try  this.  Wash  thoroughly, 
and  shred  very  fine — as  if  for  making  pickled  cabbage — 
the  hearts  of  one  or  two  summer  cabbages,  or  of  a  very 
delicate  savoy,  according  to  size.  Slice  and  mince  some 
carrots,  turnips,  and  two  or  three  leeks,  all  very  fine,  and 
mix  these  chopped  vegetables  well  together  in  a  salad- 
bowl.  Have  ready  a  good  broth  ;  pork  or  beef-boilings 
will  do,  when  not  too  salt — the  great  point  is  that  the 
meat  should  not  have  been  too  long  in  salt ;  not  more,  say, 
than  three  or  four  days — French  cooks  prefer  a  variety 
of  meats  boiled  together ;  for  instance,  a  piece  of  lean 
beef,  a  knuckle  of  veal,  a  small  piece  of  salt  pork,  and  a 
bit  of  the  neck  or  shoulder  of  mutton.  These  meats 
should  not  be  cooked  so  much  as  to  render  them  uneat- 
able, either  cold  or  warmed  up  in  a  stew,  or  even  served 
hot  at  the  same  dinner  at  which  the  soup  appears.  (Thus, 
the  beef,  served  in  the  middle  of  a  stew  made  of  sliced 
carrots,  turnips,  and  onions  fried  brown,  will  be  welcomed 
as  a  dish  of  beef  d  la  mode;  the  veal,  covered  with  a  little 
parsley  and  butter,  will  be  excellent  boiled  knuckle  of  veal ; 
the  neck  of  mutton,  masked  with  caper  or  nasturtium 
sauce,  accompanied  by  mashed  turnips,  will  give  you  the 
Welshman's  notion  of  heaven  ;  and  the  pork,  cold,  will 
be  delicious  for  breakfast,  or  to  cap  a  thumb-piece  in  the 
field.)  For  these  purposes,  they  are  invariably  used  in 
France,  instead  of  being  thrown  out  to  the  dogs,  as  broth- 
meat  too  frequently  is  in  England.  When  the  meat  is 
enough  done,  according  to  your  judgment,  take  it  out, 
make  the  broth  boil  galloping,  and  then  throw  in  your 
bowlful  of  well-drained  shred  and  chopped  vegetables. 
Let  them  boil  on,  without  the  lid,  till  the  cabbages,  &c., 
are  quite  tender,  but  not  cooked  to  a  mash.  While  the 
vegetables  are  boiling,  slice  and  chop  one  or  two  large 
onions  ;  fry  them,  in  butter  or  dripping,  to  a  rich  brown. 
If  more  convenient,  they  may  be  prepared  beforehand, 
and  set  by,  cold,  till  wanted.  Add  them  to  the  soup,  and 
mix  them  up  with  it. 

Meagre  Cabbage  Sotif-  for  abstinence  days,  is  made  in 
the  same  way  as  above,  using  water  instead  of  broth,  and 
often  adding  to  the  cabbage  a  large  handful  of  chopped 
sorrel— an  excellent  anti-scorbutic  and  purifier  of  the 
blood.  A  larger  quantity  of  fried  onions  i?  used,  and.  at 
the  time  of  adding  them  to  the  soup,  a  small  basinful  of 
grated  crumb  of  bread  is  also  incorporated  with  it,  to 
make  it  more  nourishing. 


THE    REARING   AND    MANAGEMENT   OF   CHILDREN. 


THE   REARING   AND    MANAGEMENT   OF 
CHILDREN. 

II. — CLOTHING   FOR  INFANTS   {coiltimicd). 

The  fashions  change  in  regard  to  babies'  clothing  as 
well  as  in  the  toilettes  of  the  more  mature,  but  usually 
less  often  and  less  conspicuously.  The  greatest  altera- 
tion that  has  been  made  for  some  time  is  a  very  sensible 
one,  and  affects  the  length  of  the  little  ones'  toilettes. 
Robes  that  once  reached  absurd  proportions  are  curtailed 
to  the  length  of  a  yard  ;  nothing  is  to  exceed  this  ;  the 
yard  may  even  include  the  bodice.  Of  course,  the  petti- 
coats and  flannels  are  all  shorter  in  proportion.  In  our 
last  number  we  promised  another  description  for  a 
chemise  and  a 
flannel.  The 
chemise  we  now 
describe  is  cut 
precisely  like  the 
first,  but  sleeves 
are  added.  In- 
stead of  hemming 
round  the  open 
sleeve  edge,  as 
before  described, 
the  little  sleeves 
are  added  in,  and 
help  the  better  to 
cover  the  baby's 
anns.  For  the 
sleeve,  cut  a  piece 
of  the  cambric 
four  inches  wide 
and  eight  inches 
and  a  quarter 
long.  Hem  it 
along  the  upper 
edge,  then  unite. 
Unite  the  edge  A 
B  to  the  edge  C  D, 
Fig.  24,  in  a  kind 
of  loop,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  18.  When 
laid  down  flat  on 
the  table  the  loop 
takes  the  form  of 
Fig.  19.  E  is  run 
and  felled  into  the 
chemise.  F  is  the 
outer  edge  of  the 
sleeve  already 
hemmed.     Two 

ii-  r  i'lg.  21. 

Other   ways    01 
making      sleeves 

are  shown  by  Fig.  16.  The  first,  a  finely-drawn  piece 
with  a  gusset ;  the  second,  as  a  frill  drawn  at  one  end 
only  ;  both  are  edged  with  lace.  Another  way  of  making 
the  baby's  flannel  is  shown  in  Fig.  23,  which  represents 
the  back  of  the  little  garment,  and  Fig.  21,  which  displays 
the  front.  The  back  has  either  three  or  four  box-plaits 
in  one  with  the  back  breadth  of  the  skirt.  The  front  of 
the  bodice  is  made  of  two  plain  pieces  wide  enough  to 
wrap  over  one  another,  and  joined  by  a  band  (which  also 
goes  over  the  plaits  behind)  to  the  skirt  in  front,  which 
Avraps  over  and  ties  on  one  side.  The  dotted  line  L  shows 
how  far  the  body  of  the  flannel  folds  over  on  the  under 
side.  M  shows  where  the  under  skirt  ends,  and  is  but- 
toned to  the  upper  one.  The  third  way  of  making  a 
flannel,  very  suitable  for  summer,  is  given  in  Fig.  28.  A 
strip  of  flannel  six  inches  deep  and  fourteen  inches  long, 
from  G  to  G,  is  cut  away  to  points  each  side,  H  and  H. 
This  is  bound  all  round.     The  skirt  is  plaited  and  set  on 


1  A  \ 

:\\\ 

-  ?  f 

THEECHQ 
C^  V    ^^ 

THEECm 

THEECHO 
\    i  - 

from  I  to  I.  There  are  semicircles  for  armholes  cut  and 
tape  straps  added  at  K  and  K.  The  dotted  lines  show  the 
portions  meant  for  the  back,  and  to  wrap  over  in  front. 
The  points  are  folded  round  the  bab/s  body,  and  tied  by 
strings  sewn  on  at  H  and  H.  Another  necessary  item  will 
be  twelve  yards  of  good  linen  diaper,  a  yard  wide.  It  will 
cost  about  one  shilling  and  sixpence  a  yard.  Cut  twelve 
squares  from  this,  hem  them  round,  and  fold  four  times. 
For  a  pilch  to  wear  over  the  squares,  take  a  square  of 
flannel,  fold  it  shawl-shape,  and  cut  it  in  half.  Take  off 
the  two  shawl  ends,  marked  by  the  dotted  lines  N  and  N 
in  Fig.  22,  and  gather  it  into  a  band,  as  in  Fig.  17,  about 
fifteen  inches  long.  Button  it  at  R  and  R,  and  add  a  loop- 
at  O  also  to  fasten  on  to  the  buttons  at  R. 

The  House  Cloak  or  Flannel  Wi-apper. — A  yard  of  flan- 
nel twenty-seven 
or  twenty  -  eight 
inches  wide  will 
be  required.  This 
must  be  shaped 
to  an  exact  square 
of  twenty  -  eight 
inches.  To  cut 
a  square  of  any- 
thing always  fold 
your  material 
across,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  13,  bring- 
ing the  material 
where  it  is  cut 
across  equally  to 
the  selvage  at  B. 
The  fold  comes 
at  the  dotted  line 
C  c,  and  when 
folded  the  mate- 
rial resembles 
Fig.  15.  Cut  it  off 
at  the  dotted  line 
D  D  D,  you  then 
have  a  square 
exact.  To  cut  the 
baby's  wra-pper, 
keep  your  square 
folded,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  15,  and 
cut  it  out  as 
shown  in  the 
plain  line  in  Fig. 
30,  the  dotted  line 
indicating  the 
folded  square.  TO' 
ornament  the 
flannel,  work  it  all 
round  the  edge  in 
scallops  with  blue  or  scarlet  crochet  silk,  and  work  a  dot 
in  every  scallop.  To  scallop  the  edge  cut  a  card  out,  like 
Fig.  31,  cutting  holes  for  the  rounds.  This  can  be  done 
by  tracing  the  outline  on  the  card  first.  Then  with  a  red 
chalk  pencil  mark  the  scallops  and  holes  all  along  the 
edge  of  the  flannel.  Run  them  over  with  cotton,  after- 
wards button-hole  the  edge  in  silk,  and  work  the  large 
dots  in  satin  stitch.  On  the  wrong  side  of  the  flannel 
square,  at  the  dotted  line  marked  S,  in  Fig.  30,  put  on  a 
ribbon  case,  and  run  in  a  string  to  draw  the  hood  round 
the  baby's  neck.  This  flannel  square  is  worn  over  the 
dress  in  the  house  during  the  month  ;  and  afterwards 
when  the  child  is  carried  from  room  to  room.  In  an- 
other number  we  shall  describe  some  babies'  frocks  and 
petticoats. 

77^1?  Baby's  Cloak. — It  has  been  very  usual  lately,  and' 
more  fashionable,  to  drape  a  baby  in  a  simple  deep  cir- 
cular cape  out  of  doors,  in  preference  to  the  old  cloak 


^ 


C    D 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


89 


with  its  cape.  There  is  no  essential  difference  in  the 
pattern  needed.  The  cape  is  merely  a  cloak  without  its 
second  cape,  and  with  the  trimming  differently  arranged. 
If  a  young  mother  has  not  a  pattern  for  the  purpose  she 
can  easily  make  one  herself.  In  the  first 
place,  let  her  take  one  or  two  old  news- 
papers— we  will  suppose  she  takes  The 
Echo — and  tack  three  of  them  together 
neatly  with  needle  and  thread,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  20.  The  centre  of  these  united  papers 
must  be  ascertained  by  doubling  them. 
Then  spread  them  out  upon  a  table  that 
has  a  cloth  upon  it.  Pin  the  end  of  a  yard 
measure  securely  to  the  centre,  through  the 
cloth  at  the  top  of  the  paper.  Then  take 
hold  of  it  where  the 
figure  thirty-six 
inches  denotes  the 
yard,  and  move  it 
from  end  to  end  of 
the  paper,  holding 
a  pencil  in  the  same 
hand  to  mark  its 
movements.  The 
yard  measure  is 
pinned  at  A  in  Fig. 
29,  and  moves  from 
B  to  G  at  the  other 
end,  the  thirty-six 
inches,  or  yard,  marked  on 
the  tape,  and  then  again  from 
V,  to  G.  The  line  in  the 
centre,  it  will  be  observed, 
is  exactly  straight,  being 
rendered  so  by  folding  the 
paper  after  the  circular  line 
IS  made.  Having  marked 
the  half  circle  thus  de- 
scribed with  a  pencil, 
allow  it  at  the  line 
C  and  G,  each  side  of 
the  centre  P.,  five 
inches  shorter,accord- 
ing  to  the 
dotted  line 
D  D.  Pencil 
this  nicely  off 
as  shown  in 
the  illustra- 
tion. Now  cut 
out  the  pat- 
tern with 
scissors ;  fold 
it  together, 
and  give  the 
comers     the 

little  slope  or  cur\-c  marked 
at  E  and  E. 

When  a  cloak  is  to  be 
made  it  is  cut  just  the 
same,  but  a  cape  is  formed 
two-thirds  of  the  size,  at  the 
dotted  line  marked  F,  and 
1  collar  at  that  marked  A. 

or  a  baby's  circular  cape 
-:  collar  is  added,  but  the 
trimming  is  put  on  the  neck  like  a  collar,  and  of  the  same 
shape.  Either  cloak  should  measure  in  the  longest  part, 
that  is,  from  the  neck  to  the  edge  in  the  centre  of  the  back, 
not  more  than  one  yard  ;  a  circularcape  rather  less.  Having 
obtained  an  accurate  pattern  it  is  easy  to  cut  the  material. 
Two  yards  of  cashmere  at  3s.  6d.  -ox  4s.  a  yard  is  required. 
White  is  the  most  esteemed,  and  scarlet  the  most  durable 


T\z.  2G. 


Fij.  =7. 


of  colours.  Cashmere  washes  well,  and  dyes  equal  to 
new.  A  very  pretty  circular  cape  can  be  made  of  whit* 
cashmere,  trimmed  with  bright,  light  blue  llama.  A  design 
for  this  is  given  in  Fig.  26.  The  llama  is  put  on  broadly; 
it  must  be  cut  to  the  curved  shape  of  the 
cloak,  and  joined  in  breadths  ;  it  encircles 
the  lower  edge,  and  is  rounded  off  towards 
the  front.  Up  the  front  several  handsome 
blue  ribbon  bows  are  sewn  on,  and  the 
cloak  secured  beneath  them  by  hooks  and 
eyes.  The  llama  should  be  tacked  on  flat 
after  the  breadths  are  joined,  and  very 
fine  cotton  should  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose. Turn  in  the  upper  edge,  and  sew  it 
down  with  a  narrow  white  silk  braid.  A 
handsome  cloak 
may  be  lined 
throughout  with 
white  sarcenet ;  but 
it  is  very  general, 
and  far  less  costly, 
to  use  fine  white 
cambric  for  the 
purpose.  Having 
tacked  on  the  blue 
trimming,  and 
neatly  run  it  into  the 
braid  at  the  edge, 
put  the  lining  upon 
the  cloak  face  to  face,  and 
tack  it  round,  leaving  the 
outside  of  both  visible. 
Run  it  nicely  together  at 
the  edge,  and  then  turn  it 
inside  out,  so  that  the  right 
side  of  the  cloak  is  out- 
wards. A  trimming,  like  a 
collar,  of  the  blue  has,  of 
course,  been  placed 
on  the  cape  as  well  as 
/  the  broad  edge.  Add 
\  the    bows,    and    the 

\         cloak  is  complete.    It 
\  is  very   easy 

\  and  ver}-  sim- 

\^  pie  to  make. 

\  The     trim- 

\  ming  may  be 

\  ofsilkinstead 

\  of  llama,  and 

X  quilted    in- 

\  stead       of 

\  plain  ;      no 

\  braid  is  then 

^^'>^::tr — ^»         needed. 

^---\  In  cutting- 

the  newspaper  pattern,  we 
should  call  the  reader's 
attention  to  the  fact  that 
must  be  doubled  after 
cutting  to  see  that  both 
sides  are  alike.  Indeed, 
it  will  be  as  well  to  cut  it 
in  half  from  A  to  B  at 
the  dotted  line  down  the 
^''  centre.     The    cashmere   is 

cut  in  two  pieces,  the  seam  coming  down  the  back  of  the 
cloak,  unless  it  is  wide  enough  to  get  the  whole  cloak 
without  a  seam.  Pin  the  pattern  thoroughly  on  the 
material  ;  double,  before  cutting. 

To  make  a  cloak,  as  before  named,  the  same  directions 
must  be  followed,  and  the  cape  and  collar  cut  on  a  similar 
plan,  bnt  smaller.     The  cloak  is  trimmed  down  the  front, 


90 


INMATES   OF   THE    HOUSE— LEGAL. 


as  shown  in  Fig.  25,  the  trimming  becoming  wider,  and 
rounded  off  at  the  end.  The  cape  is  ornamented  all 
round,  and  so  is  the  collar.  The  cloak  may  be  of  white, 
grey,  scarlet,  crimson,  or  blue  cashmere,  and  the  trimming 
of  sarcenet,  either  white,  or  of  the  same  colour  as  the 
cloak,  lined  with  a  little  wadding,  and  quilted.  The 
wadding  is  tacked  to  the  silk,  and  the  quilting  done,  the 
silk  being  shaped  and  the  breadths  joined  before  it  is 
applied  to  the  cloak.  In  using  a  sewing-machine  keep 
the  wadding  uppermost. 

Fig.  27  offers  a  pretty  design  for  a  baby's  cloak ;  the 
-edges  scalloped  and  pointed,  and  trimmed  with  a  small 
tassel  at  every  point. 

It  is  decidedly  best  to  buy  the  baby's  hood.  The  cap 
-worn  under  the  hood  is  a  caul  with  a  full  lace  edge.  The 
lace  must  be  removed  to  wash  it,  and  requilled  each  time. 
A  boy's  hood  is  distinguished  from  a  girl's  by  a  rosette. 
A  hood,  as  soft, as  possible,  is  a  better  covering  for  a  baby 
than  any  fancy  kind  of  hat,  however  pretty  it  may  look. 
The  stiffness  of  a  hat  is  unsuited  to  the  tender  softness  of 
a  baby's  head  ;  neither  is  it  any  protection  to  the  child. 
Caps  are  only  worn  under  hoods,  and  not  indoors. 

In  Fig.  26,  under  the  cloak,  a  pretty  design  is  given  for 
a  handsome  frock.  It  is  made  with  two  flounces  and 
work  between ;  one  row  over  the  first  flounce  and  two 
over  the  second.  The  flounces  may  be  worked,  or  of 
plain  fine  muslin  edged  with  work  or  lace.  Fig.  14  is  a 
design  for  a  body  to  wear  wuth  this  skirt.  The  braces 
match  the  flounces.  The  stomacher  is  embroidered  :  and 
60WS  tie  the  shoulders. 


INMATES  OF  THE  HOUSE— LEGAL. 

III. — LAW  OF  WILL-MAKING. 

Wkaf  is  a  Will? — A  will  or  testament  is  the  legal  expres- 
■sion  of  a  man's  wishes  in  respect  of  matters  that  he  desires 
to  have  attended  to  after  his  death.  If  the  dispositions  to 
be  made  by  a  will  are  very  complicated  or  numerous,  the 
wisest  plan  is  to  have  the  will  drawn  by  a  lawyer,  whose 
charges  it  is  far  better  to  incur  than  to  run  the  chance  of 
the  will  being  disputed  or  set  aside  after  the  testator's 
death.  But  in  cases  of  simple  bequest,  whether  of  land 
or  movable  goods,  and  even  in  difficult  cases  if  the  testator 
is  quite  sure  he  can  express  his  meaning  simply  and  clearly, 
there  is  not  any  need  for  the  intervention  of  a  lawyer. 
Sudden  necessity,  remoteness  from  professional  help, 
desire  to  keep  within  one  breast  the  particulars  as  to  pro- 
perty and  to  bequests — these  and  other  causes  might  render 
it  desirable  that  one  should  know  how  to  make  a  will  for 
•oneself. 

How  to  Make  a  Will. — There  is  not  any  prescribed 
form  in  which  a  will  must  necessarily  be  made,  and  when 
an  unprofessional  person  is  going  to  make  a  will  he  must 
carefully  get  rid  of  the  idea  that  any  form  is  possible.  Let 
him  write  his  wishes  down  as  simply  and  easily  as  if  he 
■were  writing  a  note,  avoiding  the  use  of  all  technical  ex- 
pressions, and  aiming  only  at  making  himself  intelligible. 
Many  persons  have  frustrated  their  own  intentions  by  in- 
troducing into  wills  made  by  themselves  technical  terms 
of  the  exact  meaning  of  which  they  were  ignorant,  and 
which  had  to  be  construed  according  to  the  technical  sig- 
nification. Formerly  it  was  of  the  highest  importance 
that  wills  should  be  so  worded  that  no  other  meaning 
than  that  intended  should  by  any  possibility  be  placed 
upon  them.  Then  it  was  almost  indispensable  that  the 
services  of  a  lawyer  should  be  retained.  Now,  however, 
a  will  is  construed  according  to  the  evident  intention  of 
the  testator,  however  badly  he  may  have  expressed  him- 
self, so  that  the  simpler  the  wording  of  the  document  the 
better.  The  whole  law  of  wills  was  remodelled  on  this 
principle  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  her  present 
Majesty.     The  only  conditions  imposed  upon,  testators  are 


conditions  which  are  meant  solely  to  guard  them  against 
the  mischief  of  fraud,  and  to  prevent  their  being  subjected 
to  undue  influence  in  the  making  of  wills.     They  are  : — 

1.  The  testator  must  be  of  sound  mind,  and  not  less  than 

twenty-one  years  of  age. 

2.  His  will  must  be  written,  the  only  exceptions  to  this 

rule  being  soldiers  and  sailors,  who  may,  in  conside- 
ration of  the  service  in  which  they  are  engaged,  make 
verbal  assignments  of  their  property. 

3.  The  will  must  be  signed  by  the  testator,  or  some  one 

acting  for  him  at  his  request,  in  the  presence  of  two 
witnesses,  both  present  at  the  time,  who  must  also 
attest  the  testator's  signature. 

The  testator's  signature  must  be  placed  at  the  end,  or 
at  the  side  of  the  will,  or,  indeed,  in  any  place  where  it 
will  be  apparent  on  the  face  of  tl\e  will  that  the  signature 
was  intended  to  give  eftect  to  trfb  writing  signed  as  his 
will.  The  signature  will  not  give  effect  to  any  bequests 
■underneath  or  following  it,  or  inserted  after  the  sigttature 
is  made.  These  are  the  only  essential  conditions.  With 
regard  to  the  last  it  is  sufficient  if  the  signature  is  made 
under  the  required  circumstances,  which  can  be  sworn  to 
by  the  witnesses,  but  it  is  better  to  have  a  memorandum 
to  the  effect  that  the  conditions  have  been  complied  with. 
Such  a  memorandum  saves  much  trouble.  The  usual 
form  of  it  runs  thus  : — 


Signed  by  the  testator,  John  Hopkins, 
and  acknowledged  by  him  to  be  his 
last  will  and  testament,  in  the  presence 
of  us  present  at  the  same  time,  and 
subscribed  by  us  in  the  presence  of 
the  said  testator  and  of  each  other. 


Who  may  Make  a  Will. — Any  man  or  unmarried  woman 
of  sound  mind,  and  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  and 
upwards,  may  make  a  will.  Ordinarily,  married  women 
cannot  make  wills,  because  they  have  not  anything  to' 
bequeath,  their  property,  by  a  rule  of  law,  becoming  the 
property  of  the  husband  on  marriage.  Where,  however, 
a  woman  has  property  settled  upon  her  for  her  own  use 
and  benefit,  with  power  to  dispose  of  it  by  will,  she  may 
dispose  of  the  same  by  will  made  in  the  same  way  as  any 
other  will. 

Witnesses  to  a  Will. — Any  one  capable  of  understand- 
ing what  he  is  about,  and  able  to  write  his  name,  may 
witness  the  signature  of  a  testator  ;  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  a  witness  canitot  receive  any  benefit  itnder  the 
will.  Should  a  bequest  have  been  made  to  him  it  is 
taken  away  by  the  mere  fact  of  his  being  a  witness,  and 
the  portion  he  would  have  taken  goes  to  the  residuary 
legatee.  If,  therefore,  it  be  intended  to  give  anything,  let 
it  not  be  to  him  who  is  to  witness  the  signature.  An 
executor  or  trustee  may  be  a  witness,  subject  to  the  above 
rule  about  bequests.  The  witnesses  may  be  as  many 
more  than  two  as  the  fancy  suggests,  but  two  there  must 
be.  They  must  both,  and  at  the  same  time,  see  the  testa- 
tor sign  the  will ;  and  they  must,  unless  there  be  good 
reason  why  not,  sign  a  memorandum  to  the  effect  that 
they  have  done  so.  There  is  not  any  precise  clause  of 
attestation,  but  it  will  be  as  well  to  use  that  already  given. 

Unwritten  Wills. — The  only  persons  who  are  allowed 
to  make  wills  orally  are  soldiers  actually  engaged  on  some 
expedition,  or  sailors  actually  at  sea.  To  them  it  is  per- 
mitted to  make  wills  orally  in  consideration  of  their  being,^ 
by  the  nature  of  their  calling,  constantly  in  the  face  of 
death,  which  may  surprise  them  at  any  moment.  So  far 
as  sailors,  however,  are  concerned,  there  is  a  rule  of  the 
Admiralty  that  any  will  disposing  of  pay,  prize  money,  or 
anything  else  which  would  have  to  pass  through  the 
Admiralty  Office,  shall  be  reduced  to  writing,  either  by 
the  testator,  or  some  one  writing  at  his  request. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


91 


What  may  be  Bequeathed  by  Will.  —  Anything  and 
everything  that  a  man  possesses  or  is  entitled  to  may  be 
bequeathed  by  will.  Formerly  this  was  not  so.  It  was  a 
rule  of  law,  founded  on  the  Roman  code,  that  a  man 
could  not  leave  the  whole  of  his  property  away  from  his 
family.  The  Roman  law  obliged  him  to  leave  a  fourth, 
at  least,  to  those  who  were  naturally  dependent  upon  him, 
and  the  English  law  gave  to  the  children  of  a  testator  their 
■"  reasonable  part,"  which  was  calculated  with  reference 
to  the  man's  position  in  the  world.  Now,  however,  a 
man  may  do  just  what  he  likes  with  land  or  money,  with 
this  one  restriction— he  may  not  bequeath  land,  or  money 
to  be  spent  in  buying  land,  to  any  religious  or  charitable 
institution.  If  he  do,  the  dead  hand  (or  mortmain)  shall 
recover  the  bequest  for  his  family.  The  object  of  these 
restrictions  is  to  prevent  people  from  making  death-bed 
dispositions,  perhaps  under  undue  influence,  in  favour  of 
charities  to  the  disherison  of  their  lawful  heirs.  A  gift 
of  land  to  a  charity  must  be  preceded  by  a  licence  from 
the  CroAvn  authorising  the  gift,  and  must  be  by  deed 
executed  in  the  presence  of  two  witnesses  twelve  calen- 
dar months  before  the  death  of  the  donor,  and  enrolled 
in  the  Court  of  Chancery  six  months  after  its  execution. 
Money,  however,  may  be  left  to  a  charity  or  a  religious 
institution  so  long  as  it  is  not  directed  to  be  spent  in  the 
purchase  of  land. 

Codicils,  or  "  little  writings,"  are  the  expressions  of  a 
man's  wishes  conceived  after  his  will  is  complete.  By 
their  means  he  can  revoke  the  whole  or  part  of  his  will, 
make  fresh  dispositions,  or  re-arrange  the  dispositions 
already  made.  They  are  made  in  exactly  the  same  way, 
and  under  the  same  conditions,  as  wills,  but  instead  of 
being  described  as  "  the  last  will  and  testament,"  they  are 
called  "  codicil "  or  "  codicils  "  to  "  the  last  will  and  testa- 
ment." 

Re^iocation  ajid  Nullification  of  Will. — A  will  is  con- 
sidered to  be  revoked  by  another  subsequently  dated,  and 
is  of  course  so  by  any  codicil,  memorandum,  or  writing 
made  as  and  for  a  fresh  will,  in  which  the  former  will  is 
expressly  declared  to  be  revoked.  The  only  act  by  which, 
ipso  fiicto,  a  will  is  nullified,  except  as  above,  is  by  the 
marriage  of  the  testator.  Formerly  a  number  of  events, 
as  the  birth  of  a  child,  an  alteration  in  the  condition  of  a 
man's  estate,  nullified  a  will ;  marriage  is  now  the  only 
revoker. 

Probate  of  a  Will. — When  the  will-maker  is  dead  his 
executors,  if  they  mean  to  act,  should  prove  the  will ;  to  do 
this,  they  must  make  an  inventory  of  all  the  property  of 
the  deceased,  and  have  it  valued.  Knowing  the  total 
amount  of  the  property,  they  should  go  to  the  registrar  of 
the  Probate  Court  (local  registries  exist  all  over  the  king- 
dom'), before  whom  they  must  swear  to  their  belief  in  the 
signature  to  the  will  being  the  signature  of  the  testator, 
and  that  the  amount  of  the  property  does  not  exceed  the 
sum  estimated.  If  the  will  be  not  disputed  this  is  suffi- 
cient proof,  the  will  is  given  up  to  the  Court  of  Probate, 
and  an  official  copy  is  made  of  it,  which  is  delivered  to 
the  executors,  and  is  called  the  probate  copy.  This  is  the 
warrant  for  the  executors  to  act  in  the  administration  of 
the  estate.  Probate  duty,  which  varies  according  to  the 
amount  of  the  property,  is  charged  and  paid  before  the 
delivery  of  the  probate  copy.  If  the  Avill  be  disputed  it 
must  be  proved  in  solejnn  form  j  the  witnesses  to  the  will, 
and  any  other  witnesses  whom  it  may  be  thought  neces- 
sary to  summon,  are  examined  and  cross-examined  in  the 
Court  of  Probate,  and  the  will  is  admitted  to  proof  or  not, 
according  to  what  may  appear.  A  will  once  proved  in 
solemn  form  cannot  be  disputed  afterwards  ;  the  executors 
to  a  will  proved  only  in  common  form  are  liable  to  be 
called  upon  at  any  time  within  thirty  years  to  prove  it  in 
solemn  form. 

Executors  and  Trustees. — The  persons  appointed  by  a 
testator  to  be  his  executors,  or  to  be  trustees  in  any  trust 


provided  for  in  his  will,  may,  if  they  choose,  renounce  the 
office,  either  at  the  time  of  their  appointment  becoming 
known,  or  afterwards.  In  such  cases  the  Court  of 
Chancery,  administering  the  prerogative  of  the  Crown  as 
father  of  the  country,  takes  the  vacated  places,  and  the 
will  is  administered  by  the  officers  of  the  Court.  If  the 
executors  accept  office,  they  arc  to  all  purposes  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  deceased  testator.  They  may  even  before 
receiving  probate  do  all  necessary  offices  for  the  deceased  ; 
thus  they  may  incur  charges  for  burying  him,  and  for 
supplying  the  immediate  wants  of  his  family  ;  they  may 
seal  up  his  papers  and  take  possession  of  all  his  goods,  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  them.  Having  received  probate, 
they  may  do  all  things  that  their  testator  might  himself 
have  done  ;  they  may  bring  actions  to  recover  debts  due 
to  him,  and  they  are  the  proper  defendants  in  actions  for 
debts,  &c.,  due  from  him.  It  is  their  duty,  within  a 
reasonable  time,  to  get  in  the  whole  of  his  estate,  and  to 
pay,  -ist^  the  reasonable  funeral  expenses,  and  the  cost 
of  proving  the  will;  2nd,  debts  due  to  the  Crowa  for 
taxes,  &c. ;  3rd,  debts  due  on  judgments  obtained  at  law, 
or  on  decrees  made  by  the  Court  of  Chancery,  and  debts 
due  on  recognisances  ;  4th,  debts  on  bonds,  covenants, 
and  the  like,  not  under  seal,  and  debts  for  rent  of  any 
kind  ;  5th,  simple  contract  debts,  that  is  to  say,  debts  on 
contracts  written  but  not  sealed,  and  debts  incurred  with- 
out any  writing  to  prove  them,  as  tradesmen's  bills,  or 
wages  ;  6th,  the  legacies ;  7th,  the  residuary  legatee. 
An  executor  is  bound  to  pay  away  the  estate  in  the 
order  mentioned.  If  there  should  not  be  enough  to  pay 
all,  he  must  pay  the  higher  classes  of  claimants  as  far  as 
the  money  will  go,  leaving  the  rest ;  and  he  is  personally 
resp07isible  to  a  higher  class  creditor  if  he  has  paid,  through 
neglect  or  inadvertence,  a  creditor  of  the  lower  class,  and 
have  not  money  left  to  pay  the  higher  claim.  If  he  have 
comfklied  with  these  conditions  in  administering  the  estate, 
he  is  protected  against  all  the  world  on  proving  his  plea 
of  plene  administravit.  It  is  competent  for  an  executor 
to  renounce  after  he  has  begun  to  administer.  In  that 
case  he  must  account  for  what  he  has  done  so  far  to  the 
Chancer)'  Court,  which  will  then  take  over  the  charge 
for  him. 

Intestacy — Aaministration. — A  man  dying  without  a 
will  is  said  to  be  intestate.  In  such  case,  and  in  the  case 
of  a  will  being  set  aside  as  having  been  made  when  the 
testator  was  insane,  or  under  undue  influence,  the  Court 
of  Probate  will  grant  power  to  the  widow,  or  the  next  of 
kin,  to  administer  the  estate,  according  to  certain  known 
rules  of  law.  The  court  must  be  satisfied  as  to  who  is 
next  of  kin,  and  also  as  to  the  amount  of  the  intestate's 
property,  then  it  will  on  application  grant  letters  of 
administration.  Landed  property  will  go  to  the  heir- 
at-law,  and  personal  property  will  be  divided  accord- 
ing to  directions  laid  down  in  an  Act  of  Parliament 
called  the  Statute  of  Distributions.  Where  a  widow  and 
children  are  left,  one-third  of  the  personal  property 
goes  to  the  widow,  and  two-thirds  go  to  the  children  ; 
where  there  is  a  widow  and  no  children,  half  goes  to 
the  former,  and  half  to  the  next  of  kin  ;  where  neither 
widow  nor  children,  the  whole  goes  to  the  heirs  of  the 
intestate's  father,  who  divide  it  equally,  females  as  well 
as  males.  In  dividing  personal  property  the  law  makes 
no  distinction  of  sex,  but  gives  to  all  equal  shares.  Where 
a  man  dies  intestate,  and  no  claimant  at  all  appears, 
the  Crown,  as  the  ideal  owner  of  everything  in  the 
kingdom,  or  belonging  to  any  subject  of  the  same, 
puts  in  its  claim,  and  takes  the  whole  of  the  property. 
Where  a  person  dies  under  circumstances  that  cause 
his  property  to  be  forfeited,  as  when  he  dies  by  the 
hand  of  the  law,  for  treason  or  murder,  any  will  he  may 
have  made  is  void,  and  the  Crown  takes  his  goods.  On 
petition,  however,  the  family  of  such  a  man  are  allowed 
the  property. 


92 


HOUSEHOLD     DECORATIVE     ART. 


HOUSEHOLD   DECORATIVE  ART. 

II. — DIAPHANIE. 

DiAPHANiE  is  the  art  of  imitating  the  most  beautiful  and 
costly  stained  glass  by  the  inexpensive  and  exceedingly 
simple  process  of  transferring 
a  species  of  chromo-litho- 
graph  in  transparent  colours 
to  the  surface  of  an  ordinary 
pane  of  glass,  and  may  be 
used  not  only  as  an  embel- 
lishment, but  as  a  method  of 
shutting  out,  and  hiding  an 
unsightly  view,  such  as  black 
walls,  chimneys,  &c.,  so  fre- 
quently eye-sores  in  a  town 
residence. 

The  art  wasiirst  practisedin 
France  ;  the  original  method 
consisting  in  printing  the  sub- 
ject in    colours  upon  tissue- 
paper,  which  paper  was  per- 
manently fixed  upon  the  glass, 
by  which  means  the  light  was 
intercepted,  and  the  brilliancy 
and  transparency  of  the  co- 
louring destroyed.     This  sys- 
tem has  been  im- 
proved upon,  and 
by   the    method 
now     practised, 
the  colours  them- 
selves are  trans- 
ferred to  the  sur- 
face of  the  glass, 
while  the  paper 
is  removed,  leav- 
ing a  most  per- 
fect imitation  of 
stained  glass, 
upon       which 
neither  the  vio- 
lence of  the  sum- 
mer sun  nor  win- 
ter frost  has  any 
effect.  Nor  is  the 
art  applicable 
only  to  windows; 
it  may  be  used  to 
ornament      fire- 
screens,    lamp- 
shades,  Chinese 
lanterns,    and 
fancy  panes  in   conservatories, 
and  is  in  fact  available  for  every 
purpose  in  which  the  combina- 
tion of  transparency  and  orna- 
ment enter.     The  designs  used 
for  diaphanie  are  produced  by 
a  new  process    of  lithography, 
and  are  mostly  copies  from  well- 
known   and  valuable   subjects  ; 
these  you   purchase   in   sheets, 
and  arrange  at  pleasure,  taking 
care,  however,   not   to   mix   up 
designs  belonging    to    different 
periods.     Numbers  of  beautiful 
designs  are  sold  at  all  the  paint 
and  oil  warehouses,  where  there 


1 

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^^^^^^ 

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Fig. 


is  always  to  be  found  an  extensive  choice  of  subjects, 
sacred,  mediaeval,  and  picturesque,  according  to  the 
device  and  subject  required.  The  simplest  plan  of  pro- 
ceeding is  to  have  a  pane  of  glass  to  work  upon,  the  exact 


size  of  that  in  your  window  ;  this,  with  the  design,  a  few 
sheets  of  lead-foil,  a  bottle  of  each  transferring  varnish, 
clearing  liquid,  washable  varnish,  a  roller,  and  a  flat 
brush,  is  all  that  is  required.* 

In  the  first  place,  the  artist  must  be  very  sure  that  the 
pane  of  glass  is  free  from 
imperfections,  such  as  specks 
and  bubbles,  and  scrupu- 
lously cleansed ;  of  course, 
if  it  be  already  fixed  in 
window  frames,  you  must 
take  it  as  you  find  it. 

Being  assured  the  glass  is 
all  right,  lay  it  flat  upon   a 
folded  cloth  ;  then  trace  the 
outline   with   a  pencil  line  ; 
those    portions     where    the 
border  ground-work  and  sub- 
ject join  to  serve  as  a  guide 
for  the  laying  on  the  lead-foil 
and  the  designs  which  should 
have    previously    been    cut 
out.      The    lead-foil    should 
be  cut  into  ^strips  the  width 
of   one-eighth    of   an    inch, 
though  they  may  be  a  little 
wider    or   narrower,  accord- 
ing to  the   size 
of    the    window 
you     desire     to 
decorate,    or   to 
the  taste  of  the 
operator.      The 
lead -foil     is    to 
give  the  effect  of 
the  white   glass 
which  forms  the 
borders  of  most 
coloured     glass 
windows,  and 
when  put  on  the 
glass     it     looks 
quite      trans- 
parent. 

In  making  the 
pattern,  the  de- 
signs may  be  cut 
out  and  arranged 
to  show  the  ef- 
fect of  the  com- 
position.     Next 
lay    the   glass 
upon     the    pat- 
tern' according  to   the   method 
shown   in   Fig.  i,  and    cement 
upon    it   the   tin-foil  previously 
cut  in  strips  to  the  proper  width; 
gum   is   found   to   be    the  best 
cement    for  laying  on   the  tin- 
foil.      For    circles    and    other 
shapes    the    straight    strips    of 
foil   are    cemented,    and    when 
nearly  dry,    stretched  with  the 
fingers  of  one  hand,  and  pressed 
down    with   the  thumb   of   the 
other.      No   attention  need  be 
shown  to  the  creases  which  may 
come  in  the  foil,  as  the  smooth 
handle    of    a    knife    or    paper 
cutter,  slightly  wetted  and  rubbed  over  them,  flattens  and 

•  Rollers  of  the  best  description,  as.  6a.  ,  transferring  varnish  (per  bottle), 
IS.  nnd  IS.  6d.  ;  clearing  liquid  (per  bottle},  is.  6d.;  washable  varnish  (per 
bottle),  IS.;  brush,  2d. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


93 


makes  the  foil  flat  and  even.  Having  arranged  and 
allowed  the  foil  to  be  firmly  fixed,  you  can  proceed  with 
the  laying  on  of  the  designs,  which  should  be  a  little 
larger  than  the  foiled  spaces  made  ready  for  their  recep- 
tion, so  that  the  foil  may  overlap  the  edges.  We  cannot 
enjoin  on  the  beginner  too  much  neatness  and  care  in  this 
operation. 

In  laying  on  the  designs;  the  uncolourcd  part  of  the 
paper  must  be  made  quite  damp  with  a  sponge  ;  then  put 
on  the  glass  and  the  painted  surface  a  thin  coating  of  the 
cement.  Care  must  be  taken  that  no  air  bubbles  remain 
between  the  glass  and  the  prints,-  and  the  papers  must  be 
kept  damp  while  the  operation  is  being  carried  on,  for 
if  the  cement  be  allowed  to  dry,  the  transparency  will  be 
destroyed  when  the  clearing  liquid  is  used.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  commence  rolling  in  the  centre  and  working  out- 
wards, by  which  method  any  superfluity  of  varnish  will 
ooze  out  at  the  edges,  and  not  damage  or  destroy  the 
surface  of  the  picture.  The  work  having  advanced  thus 
far,  it  should  be  carefully  laid  aside  for  two  days  at  least, 
or  even  for  three,  after  which  you  may  begin  to  remove 
the  paper. 

The  next  operation  is  to  remove  the  paper ;  this  is 
done  by  once  more  wetting  it,  then  rubbing  it  gently  and 
evenly  with  the  hand,  a  sponge,  or  piece  of  cloth,  the  work 
being  kept  damp  all  the  while,  and  great  circumspection 
used,  lest  by  undue  pressure  any  blemish  be  caused  ;  this 
must  be  specially  guarded  against  when,  the  greater  part 
of  the  paper  having  been  removed,  the  painted  surfoce 
alone  is  exposed  to  the  hand  or  cloth,  and  is  liable  to 
scratch  or  rub  off.  After  the  glass  has  been  allowed  to 
dry  thoroughly,  a  thin  coating  of  the  clearing  liquid  is  to 
be  applied,  and  when  this  has  become  dry  and  hard, 
the  work  should  be  rc-foiled,  over  the  edges  of  the  trans- 
ferred picture,  following  the  lines  of  the  first  foiling,  and 
proceeding  in  the  manner  described  before  ;  after  which, 
one  or  two  coalings  of  the  u>as]iahle  varnish  completes 
the  work,  which  must  dry  and  harden  thoroughly  before 
ir  is  inserted  in  the  frame-work  of  the  window. 

This  same  art  may  be  applied  for  the  adornment  of 
window  blinds,  &c.,  upon  muslin  or  silk.  The  operation 
consists  in  stretching  either  material  tightly  on  a  frame, 
taking  the  sheets  of  design,  laying  the  plain  side  upwards 
to  receive  the  diaphanous  liquid  which  is  put  on  with  a 
brush  ;  when  dry,  another  coating  should  be  given.  A 
coating  of  cement  should  nov/  be  applied  to  the  coloured 
side  of  the  paper,  taking  great  care  to  press  it  equally 
■with  the  roller.  There  is  now  nothing  left  to  the  com- 
pletion of  the  transparency  but  to  varnish  it.  If  the 
picture  be  misty,  the  diaphanous,  or  clearing  liquid, 
should  be  used  again.  Ordinary  engravings  can  be 
printed  on  glass  in  the  same  manner  as  the  painted 
designs.  The  engravings  which  are  to  be  used  should 
contain  no  size.  The  plain  side  of  the  picture  should  be 
damped  with  a  sponge.  Apply  to  the  other  a  coating 
of  washable  varnish  ;  then  warm  the  glass,  lay  on  the 
print,  press  with  the  roller,  and  place  it  at  some  distance 
from  the  fire  to  dry.  The  next  process  requires  great 
care,  or  the  beauty  of  the  engraving  will  be  injured. 
Damp  the  print  again  with  water,  and  rub  off  the  super- 
fluous paper  after  this,  and  when  the  miniature  has  been 
absorbed,  apply  the  clearing  liquid  with  a  camel's-hair 
brush ;  and  lastly,  when  it  is  thoroughly  hardened,  the 
washable  varnish  can  be  applied,  and  the  work  is  then 
finished. 

If  the  learner  of  the  art  of  diaphanie  pays  close  atten- 
tion to  the  exact  rules  laid  down  in  this  article,  there  will 
be  no  difficulty  in  becoming  proficient  in  this  very  elegant 
art,  by  which  every  house  may  be  improved  in  its  de- 
corations. Of  the  diagrams  with  which  this  paper  is 
illustrated,  Figs.  2  and  3  are  designs  suitable  for  a  hall 
window.  Fig.  4  sliows  two  patterns  for  groundwork  or 
borderine^. 


COTTAGE      FARMING. 

I.— DRAINAGE  {cotitimted). 

Ix  draining  roads,  a  drain  at  each  side  is  more  effectual 
than  one  in  the  middle.  If  the  road  is  broad,  and  the 
ground  wet  below,  an  additional  drain  in  the  middle  may 
be  necessary  ;  but  if  there  is  much  traffic  on  the  road,  so 
that  the  surface  becomes  consolidated  and  close,  the 
water  will  not  sink  to  the  middle  drain,  and  hence,  if  with- 
out side  drains,  will  flow  at  the  sides,  wash  away  light 
material,  and  keep  the  road  unsightly.  But  with  a  drain 
at  each  side,  as  shown  in  section,  Fig.  i,  the  road  may 
be  kept  dry  without  either  flowing  or  stagnant  water,  if 
attention  is  properly  paid  to  the  side-drainage  by  the 
removal  of  silt  and  the  cutting  close  of  the  grassy  edge. 

Thus,  in  the  section,  a  b  '\^  the  ground  on  either  side,  c 
the  middle  of  the  road,  in  and  n  the  two  sides,  and  e  e  the 
two  drains,  filled  with  porous  material  to  the  top  im- 
mediately below  the  grassy  sward  at  each  side.  As  fast 
as  the  rain  falls  upon  c,  it  flows  to  ni  and  «,  and  thus 
percolates  into  the  drains  before  it  has  had  time  to  accu- 
mulate. 

Another  plan,  well  adapted  for  a  cottage  road,  is  a  light 
tramway  of  stone  sunk  an  inch  or  two  inches  below  the 
general  surface,  the  two  trams  serving  the  double  purpose 
of  ways  for  the  cart-wheels,  and  for  rain-water. 

When  the  meadow  is  flat,  with  a  moist  or  wet  bottom, 
it  is  naturally  very  liable  to  rut  in  the  spring  time  while 
carting  and  top  dressing  are  in  progress  ;  or  if  you  have 
wet  weather,  then  in  harvest  time.  To  obviate  this  as 
much  as  possible  a  road  is  formed  across  the  middle,  but 
of  such  a  character,  as  to  yield  grass  and  hay  in  as  great 
abundance  as  the  rest  of  the  field.  This  is  done  by  open- 
ing two  drains,  as  in  Fig.  i,  and  digging  out  a  shallow  spit, 
the  turf  ha\ing  been  previously  removed  by  a  banking  or 
paring  tool.  Brickbats,  broken  stones,  gravel,  and  any 
rubbish  capable  of  supporting  the  cart-wheels  and  horses' 
feet  arc  carted  in,  and  laid  in  such  a  manner  as  to  en- 
courage the  roots  of  the  grass  to  penetrate  downwards. 
This  is  rolled,  or  made  flat  and  smooth,  and  the  turf  relaid 
and  copiously  watered,  if  the  work  has  been  done  in  tlie 
summer  time.  Such  a  road,  although  it  would  not  stand 
much  continuous  carting,  is  amply  sufficient  for  the 
purposes  of  the  meadow. 

Levelling. — This,  in  small  farms,  is  generally  done  with 
the  barrow  and  spade,  during  such  spare  time  as  the 
cottager  may  have.  Stagnant  waters  being  highly  in- 
jurious to  cattle,  and  unsightly  and  cumbersome  to  the 
ground,  should  be  removed  by  draining  off  and  filling  in 
the  pond.  It  will  be  seen  if  the  earth  formerly  dug  out 
to  form  the  pond  has  been  laid  on  the  margin  ;  if  so, 
you  have  the  material  to  fill  in  at  hand.  This  also 
applies  to  superfluous  ditches  and  hedges,  there  being 
suflicient  material  to  do  the  work  of  levelling,  without 
seeking  it  from  a  distance.  In  the  case,  however,  of 
filling  in  a  ravine,  the  cottager  must  look  out  for  a  knoll 
or  ridge  as  near  as  possible  to  the  sphere  of  operations, 
and  attend  carefully  to  the  following  rules  : — Take  all 
the  rich  earth  from  the  bed  of  the  ravine  and  throw 
it  up  on  either  side,  for  coming  back,  as  surface  soil ; 
do  this  also  with  the  upper  layer  of  soil  on  the  ridge, 
and  then  cart  or  wheel  into  the  bottom  of  the  ravine  the 
under  strata  and  the  ridge,  and  having  done  this,  spread 
the  two  surface  layers  again  uppermost,  in  order  to  give 
the  richest  soil  to  yield  grass.  If  the  ground  thus  to  be 
levelled  is  of  a  regular  shape,  make  a  trench  four  feet 
wide,  throw  the  top  spit  to  the  opposite  side,  and  then 
dig  out  the  bottom  to  the  depth  required,  and  wheel  it 
into  the  ravine  you  wish  to  fill  up.  Place  the  top  spit  of 
the  second  trench  at  the  bottom  of  the  first  trench,  leavmg 
the  grassy  side  uppermost,  then  wheel  out  the  bottom  of 
the  second  trench  to  the  proper  depth  of  the  ravine,  turn 
down  the  top  spit  of  the  third  trench  into  the  bottom  of 


94 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 


the  second  one,  the  grassy  side,  as  before,  being  upper- 
most, and  so  on  until  the  leveUing  is  complete. 

Claying  Peaty,    Open,   Porosis,   Gravelly,  and  Sandy 
Lands  greatly  improves  their  productiveness — 

"  Lay  clay  on  sand 
And  you  buy  land" 

is  an  old  farming  proverb,  founded  upon  successful  prac- 
tice. When  from  200  to  400  cart-loads  of  clay  per  acre 
are  applied  to  lands  lying  in  grass  or  heath,  it  is  better  to 
break  them  up  to  aeration  until  the  clay  is  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  the  staple.  They  may  then  be  laid 
down  to  grass  if  desirable,  but  it  is  more  profitable  to 
keep  such  soils  under  arable  husbandry. 

Chalking  and  Marling. — A  very  great  breadth  of  mea- 
dow land  is  subject  to  permanent  improvement  by  the 
application  of  chalk  and  marl ;  and  whenever  the  cottager 
has    the    command    of    such, 
every   opportunity   should   be 
embraced   to    apply   them    as 
required.     Like  clay   they,  in 
some  cases,  are  lying  at  a  lower 
level    than    the   meadow ;    in 
other  places,  at  a  higher  level ; 
sometimes  so  close  at  hand  as 
to  render  the  expense  of  cart- 


Irrigation,  according  to  the  modern  acceptation  of  the 
word,  is  now  generally  understood  to  mean  the  application 
of  town  sewage  to  meadow  or  arable  land  on  the  principle 
of  gravitation  ;  but  the  practice  itself  is  identically  that  of 
the  old  plan  of  applying  river  water  to  grass  land.  In  point 
of  fact,  the  more  closely  the  modern  sewage  practice  com- 
plies with  the  details  of  the  old  water  practice,  the  more  suc- 
cessful it  proves.  According  to  the  plan  described  and 
illustrated  in  most  old  works  on  agriculture,  the  land  was- 
laid  up  into  ridges  somewhat  higher  at  the  crown  than  at 
the  sides.  Thus,  Fig.  2  may  be  taken  as  an  illustration 
of  one  ridge,  of  which  a  b'\s  the  crown,  and  c  d  and  ej 
the  two  sides,  a  is  the  highest  end  of  the  ridge,  c  e  the 
headland,  and  b  the  lowest  end  or  footland.  Along  the 
headland  the  water  is  conveyed  in  an  open  ditch,  not 
shown,  and  down  the  crown  of  each  ridge  a  channel  is 
opened  with  the  spade  or 
plough  as  shown  at  a  b,  and 
into  this  the  water  for  irriga- 
tion is  directed.  As  the  ridge 
has  a  slight  inclination,  the 
water  does  not  flow  out  of  the 
channel  a  b  ■aX  71  right  angle, 
but  obliquely.  It  need  hardly 
be  said  that  the  water  does  not 


ing  a  secondary  consideration  ;  then  at  others,  so  far  off,  flow  in  parallel  lines,  the  object  of  the  waterman  in  charge 
that  liming  the  land  may  come  cheaper.  The  object  of  of  the  work  being  to  spread  the  water  as  evenly  over  both 
their  application  is  to  supply  lime  to  the  land.  Marl  is  of  i  sides  of  the  ridges  as  possible.  Town  sewage  is  now  being 
an  extremely  diversified  character ;  but  we  shall  treat  of  i  applied  in  a  similar  manner ;  but  as  the  solid  portion  of 
this  when  we  come  to  Arabic  Husbandry.  I  the  sewage  cannot  be  equally  distributed,  it  is  better  to 

Liming  is  best  done  by  a  compost  made  of  vegetable  1  filter  it  out,  and  apply  only  the  clarified  liquid  or  soluble 
mould  and  quicklime,  and  when  lime  is  naturally  deficient !  portion  of  the  sewage.  The  chief  objection  to  this  plan, 
in  the  soil,  it  may  often  be  more  cheaply  and  efficaciously  as  now  practised,  is  the  waste  of  fertilising  clement  in 
applied  in  this  manner  than  in  the  form  of  artificial  com-  the  application,  as  water  flowing  in  an  open  ditch  in  con- 
pounds,  in  which  lime  is  the  chief  element.  tact  with  the  atmosphere  rapidly  purifies  itself  of  animal 

Fencing  is  another  important  point,  where  every  foot  of  and  vegetable  matter  held  in  solution.  In  this  respect  the 
ground  is  so  much  lost  or  gained.     The  favourite  live-  !  practice  is  capable  of  much  improvement,  as  will  be  shown 


fences  are  not  well  adapted 
for  cottage  farms,for  which, 
in  our  opinion,  there  can  be 
nothing  so  good  as  stone  or 
brick  walls,  where  they  can 
be  had.  At  the  outset  walls 
cost  more  money  than  many 
other  sorts  of  fences,  but 
their  many  advantages  soon 
make  them  pay.  Firstly, 
they  are  ready  for  use  as 
soon  as  they  are  built ;  secondly,  the  grass  grows  healthily 
close  up  to  them  ;  thirdly,  if  properly  tempered  mortar 
be  used  in  the  building,  they  will  not  harbour  insects  or 
vermin.  Taking  these  advantages,  it  will  be  seen  that  a 
stone  or  brick  wall  is  an  investment  of  capital  which 
increases  the  annual  productive  value  of  the  farm, 
apart  from  its  purpose  as  a  substantial  durable  fence. 
A  thorn  hedge  takes  more  space,  and  requires  to  be 
protected,  at  the  outset,  by  two  rail  fences — one  on  each 
side.  These  harbour  insects,  which,  as  the  rails  decay, 
attack  the  young  hedge,  and  in  process  of  time  kill  plant 
after  plant,  leaving  those  gaps  which  are  the  torment  of 
the  farmer's  life,  and  occupy  a  most  unreasonable  time  in 
filling  up ;  so  much,  indeed,  that  it  is  in  the  aggregate 
doubtful  whether  the  stone  and  mortar  wall  is  not  the 
cheapest  even  for  the  short  leased  farm.  Subdivision  is 
best  effected  by  a  wire  fence,  although  partially  dependent 
upon  the  nature  of  the  boundary  line,  number  of  acres, 
and  the  object  to  be  followed  in  keeping  the  land  in  grass 
or  arable. 

Liquid  Manure. — Great  economy  of  time  and  capital 
has  been  attained  by  the  new  systems  employed  for  the 
application  of  liquid  manure — viz.,  I,  irrigation ;  2,  warp- 
ing ;  3,  the  liquid  manure  cart ;  and  4,  the  hydrant  hose 
and  jet. 


under  the  improvement  of  a 
subsequent  practice  —  viz., 
hydrant  hose  and  jet. 

Warping. — Flowing  water 
is  capable  of  conveying  a 
large  per  -  centage  of  its 
weight  of  solid  matter,  as 
ck\y,  in  a  state  of  suspension, 
v>-hich  it  deposits  equally 
over  land  into  which  it  has 
been  directed  andallowed  to 
subside.  Thus,  if  a  small  farm  is  surrounded  with  a  tempo- 
rary embankment,  and  water  carrying  clay  in  suspension 
pumped  or  turned  in  from  a  higher  source,  so  as  to  fill  the 
enclosure  to  the  top  of  the  embankment,  and  if  the  water 
is  then  allowed  to  settle,  it  will  deposit  the  greater  portion 
of  the  clay  equally  over  the  surface  of  the  small  farm. 
The  pure  water  is  then  drawn  slowly  off,  and  the  work  is 
termed  warping.  In  this  manner  from  six  inches  to  a 
foot  in  depth  of  clay  may  be  laid  on  poor  fenny  soils,  sa 
as  wholly  to  change  their  character,  and  the  work  is  one 
in  successful  operation,  and  increasing  in  adaptation  with 
recent  improvements  in  hydraulic  machinery  and  apr 
paratus.  On  small  farms  it  is  generally  done  by  contract^ 
at  so  much  per  acre  for  a  given  depth  of  warp.  Warping 
is  also  applied  to  dry,  gravelly,  and  sandy  lands  by  irri- 
gation. In  this  case  the  water  is  drained  off  below,  and 
the  warp  remains  upon  the  surface  ;  and  when  one  ridge 
is  done,  the  muddy  water  is  turned  on  to  another.  The 
channel  a  b,  Fig.  2,  has  to  be  clayed  to  prevent  the  water 
sinking.  The  porous  soil  gradually  fills  up  from  a  b^ 
c  d,  and  e  f.  This  work  may  likewise  be  done  by  con- 
tract, by  means  of  movable  pipes,  hydrants,  and  hose,  or 
by  fixed  pipes,  &c. 

In  a  future  number  it  is  our  intention  to  give  further 
illustrations  of  this  subject. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


95 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR   PROFIT. 

III.— INCUBATION   OK   POULTRY, 

^[UCH   disappointment  in  the   hatching  and   rearing  of 

\  oung  broods  would  be  prevented  if  more  care  were  taken 

that  the  eggs  selected  for  setting  were  of  good  quality — not 

■  Illy  likely  to  be  fertile,  but  the  produce  of  strong  and  hardy 

irds.  This  remark  applies  to  common  barn-door  poultry 
quite  as  much  as  to  the  pure  breeds.  A  friend  once 
complained  to  us,  that  out  of  a  dozen  eggs  only  four  or 
five  had  hatched  ;  and  on  inquiry,  we  found  that  the 
sitting  had  been  procufed  from  an  inn-yard,  where,  to  our 
knowledge,  only  one  cock  was  running  with  about  twenty 
hens,  from  which,  of  course,  no  better  result  could  be 
expected.  When  the  eggs  have  to  be  procured  from 
elsewhere,  therefore,  whatever  be  the  class  of  fowls  re- 
quired, it  should  first  of  all  be  ascertained  that  there  is 
at  least  one  cock  to  every  six  or  eight  hens,  and  that  he 
be  a  strong  and  lively  bird  ;  and  next,  that  the  fowls  be 
not  only  of  the  kind  desired,  but  that  they  are  well  fed 
and  taken  care  of.  From  scraggy,  half-starved  birds,  it 
is  impossible  to  rear  a  large  brood,  as  the  greater  number 
even  of  those  hatched  will  die  in  infancy.  It  only  remains 
to  ensure  that  the  eggs  be  fresh,  and  a  successful  hatching 
may  be  anticipated. 

With  regard  to  this  latter  point,  eggs  have  been  known 
to  hatch  when  two  months  old,  or  even  more  ;  but  we 
would  never  ourselves  set,  from  choice,  any  egg  which 
had  been  laid  more  than  a  fortnight ;  and  after  a  month, 
or  less,  it  is  useless  trouble.  Fresh  eggs,  if  all  be  well, 
hatch  out  in  good  time,  and  the  chicks  are  strong  and 
lively  ;  the  stale  ones  always  hatch  last,  being,  perhaps, 
as  much  as  two  days  later  than  new-laid,  and  the  chickens 
are  often  too  weak  to  break  the  shell.  We  have  also 
invariably  noticed,  when  compelled  to  take  a  portion  of 
stale  eggs  to  make  up  a  sitting,  that  even  when  such  eggs 
have  hatched,  the  subsequent  deaths  have  principally  oc- 
curred in  this  portion  of  the  brood  ;  and  that  if  none  of  the 
eggs  were  more  than  four  or  five  days  old,  they  not  only 
hatched  nearly  every  one,  and  within  an  hour  or  two  of 
each  other,  but  the  losses  in  any  ordinary  season  were 
very  few. 

When  the  eggs  are  from  the  home  stock,  their  quality 
should,  of  course,  be  above  suspicion.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  say,  that  in  order  to  ensure  this,  every  egg 
before  storing  should  have  legibly  written  upon  it  in  pencil 
the  date  on  which  it  was  laid.  Eggs  intended  for  setting 
are  best  kept  in  bran,  the  large  end  downward,  and  should 
never  be  exposed  to  concussion.  Another  very  good  plan 
is  to  have  a  large  board  pierced  with  a  number  of  round 
holes  in  regular  rows  to  receive  the  eggs. 

Hundreds  of  years  ago  it  was  thought  that  the  sex  of 
^ggs  could  be  distinguished  by  the  shape  —  the  cocks 
being  produced  from  those  of  elongated  shape,  and  hens 
from  the  short  or  round.  Others  have  pretended  to  dis- 
cern the  future  sex  from  the  position  of  the  air-bubble  at 
the  large  end.  We  need  scarcely  say,  that  these  and 
all  other  fancies  have,  hundreds  of  times,  been  proved 
to  be  erroneous.  There  is  not  a  breeder  of  prize  poultry 
in  England  who  would  not  gladly  give  twenty  pounds  for 
the  coveted  knowledge,  and  thenceforth  breed  no  more 
cockerels  than  he  really  wanted  ;  but  the  secret  has  never 
been  discovered  yet,  and  it  is  even  impossible  to  tell  before 
the  egg  has  been  sat  upon  a  short  time  whether  it  will 
produce  a  chicken  or  not. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  sitting  hens  ought 
to  have  a  separate  shed  and  run  provided  for  them,  in 
order  that  the  other  hens  may  not  occupy  their  nests  during 
absence,  or  they  themselves  go  back  to  the  wrong  ones,  as 
they  will  often  do  if  allowed  to  sit  in  the  fowl-house. 
Even  in  a  very  small  domestic  establishment  we  strongly 
recommend  that  the  small  additional  space  requisite  be 
devoted  to  this  purpose,  for  all  our  experience  has  proved 


that,  whatever  success  may  be  obtained  otherwise  by 
constant  care  and  watchfulness,  it  is  never  so  great  as 
when  the  sitter  can  be  shut  into  a  separate  run,  and  be 
entirely  unmolested.  An  extensive  run  is  neither  necessary 
nor  desirable,  as  it  only  entices  the  birds  to  wander, 
whereas,  in  a  limited  space,  they  will  go  back  to  their 
nests  as  soon  as  their  wants  are  satisfied.  A  shed  five 
feet  square,  with  a  run  the  same  width  for  ten  feet  out  in 
front,  is  quite  sufficient  for  three  hens. 

If  the  hen  must  be  set  on  the  ordinary  nest  in  the  fowl- 
house,  unless  she  can  be  watched  every  day  to  see  that 
all  goes  right,  it  is  best  to  take  her  off  at  a  regular  time 
every  morning,  and  after  seeing  to  her  wants  and  due 
return,  to  shut  her  in  so  that  she  cannot  be  annoyed.  She 
should  be  lifted  by  taking  hold  under  the  wings,  gently 
raising  them  first  to  sec  that  no  eggs  are  enclosed.  Very 
fair  success  may  be  attained  by  this  method  of  manage- 
ment, which  is  obviously  almost  imperative  in  very  large 
establishments,  where  numerous  hens  must  be  sitting  at 
one  time  ;  but  where  such  large  numbers  do  not  allow  of 
a  special  poultry  attendant  it  is  rather  troublesome,  and 
on  an  average  there  will  be  a  chicken  or  two  less  than  if 
the  hens  can  be  put  quite  apart,  where  they  need  neither 
be  watched  nor  interfered  with.  Since  we  adopted  this 
plan  we  have,  from  good  eggs,  always  hatched  at  least 
nine  out  of  twelve,  and  generally  more  ;  and  have  had  no 
trouble  or  anxiety  till  the  broods  were  actually  hatched, 
which  is  anything  but  the  case  on  the  other  system. 

With  respect  to  the  arrangement  of  the  hatching  run,  it 
should,  if  possible,  be  in  sight  of  the  other  fowTs,  as  it 
will  keep  the  sitter  fi-om  becoming  strange  to  her  com- 
panions, and  prevent  an  otherwise  inevitable  fight  on  her 
restoration,  to  the  possible  damage  of  the  brood.  We 
prefer  ourselves,  as  stated  in  the  first  chapter,  a  shed  five 
feet  wide  and  five  deep,  open  in  front  to  a  small  gravel  or 
grass  run.  Under  the  shed  must  be,  besides  the  nests,  a 
good-sized  shallow  box  of  sand,  dry  earth,  or  fine  coal 
ashes,  for  the  hen  to  cleanse  herself  in,  which  she  specially 
needs  at  this  time  ;  and  food  and  water  must  be  always 
ready  for  her.  With  these  precautions  the  hen  may,  and 
should,  in  every  case,  with  the  exceptions  presently  men- 
tioned, be  left  entirely  to  herself.  There  are,  however,, 
some  birds  which,  if  not  removed,  would  stane  upon  their 
nests  sooner  than  leave  thepi ;  and,  therefore,  if  the  hen 
has  not  been  off  for  two  or  three  days  (we  would  test  her  for 
that  time  first),  we  should  certainly  remove  the  poor  thing 
for  her  own  preservation.  To  feed  upon  the  nest  is  a 
cruel  practice,  which  has  crippled  many  a  fowl  for  life, 
and  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 

Of  all  mothers  we  prefer  Cochins  or  Brahmas.  Their 
abundant  "fluff  "  and  feathering  is  of  inestimable  advantage 
to  the  young  chicks,  and  their  tame  and  gentle  disposition 
makes  them  submit  to  any  amount  of  handling  or  manage- 
ment with  great  docility.  Cochins  certainly  appear  clumsy 
with  their  feet,  but  we  have  never  foutid  more  chickens 
actually  trodden  upon  by  them  than  with  any  other  breed. 
Many  complain  that  they  leave  their  chickcos  too  sooh, 
but  we  have  not  foimd  it  so  ourselves.  If  they  are  kept 
cooped  instead  of  being  set  at  liberty,  they  will  generally 
brood  their  chickens  for  two  months,  even  till  they  have 
laid  a  second  batch  of  eggs,  and  desire  to  sit  again  ;  and 
by  that  time  any  but  ver>'  early  broods  are  able  to  da 
without  a  mother's  care.  With  regard  to  Brahmas  as. 
mothers,  they  have  a  peculiarity  wo  never  observed  in  any 
other  fowl — they  appear  actually  to  look  behind  them, 
when  moving,  lest  they  should  tread  upon  their  little  ones. 
Dorkings,  also,  arc  exemplary  mother^,  and  go  with  their 
chickens  a  long  time,  which  recommends  them  strongly 
for  very  early  broods.  And  lastly,  a  Game  hen  has  qualities 
which  often  make  her  most  valuable.  She  is  not  only 
exemplary  in  her  care,  and  a  super-excellent  forager  for 
her  young  brood,  but  will  defend  them  to  the  last  gasp, 
and  render  a  good  account  of  the  most  determined  cat 


95 


ANIMALS    KEPT   FOR   PROFIT. 


that  ever  existed  ;  indeed,  it  would  be  a  difficult 
matter  in  any  case  to  steal  a  chick  in  daylight  from  a 
well-bred  Game  hen.  But  whatever  be  the  hen  chosen, 
she  should  be  well  feathered,  moderately  short-legged, 
and  tolerably  tame.  A  very  high  authority*  has  affirmed 
that  none  but  mature  hens  should  be  allowed  to  sit, 
and  that  pullets  are  not  to  be  trusted  ;  but  our  own 
experience  and  that  of  very  many  large  breeders  does  not 
confirm  this.  We  have  constantly  set  pullets,  and  have 
rarely  had  any  more  reason  to  complain  of  them  than  of 
older  birds. 

The  nests  may  be  arranged  under  the  shed  any  way  so 
that  no  one  can  see  into  them,  with  the  one  proviso  that 
they  be  actually  upon  the  ground.  Chicks  thus  obtained 
always  show  more  constitution  than  those  hatched  on  a 


the  hen  will  be  in  the  strictest  privacy,  will  be  both 
perfectly  sheltered  and  kept  cool,  and  will  never  mistake 
her  own  nest  for  the  one  which  may  be  placed  in  the 
other  corner.  If  a  third  must  be  made  room  for,  let  her 
nest  be  placed  the  same  distance  from  the  wall  midway 
between  the  others,  and  like  them,  with  the  front  of 
the  nest  to  the  back  of  the  shed.  There  will  then  be 
still  nearly  a  foot  between  each  two  nests  for  the  birds 
to  pass. 

A  damp  situation  is  best  for  the  sitting  shed,  and  will 
ensure  good  hatching  in  hot  weather,  when,  perhaps,  all 
the  neighbours  are  complaining  that  their  chicks  are  dead 
in  the  shells.  Attempting  to  keep  the  nest  and  eggs  very 
dry  has  ruined  many  a  brood.  It  is  not  so  in  nature  ; 
every  morning  the  hen  leaves  her  nest,  and  has  to  seek  her 


DORKINGS. 


wooden  bottom  at  a  higher  level.  This  holds  good  even 
:at  all  times  of  the  year.  We  are  aware  that  eminent 
authorities  who  recommend  ground-nests  in  summer,  prefer 
a  warm,  wooden  box  in  winter  for  the  sake  of  the  hen  ; 
but  she  will  rarely  suffer.  The  heat  of  her  body  whilst 
sitting  is  so  great  that  a  cool  situation  seems 
grateful  to  her — at  least,  a  hen  set  on  the 
ground  rarely  forsakes  her  nest,  which  is  other- 
wise no  uncommon  case.  We  knew  of  a  hen 
which,  during  the  month  of  January,  made  her 
nest  on  the  top  of  a  rock  in  one  of  the  highest 
and  most  exposed  situations  in  the  Peak  of 
Derbyshire,  and  brought  a  large  brood  of 
strong  chickens  into  the  yard.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary that  the  birds  should  be  protected  from 
wind  and  rain,  in  order  to  avoid  rheumatism  ; 
and  this  is  most  effectually  done  by  employing 
for  the  nest  a  tight  wooden  box  like  Fig.  6, 
open  at  the  bottom,  and  also  at  front,  with  the  excep- 
tions of  a  strip  three  inches  high  to  contain  the  straw. 
Let  one  of  these  boxes  be  placed  in  the  back  corner 
of  the  shed,  touching  the  side,  the  front  being  turned 
to  the  back  wall,  and  about  nine  inches  from  it ;    and 

*  Mrs.  Fergusson  Blair. 


precarious  meal  through  the  long,  wet  grass,  which 
drenches  her  as  if  she  had  been  ducked  in  a  pond.  With 
this  saturated  breast  she  returns,  and  the  eggs  are  duly 
moistened.  But  if  the  nest  be  dry,  the  hen  be  kept  dry, 
and  the  weather  happen  to  be  hot  and  dry  also,  the 
moisture  within  the  Qgg  itself  becomes  dried 
to  the  consistency  of  glue,  and  the  poor  little 
chick,  being  unable  to  move  round  within  the 
shell,  cannot  fracture  it,  and  perishes.  Such 
a  mishap  will  not  happen  if  the  ground  under 
the  nest  be  damp  and  cool.  All  that  is  ne- 
cessary in  such  a  case  is  to  scrape  a  slight 
hollow  in  the  bare,  earth,  place  the  nest-box, 
already  described,  over  it,  and  put  in  a  mode- 
rate quantity  of  straw  cut  into  two-inch  lengths ; 
or,  still  better,  some  fresh-cut  damp  grass  may 
be  put  in  first,  and  the  straw  over.  Shape  the 
straw  also  into  a  very  slight  hollow,  and  the 
nest  is  made  ;  but  care  must  be  taken  to  well  fill  up  the 
corners  of  the  box,  or  the  eggs  may  be  rolled  into  them 
and  get  addled.  Some  people  prefer  to  put  in  first  a  fresh 
turf ;  but  if  the  nest  be  placed  on  the  bare  ground,  as  we 
recommend,  this  is  useless.  The  rest  of  our  remarks  upon 
this  subject  must  be  postponed  to  a  future  number. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


97 


HOUSEHOLD   DECORATIVE  ART. 

in. — CHRISTMAS    DECORATIONS    OF  THE    HOME. 

The  materials  to  be  used  include  all  kinds  of  ever- 
greens, everlasting  flowers,  and  coloured  and  gilt  papers. 
Jt  is  a  strange  thing  that,  though  mistletoe  is  used  in  the 
decoration  of  houses,  not  a  sprig  of  it  is  put  into  a  church. 
IJut  in  house  decora- 
tion no  Christmas 
■would  be  thought 
complete  if  there 
did  not  hang  in 
hall  or  dining-room 
a  bunch  of  its 
curiously-forked 


leaves  may  be  applied  with  excellent  effect  in  wrcatns, 
or  overlapping  one  another  in  borders.  The  variegated 
ancuba  makes  a  pleasing  variety  in  the  colour. 

Yews  and  arbor  vttce  are  useful,  especially  the  small 
sprays  of  them,  for  covering  the  framework  of  devices. 

Myrtle  and  box  also  are  pretty  in  narrow  bordcrings, 
into  which  coloured  everlasting  flowers  may  be  introduced. 

The  black  bunches 
of  ivy  berries  may 
sometimes  be  used 
with  advantage,  to 
give  points  of  con- 
trast in  the  decora- 
tions. Of  course 
if  chrysanthemums, 


Fig.  2. 

branches,  with  their 
terminal  pairs  of  nerve- 
less pale-green  leaves, 
and  white  cr^-stalline 
berries. 

Holly  is  of  course 
the  special  tree  of  the 
season.  Its  leaves  bent 
into  various  curves,  its 
thorny  points,  and  its 
bunches  of  coral-red 
berries,  make  it  the 
prince  of  evergreens. 
Let  it  be  conspicuous 
throughout  the  decora- 
tions. It  is  a  good 
Elan  to  strip  off  the 
erries,  and  use  them 
strung  in  bunches,  as 
the  berries  get  hidden 
when  the  sprigs  arc 
worked  into  wreaths 
and  devices,  and  the 
berries,  bent  into  little 
bunches,  dotted  about  the  festoons  here  and  there,  look 
very  effective. 

Ivy  must  be  introduced  with  care.  Small  single  leaves 
come  in  with  good  effect  in  small  devices,  or  to  relieve  a 
background  of  sombre  yew  or  arbor  vita;.  The  young 
shoots  of  the  common  ivy  are  best,  or  of  the  kind  which 
grows  up  trees  and  old  walls,  which  are  very  dark  and 
glossy,  with  a  network  of  light-coloured  veins. 

Laurel  is  a  very  useful  green  in  sprays,  and  the  single 

VOL.   I. 


F'g-  3- 

Christmas  roses, 
primulas,  and  ca« 
mellias  can  be  ol>. 
tained,  the  general 
effect  is  heightened 
and  the  decoration 
becomes  more  elabo- 
rate and  more  elegant. 
The  best  \vreaths  for 
decorating  the  banis- 
ters of  a  house,  or 
any  pedestals,  pillars, 
or  columns,  are  those 
made  in  a  rope  of 
evergreen  sprigs. 
There  are  several  ways 
in  which  such  wreaths 
are  made.  One  way 
is  as  follows  :• — Get 
a  rope  or  stout  cord, 
of  proper  length,  and 
a  quantity  of  twine  and 
a  handful  of  evergreen 
twigs.  Begin  at  one 
rope,  which  should  be  attached  firmly  to 
Dispose  a  bunch  of  the  twigs  round  the 
rope,  and  tie  them  on  with  the  twine  ;  then  dispose 
another  bunch  so  that  the  leaves  may  conceal  the  stalks 
of  those  already  on,  and  give  the  twine  a  turn  round  them, 
fastening  it  with  a  running  knot,  and  so  on  until  the  rope 
is  finished.  This  must  be  done  at  the  fastening  of  each 
bunch  of  twigs.  Another  way  very  frequently  adopted  is, 
in  place  of  a  rope,  to  use  only  a  piece  of  stout  twine  to  run 


end  of  the 
something. 


98 


HOUSEHOLD    DECORATIVE   ART. 


through  the  wreath,  so  ag  to  prevent  its  falling  to  pieces, 
and,  instead  of  twine  to  tie  the  twigs  on,  to  use  fine  wire, 
which  must  be  firmly  twkted  round  the  twigs. 

In  all  kinds  of  wreaths  the  thickness  of  the  wreath  must 
be  carefully  regulated  at  the  outset,  and  evenly  maintained 
throughout,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  all  the  foliage 
is  turned  in  one  direction,  especially  where  two  persons 
are  working  at  the  same  rope.  The  wreaths  may  be  made 
of  one  kind  of  evergreen  only,  or  of  any  number  of  kinds 
mixed  :  the  latter  has  the  better  effect.  There  should  be 
an  equal  mixture  of  the  fine  kinds,  as  yew,  box,  &c.,  to 
keep  the  wreath  light  and  sprayey.  Whether  the  berries 
be  left  on  the  holly  twigs,  or  threaded  and  attached  at 
intervals,  is,  of  course,  according  to  the  taste  of  the 
decorator.  If  threaded,  they  are  best  fastened  among  the 
holly  leaves  in  bunches  about  as  large  as  the  natural 
clusters,  so  as  to  imitate  their  natural  effect. 

In  fastening  the  wreath  to  the  pillars,  take  care  not  to 
put  it  on  upside  down,  as  foliage  must  never  be  placed  in 
a  direction  contrary  to  that  of  its  growth.  When  small 
chaplets  or  wreaths  are  constructed,  each  should  be  made 
by  one  person,  as  the  effect  is  frequently  spoilt  by  the 
two  ends  not  matching,  or  it  is  otherwise  wanting  in 
uniformity.  When  the  wreaths  are  finished,  and  before 
they  are  hung  up,  they  should  be  kept  in  some  cool  place, 
or  else  they  shrivel  up  ;  if  necessary,  a  little  water  may  be 
sprinkled  over  them. 

If  holly  berries  are  scarce,  a  good  substitute  may  be 
found  in  rose  hips,  which  may  have  a  small  piece  of  wire 
passed  through  them  as  a  stalk,  and  several  twisted 
together.  The  fallen  holly  berries,  strung  on  wire,  made 
into  rings,  and  slipped  over  the  leaves,  are  very  effective, 
also  split  peas,  glued  on  here  and  there  in  the  shape  of 
small  rosettes,  look  like  golden  flowers,  and  they  may  be 
made  to  resemble  holly  berries  by  poui'ing  over  them  red 
sealing-wax  melted  in  spirits  of  wine. 

Where  definite  shapes  are  required  there  are  several 
methods  of  accomplishing  the  desired  effect.  Some  use 
a  groundwork  of  tin  or  perforated  zinc. 

If  outline  forms  are  employed,  to  be  covered  with  leaves 
or  flowers,  these  will  be  best  coloured  black.  The  method 
of  arranging  the  leaves  and  flowers  will  depend  in  a  great 
measure  upon  individual  taste.  If  it  is  required  to  use 
masses  of  berries  in  such  a  manner  that  it  would  be 
inconvenient  or  difficult  to  fasten  them  together  by  any 
other  means,  paint  the  places  required  to  be  filled  in  with 
a  stiff  coat  of  glue,  very  hot,  and  drop  the  berries  upon  it. 
When  the  glue  is  dry  they  v/ill  be  found  to  adhere. 

Holly  strung  has  a  very  good  effect.  It  is  very  quickly 
done,  and  looks  like  a  rich  cord  when  finished,  and  all  the 
banisters  in  a  house  may  be  draped  in  holly.  It  is  made 
by  threading  a  packing-needle  with  the  required  length  of 
twine,  and  stringing  upon  it  the  largest  and  most  curly- 
looking  holly  leaves,  taking  care  to  pass  the  needle 
through  the  exact  centre  of  each  leaf.  Flat  borderings,  to 
lie  flat  along  panels  of  cabinets,  doorways,  mirrors,  and 
the  backs  of  sideboards,  should  be  made  of  leaves  sewn 
in  strips  on  brown  paper,  or  yards  of  buckram,  cut  in  strips 
and  sewn  together  to  the  required  lengths.  Garlands  or 
half-wreaths  (Fig.  i)  are  best  made  on  barrel  hoops  for 
their  foundation.  For  making  letters  there  is  nothing  that 
bends  to  the  shape  of  the  letters  so  well  as  crinoline 
wires.  Single  l-etters  are  best  cut  out  in  brown  paper, 
and  the  leaves  sewn  on  with  a  needle  and  thread. 

Rice  decoration  is  very  effective,  and  looks  like  carved 
ivory.  The  required  shape  should  be  cut  out  in  cartridge- 
paper,  and  firmly  glued  down  to  its  intended  foundation, 
and  then  covered  with  a  coating  of  thick  warm  paste,  or 
very  strong  white  gum,  into  which  the  rice  grains  must  be 
dropped,  and  arranged  so  as  to  lie  closely  and  regularly 
together,  and  the  whole  left  until  it  is  perfectly  stiff  and 
dry.  Immortelles,  and  other  coloured  dried  flowers,  may 
be  used  in  the  same  manner.     The  best  plan  of  applying 


the  rice  is  first  to  take  a  small  quantity  in  a  paper  funnel 
and  scatter  it  over  the  design  till  dry.  Pour  on  more  gum, 
then  scatter  the  rice  on  again,  and  repeat  the  process  till 
the  proper  thickness  and  evenness  is  obtained.  When 
finished  a  sharp  penknife  will  remove  all  superfluous 
grains.  Monograms  made  in  this  way,  if  the  shadows  are 
picked  out  with  Indian  ink,  roughly  put  on,  give  a  very 
good  effect.  Akernate  letters  of  rice  and  sealing-wax 
berries  look  very  fanciful  and  gay. 

Mottoes  and  monograms  in  white  cotton  wool  have  the 
effect  of  snow.  They  are  produced  by  cutting  out  the 
letters  in  thick  white  paper,  and  pasting  over  them  an 
even  piece  of  clean  white  cotton  wool,  which  is,  when  dry, 
pulled  out  so  as  to  give  it  a  fluffy  or  snowy  appearance. 
The  letters  should  afterwards  be  carefully  trimmed  with 
a  sharp  pair  of  scissors,  and  mounted  on  a  ground  of 
coloured  paper. 

If  there  is  a  lamp  in  the  dining-room,  supported  by- 
chains,  holly  wreaths  twisted  round  the  chains  look  well ; 
while  a  chaplet  round  the  base,  and  a  small  basket  filled 
with  mistletoe,  suspended  from  the  centre  of  the  base, 
look  very  effective.  Borders  of  evergreens  may  be  placed 
along  the  back  of  the  sideboard,  and  if  there  be  a  mirror 
in  it  a  small  chaplet  in  the  centre,  and  seeming  to  join  the 
borders,  looks  very  pretty.  Pictures  and  mirrors  can  be 
framed  with  made-up  borders  of  evergreens.  Wliere  these 
are  square,  borders  arranged  in  the  shape  of  Oxford  frames 
look  very  pretty.  If  the  entrance-hall  be  in  panels,  narrow 
borderings  of  box  and  ivy  look  well,  laid  on  all  round,  and 
in  the  centre  half  hoops  or  chaplets,  or  a  monogram. 
Scrolls,  with  mottoes,  bidding  people  to  be  welcome  and 
happy,  either  laid  on  bright-coloured  calicoes,  with  holly 
borderings,  or  else  merely  the  word  "  Christmas,'^  done 
in  laurel  leaves,  and  variegated  with  immortelle  flowers. 
Even  in  the  bedrooms  the  frames  of  pictures  and  mirrors 
can  be  edged  with  wreaths. 

In  Fig.  4  will  be  found  a  bold  and  effective  device  for  a 
large  space,  as,  for  example,  the  end  wall  of  an  entrance- 
hall  or  landing.  The  cross  pieces  are  stout  sticks,  the 
size  of  which  must  be  regulated  by  the  space  intended  to 
be  filled  ;  and  it  will  be  found  advisable  to  join  them  in 
the  centre  by  a  cross  joint,  otherwise  they  will  be  very- 
awkward  to  manage.  They  can  then  be  wreathed  with 
holly  and  mistletoe,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  legend 
surrounding  them  is  made  of  letters  in  gilt  paper,  pasted 
on  to  coloured  cardboard,  and  the  figure  of  the  robin  is 
cut  out  in  cardboard  and  painted. 

The  monogram  in  Fig.  2,  signifies  Christmas,  and  is 
very  pretty  made  either  of  leaves  and  berries,  or  moss, 
glued  on  cardboard,  and  edged  v;ith  three  different  shades 
of  immortelles.  The  border  is  made  of  bosses  of  different 
coloured  immortelles,  and  the  outside  row  of  star  points 
with  fern  fronds.  Fig.  i  is  a  bordering  for  the  cornice  of 
a  hall,  or  large  room,  and  is  made  of  laurel  leaves  and 
rosettes  of  coloured  paper  or  immortelles.  In  Fig.  3  the 
trefoil  is  made  of  holly  leaves,  and  the  border  of  laurel. 

In  our  decorations  we  must  not  forget,  the  dining-room 
table  when  our  guests  gather  round  it.  A  very  pretty 
centre-piece  is  made  by  covering  an  inverted  basin  with 
moss,  into  which  insert  sprigs  of  holly  quite  thick  until  it 
forms  a  pyramid  of  holly.  On  the  top  place  a  figure  of 
Old  Father  Christmas  (which  may  be  bought  at  any 
bazaar  or  sugar-plum  shop),  and  instead  of  the  holly  sprig 
he  generally  holds  in  his  hand,  place  a  spray  of  mistletoe. 

A  great  niany  fights  are  required,  where  fir  and  holly  are 
much  used,  in  table  decoration,  otherwise  the  effect  is 
heavy  and  gloomy. 

These  hints  will  make  it  an  easy  task  to  adorn  the 
house  for  Christmas  ;  but  half  the  pleasure  consists  in 
inventing  new  devices,  and  giving  scope  to  one's  taste  and 
ingenuity,  new  ideas  springing  up  and  developing  them- 
selves as  the  occasion  arises,  till  the  v/orker  finds  delight 
in  the  work,  and  is  thus  best  rewarded  for  the  toil. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


99 


THE  HOUSE. 

HOUSE-HUNTING. 

Till:   '^vord   "home"  has    in   our  language  a  force  and 
a  beauty  which  it  scarcely  has  in  any  other,  and  which 
makes  it  pleasant  to  the  ears  of  every  Englishman.     The 
house  is  not  the   whole   of  home,   but,   inasmuch   as   a 
good  and  comfortable  and  well-ordered  house  contributes 
greatly  to  the  happiness  of  home,  we  propose  to  say  some- 
thing upon  that  subject.     At  one  time  or  another  it  is  the 
lot  of  most  of  us  to  have  to  seek  a  house  as  our  place  of 
residence,  and  also   to  deal  with  inconveniences  in  our 
actual   dwellings.     With  regard    to    the   first   point,   no 
absolute  rules  can  be  laid  down  which  shall  be  applicable 
in  all  cases,  although  some  hints  will  be  found  of  general 
utility.     We  cannot  always  determine  where  we  will  live, 
as  that  is  often  very  much  controlled  by  circumstances. 
Some  have  to  select  their  dwellings  in  large  towns  and 
cities,   where  the   conditions   of  salubrity  may  be    less 
favourable  than    is   desirable.     But  even   then    it  is  not 
seldom  possible  to  make  a  selection,  and  when  it  is  pos- 
sible, every  precaution  ought  to  be  taken  to  secure  as  airy 
and  healthy  a  situation  as  may  be.     Supposing  we  have 
so  much  liberty,  we  should  endeavour  to  avoid  close  and 
narrow  streets  and  densely-populated  districts;  we  should 
seek  for  a  residence  which  does  not  lie  low,  or  on  soil 
which  is  at  all  swampy  and  ill-drained,  and  we  should  try 
to  get  a  house  built  upon  gravel,  sand,  chalk,  or  rock. 
We  must  also  aim  at  having  a  good  share  of  sunshine, 
and  light,  and  air.     Even  if  we  can  choose  our  home  in 
the  suburbs,  we  shall  be  wise  to  look  out  for  an  open 
situation,  and  neither  too  closely  hemmed  in  by  trees,  nor 
standing   upon  a  bad    soil.      A   very  large   number   of 
speculative  builders  will  remove  from  the  ground  they 
build    upon    every    particle   of    gravel,    or   other  useful 
subsoil,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London,  and  will  have 
the   excavations   filled   in   with   all   kinds  of  refuse   and 
rubbish.     It  is  needless  to  say  that  one's  house  might  as 
well  stand  in  a  marsh  as  upon  such  materials,  for  un- 
wholesome exhalations  will  arise,  and  various  forms   of 
disease  be  induced  in  consequence.     This  is  not  all  :  the 
houses  erected  upon  such  ground  are  liable  to  be  damp, 
and  apt  to  settle  down,  causing  cracks  in  the  walls  and 
partitions,  bulging  out  in  some  places,  and  shrinking  in 
others  ;  hence' windows  and  doors  get  out  of  order,  and  do 
not  shut  and  open  properly,  and  expose  the  inhabitants 
to  draughts. 

In  the  case  of  newly-built  houses  it  is  usually  possible 
to  find  out  whether  they  have  been  honestly  erected  from 
the  foundation  to  the  top.  If  old  and  worthless  materials 
have  been  largely  used  in  the  construction,  and  if  the 
work  has  been  executed  in  a  slight  and  slovenly  manner, 
it  will  soon  become  apparent. 

All  these  are  matters  to  be  inquired  into,  even  if  we  are 
about  to  take  a  house  favourably  located  ;  and  of  course 
it  is  suicidal  not  to  make  inquiry  if  v/e  are  going  to  pur- 
chase a  house.  But  even  these  points  are  not  all,  because 
the  drainage,  lighting,  ventilating,  and  internal  arrange- 
ments have  to  be  looked  to.  An  ill-drained  house  is  a 
nuisance,  and  yet,  because  proper  drainage  is  apt  to  be 
expensive,  builders  are  often  tempted  to  sin  in  this  matter. 
As  for  the  lighting  by  means  of  windows,  the  windows 
should  neither  be  too  few  nor  too  small,  nor  should  they 
be  badly  placed.  The  ventilating  is  a  matter  which  is  not 
always  so  readily  determined,  though  in  general  there  will 
be  cause  of  complaint  if  the  rooms  are  small  and  the 
ceilings  low,  and  if  the  halls  and  passages  are  narrow  and 
confined.  For  the  internal  arrangements  there  will  need 
to  be  a  careful  inspection.  It  should  be  seen  that  every 
door  and  window  opens  and  closes  properly,  and  has 
appropriate  fastenings ;  that  cupboards,  shelves,  and 
closets  are  fixed  in  suitable  positions  ;  that  ranges  and 
fire-grates  are  adapted  to  the  places  they  occupy ;  that  the 


floors  are  sound  and  level,  and  not  full  of  great  cracks, 
and  with  wide  spaces  between  them  and  the  skirting 
boards  round  the  rooms.  If  gas  is  laid  on,  the  meter 
ought  to  be  sufficient  for  the  number  of  lights,  and  the 
pipes  should  not  be  too  small,  nor  limited  to  too  few 
rooms.  If  there  are  Venetian  blinds,  they  must  be 
inspected  and  tested,  and  care  taken  that  they  are  in 
proper  condition  and  order.  Water,  of  course,  will  be  laid 
on,  and  it  must  be  looked  to.  Inquire  if  the  pipe  is  of 
sufficient  bore  ;  whether  the  taps  are  in  good  state,  sound 
and  strong  ;  whether  the  water  is  on  the  main,  or  only  let 
in  at  certain  hours  of  the  day  ;  whether  the  cistern — of 
which  there  must  be  one  in  any  case — is  out  of  doors  or 
indoors  ;  and  of  what  material  and  capacity  it  is.  If  the 
cistern  is  out  of  doors  you  will  be  without  water  when 
severe  frost  sets  in,  and  you  will  perhaps  be  annoyed  by 
the  bursting  of  the  leaden  pipes  when  the  thaw  comes. 
There  is  no  need  really  to  have  the  cistern  out  of  doors, 
and  it  is  a  nuisance  when  it  is  so.  Should  it  not  be 
properly  covered  over,  the  water  will  be  contaminated  with 
what  are  termed  "  blacks,"  in  and  near  large  towns  and 
cities.  Then,  as  for  the  material,  a  leaden  tank  or  cistern 
is  not  wholesome,  but  mischievous,  and  therefore  one  of 
slate,  or  some  such  material,  is  in  all  respects  preferable. 
The  sink-stone  in  the  back  kitchen  should  be  large  enough 
for  your  requirements,  and  should  be  properly  provided 
with  a  waste-pipe  to  carry  off  the  water.  Such  things  as 
copper  or  boiler,  oven  and  boiler,  and  well-constructed 
water-closets,  in  proper  positions,  will  also  all  have  to  be 
looked  after.  Finally,  a  coal-cellar  of  adequate  capacity, 
and  into  which  coals  can  be  readily  conveyed  from  the 
street,  without  filling  the  house  with  dust,  begriming 
everything,  and  causing  endless  confusion,  is  to  h^ 
regarded  as  a  necessary. 

There  will  be  less  to  look  after  cut  of  doors,  but  some- 
thing demands  attention  even  there.  If  there  is  no  foot- 
pavement  with  good  kerbing,  there  will  be  annoyance  in 
wet  weather,  and  the  steps  will  get  very  dirty.  A  lofty 
and  a  narrow  flight  of  steps  is  undesirable  on  many  ac- 
counts. If  steps  are  numerous,  they  are  inconvenient  to 
ascend  in  bad  weather,  and  require  much  extra  cleaning, 
while,  if  they  are  narrow,  they  look  mean,  and  do  not  sup- 
ply good  accommodation.  In  front  of  some  houses  there 
is  an  area,  with  an  entrance  to  the  basement  under  the 
ground-floor.  Although  this  construction  has  some  advan- 
tages, it  is  open  to  serious  objections.  Should  the  door  be 
left  open,  a  draught  like  a  hurricane  will  sometimes  sweep 
through  the  whole  house.  These  areas  offer  a  temptation 
to  dishonest  persons,  who  by  their  means  may  get  access 
to  an  unwatched  kitchen  or  breakfast-room,  and  carrj- 
away  a  plate-basket  or  other  valuables.  The  messengers 
of  tradesmen,  the  milkman,  the  butcher,  the  hearth-stone 
boy,  and  others,  may,  and  do,  at  these  area  entrances, 
waste  time  in  idle  gossip.  Anyhow,  they  furnish  fre- 
quently too  ready  exit  or  admission  to  such  as  one  would 
rather  keep  out  or  in,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  house- 
hunter  will  be  wise  to  look  at  this,  and,  if  he  takes  such 
a  house,  to  decide  whether  he  will  keep  that  entrance 
regularly  locked  or  unlocked.  Where  houses  are  in  ter- 
races, this  construction  may  be  the  only  one  that  allows 
of  a  second  entrance.  In  some  terraces,  the  back  doors 
open  into  a  lane  at  the  rear  of  the  gardens  behind,  in  which 
case  no  prudent  housekeeper  will  forget  the  lock.  Semi- 
detached houses  most  commonly  have  a  side  door  leading 
round  to  the  back,  and  it  is  a  good  arrangement,  probably 
the  best,  for  town  dwellings.  Such  a  door  should,  how- 
ever, have  good  fastenings,  like  all  others,  because  it  will 
not  be  wise  to  leave  it  always  open. 

A  small  garden  in  front  of  the  house  looks  well,  unless 
in  close  neighbourhoods  where  nothing  flourishes,  or  in  a 
north  aspect.  Under  favourable  circumstances,  such  a 
little  garden  is  a  desirable  adjunct,  provided  it  is  well  kept. 
Lorvdon  dwellings  of  moderate  size  seldom  have  gardens 


lOO 


THE   HOUSE. 


all  round,  and  yet  in  the  suburbs  few  need  be  without  a 
garden  in  the  rear.  As  everybody  loves  flowers,  everybody 
•will  desire  such  a  gaiden.  We  say  "  loves  flowers,"  for  a 
kitchen-garden  is  not  in  every  case  possible  near  the 
metropolis.  Flowers  and  evergreens  and  ornamental 
trees  can  be  selected  for  all  situations,  and  a  small  garden 
is  not  necessarily  expensive,  while  it  may  afford  pleasure 
and  opportunities  for  exercise.  If  a  house  has  a  garden, 
its  condition  should  be  noted,  and  it  will  be  borne  in  mind 
that  a  garden  to  a  new  house  is  too  often  a  mass  of  rubbish. 
There  may  be  no  paths,  or  none  properly  made  and 
gravelled  ;  or  there  may  be  no  flower-beds,  or  none  with 
more  than  a  sprinkling  of  soil  over  brickbats  and  mortar, 
and  the  lilce.  Now,  if  a  garden  does  not  cost  much  to 
keep,  it  costs  something  to  make,  and  he  who  has  to  pay 
for  the  first  laying-out  of  such  a  garden  as  we  have 
described,  will  be  suffering  for  others'  faults.  "  A  pound 
saved  is  a  pound  gained,"  and  this  is  never  more  true 
than  in  the  matter  of  a  garden.  Surely  it  is  as  much  the 
duty  of  a  landlord  to  provide  gravel  paths  to  a  garden  as 
floors  to  a  house,  and  it  is  nothing  short  of  dishonesty  to 
carry  away  the  soil,  and  thus  to  force  a  tenant  to  buy  more 
to  put  in  its  place. 

If  there  are  any  out-offices,  sec  that  they  are  what  they 
profess  to  be  ;  that  the  so-called  stable  and  coach-house, 
for  example,  arc  fit  to  contain  a  horse  and  a  vehicle  larger 
than  a  perambulator  or  a  bicycle.  The  cabins  which  are 
advertised  for  stables  and  coach-houses  are  too  often 
ridiculous. 

Without  going  further  into  these  details,  it  must  be  a 
fundamental  principle  with  one  who  seeks  a  house  in  or 
near  a  great  city,  or  anywhere  else,  to  ascertain  what  he 
requires  and  can  afford.  If  in  business,  the  house  must 
not  be  at  too  great  a  distance,  nor  of  difficult  access,  in- 
volving serious  outlay  of  time  or  of  money,  or  of  both. 
If  with  limited  income,  or  quiet  and  domestic  habits,  a 
house  is  not  to  be  too  large.  Nobody  ought  to  take  a 
smaller  house  than  he  requires  for  comfortable  occupa- 
tion, if  he  can  afford  to  pay  for  it.  As  a  general  rule,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  bad  to  get  a  house 
either  too  large  or  too  small. 

Another  question  whicli  house-seekers  should  put  is 
as  to  the  character  of  particular  localities.  They  may,  if 
they  like,  ask  whether  such  a  street  is  fashionable  or  un- 
fashionable, but  they  M'ill  surely  ascertain  whether  it  is 
respectable  or  not.  Everybody  knows  that  some  neigh- 
bourhoods are  not  in  good  odour,  and  that,  in  consequence, 
they  are  gradually  deserted  by  persons  of  real  respec- 
tability, and  commodious  houses  become  inhabited  by  an 
inferior  class  at  a  lower  rent.  However,  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  the  scale  of  rental  varies  in  localities  respecting  the 
character  of  which  no  objection  is  raised.  Some  of  the 
suburbs  of  London  are  more  expensive  for  rent  and  living 
than  others,  although  not  more  healthy  and  respectable. 
Parishes  in  which  rents  are  moderate,  and  living  cheap, 
very  often  contain  an  additional  number  of  poor,  and  in 
actual  practice  it  may  be  found  that  what  is  gained- in  rent 
and  other  items — especially  provisions — is  lost  in  rates 
and  taxes. 

The  inequality  in  taxes  is  remarkable,  and  therefore 
every  man  who  is  about  to  take  a  house  should  obtain,  in 
writing,  a  list  of  the  taxes  to  which  it  is  liable,  the  amount 
at  which  it  is  assessed,  and  the  actual  sums  it  has  paid  or 
would  have  paid  for  a  year  past.  Many  persons  get 
annoyed  by  discoveries  in  this  direction  which  might  have 
been  made  earlier,  and  avoided.  Those  who  go  to  buy  a 
house  may  fall  into  even  greater  mistakes.  For  instance, 
a  house  is  to  be  sold  for  £7So  in  one  place,  and  elsewhere 
the  same,  or  one  very  similar,  can  be  bought  for  ;^6oo. 
Supposing  the  houses  are  equal,  and  the  localities  equal, 
and  the  leases  equal,  the  house  at  ;i^6oo  may  be  the 
dearest.  The  purchaser  may  discover  that  his  extra 
ground  rent  alone  is  more  than  interest  upon  the  differ- 


ence between  the  prices  of  the  houses.  Attention  will  have 
to  be  given,  therefore,  to  other  points  than  rent  and  price 
when  houses  are  taken  for  a  term,  or  the  lease  purchased. 
Long  as  our  list  of  precautions  has  been,  it  is  by  no 
means  complete,  and  those  who  study  the  papers  which 
will  appear  in  the  course  of  this  work  upon  house  con- 
struction, and  a  multitude  of  accompanying  topics,  will 
know  what  we  mean.  Our  object  in  specifying  these  has 
been  to  exhibit  a  summary  view  of  the  points  to  which 
house-seekers  should  direct  their  attention.  We  have  had 
in  our  mind  rather  thus  far  those  who  would  rent  than 
those  who  would  buy  a  residence,  although  we  have 
dropped  a  few  hints  which  the  would-be  buyers  may  turn 
to  account. 

Far  less  need  be  said  about  choosing  a  residence  in  a 
small  town  or  village,  although  even  there,  there  are 
sundry  evils  to  be  guarded  against.  The  reputation  of 
the  place  generally  should  be  ascertained,  and  if  it  be  not 
considered  a  healthy  one  it  should  be  avoided.  In  any 
case,  the  situation  selected  should  not  be  too  low  or 
confined ;  it  ought  not  to  be  damp,  to  be  in  close 
proximity  to  standing  waters,  nor  to  be  near  any  manu- 
facture or  occupation  from  which  noxious  gases  and  bad 
smells  might  rise.  To  choose  a  house  on  the  top  of  a  hill 
is  not  always  wise  ;  for,  unless  the  constitution  be  strong, 
exposure  to  cold  winds  and  fogs  and  rapid  changes  of 
temperature  will  be  hard  to  bear,  and  productive  of  mis- 
chief. A  moderate  elevation  is  best,  and  if  there  be  a 
slope  it  should  be  gradual  and  not  steep.  Much  also 
depends  upon  the  subsoil  ;  if  tenacious,  like  clay,  the  water 
which  falls  will  not  percolate  through  it,  but  run  off  near 
the  surface,  and  a  houee  upon  such  a  slope  will  suffer,  of 
necessity.  If,  however,  the  side  of  the  hill  be  sand, 
gravel,  or  stratified  rock,  there  will  be  less  danger.  But 
in  all  cases,  the  soil  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
house  should  be  flat ;  not  higher  at  the  back  walls  than 
at  the  front,  and  properly  drained,  especially  at  the  rear 
of  the  building. 

It  is  always  well  for  ordinary  persons  to  secure  them- 
selves against  violent  and  cold  winds,  as  the  north,  north- 
cast,  and  east.  Therefore,  houses  exposed  to  these  winds 
should  not  be  chosen  ;  those  with  an  aspect  ranging 
from  south-east  to  west  are  usually  preferable,  especially 
if  sheltered  on  the  other  side  by  high  ground  or  trees. 
When  gardens  and  orchards  either  slope  towards  the 
south,  or  are  open  on  that  side,  they  will  produce  earlier 
and  better  crops.  Houses  at  the  sea-side  are  to  be  chosen 
with  regard  to  corresponding  advantages,  although  when 
they  arc  only  visited  for  a  temporary  sojourn  little  is 
thought  of  the  house,  the  greatest  part  of  the  time  being 
spent  out  of  doors. 

Wherever  a  permanent  residence  is  in  view  in  a  small 
town  or  the  open  country,  it  will  be  necessary  not  only  to 
ascertain  in  general  all  the  peculiarities  of  soil,  climate, 
aspect,  &c.,  but  also  facilities  of  access.  Good  roads 
are  important  ;  and  now  that  travelling  is  so  common, 
it  is  of  importance  to  be  within  convenient  distance 
of  a  railway-station.  Another  point  is  the  cost  and 
ready  procurableness  of  coal,  provisions,  and  whatever 
else  is  required  for  domestic  consumption,  and  not  pro- 
duced in  the  garden.  Water  is  simply  a  necessity,  and 
cannot  be  dispensed  with,  and  it  ought  to  be  abundant  at 
all  seasons,  and  good.  In  some  places,  otherwise  de- 
sirable, water  is  plentiful  in  autumn  and  on  to  mid- 
summer, and  then  so  scanty  as  almost  to  fail.  With 
regard  to  the  quality,  nothing  need  be  said  to  prove  that 
bad  water,  as  mere  surface  drainage,  or  springs  charged 
with  certain  mineral  substances,  is  an  unmitigated  evil  ; 
you  cannot  be  too  particular  in  this  matter.  Finally, 
wherever  a  residence  is  erected  or  provided,  care  should  be 
taken  that  it  is  supplied  with  all  needful  domestic  offices, 
that  it  should  have  a  pleasant  look-out,  and  that  it  should 
neither  be  in  a  lonely  wilderness  nor  in  a  close  and 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


lai 


crowded  thoroughfare.  As  already  observed,  the  house 
is  not  the  whole  of  home,  but  it  goes  far  to  make  one  ; 
and  it  is  our  duty  to  do  all  we  can  to  have  a  bright  and 
healthy  dwelling,  and  as  many  domestic  conveniences  as 
we  can  get. 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 

THE  carpenter's   BENCH. 

Fig.  48  shows  the  simplest  possible  kind  of  carpenter's 
bench,  but  it  is  almost  needless  to  state  that  it  is  not  an 
absolute  necessity.  Any  solid  old  table,  or  wide  shelf, 
about  two  feet  nine  inches  or  three  feet  from  the  ground, 
can  be  used  to  plane  up  a  piece  of  wood  upon  if  a  screw  or 
nail  be  driven  in  as  a  stop  for  the  wood  ;  but  there  would 
then  be  no  means  of  holding  a  board  on  edge  for  the 
purpose  of  planing  it,  and  we  shall  therefore  describe  the 
figure  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  may  make  a  bench 
for  themselves. 

A  bench  may  be  made  either  as  a  fixture  or  movable  ; 
the  former,  of  course,  will  be 
preferable.  It  consists  of  a 
strong  frame,  firmly  mor- 
ticed and  screwed  together, 
and  strengthened  by  a  thick 
plank  along  the  front,  and  in 
width  two  to  three  feet  across 
the  top,  which  should  be  of 
jilanks  not  less  than  two 
inches  thick.  In  front,  and 
at  the  head  of  the  bench 
Fig.  48,  is  the  bench  vice, 
consisting  of  the  board  B, 
which  screws  in  and  out  by 
means  of  the  screw  c,  which 
works  in  a  wooden  nut  fast- 
ened behind  A,  the  further 
end  being  supported  by  the 
rod  D,  which  projects  from 
the  sliding  board  through  A, 
in  which  it  slides  loose.  The 
screw  c  is  turned  by  the 
handle  F,  and  the  vice  is 
opened  or  shut  according  to 
the  direction.     The  wooden 

spike  at  M  falls  into  a  small  groove  in  the  screw  c,  and 
keeps  the  shifting  board  close  up  to  the  head  of  the  screw 
when  turned  outwards.  The  slide  D  is  often  replaced  by  a 
screw  like  C,  and  this,  perhaps,  is  a  better  arrangement. 
The  stop  E  may  be  simply  a  square  log,  fitting  tightly  into 
a  hole  in  the  bench  top,  and  having  a  few  sharp  teeth  at 
its  edge,  which  bury  themselves  into  the  wood  required  to 
be  held  and  keep  it  in  its  place.  The  stop  is  knocked  up 
or  down  with  a  mallet,  but  soon  works  loose.  A  better 
form  of  stop  is  that  of  which  we  give  an  illustration 
in  Fig.  49.  It  consists  of  a  plate,  B,  to  which  is  hinged 
at  D  the  knife  C,  which  is  screwed  down  by  the  screw 
E,  and  the  edge  K  being  cut  into  teeth,  which  stick 
into  the  wood,  as  in  diagram.  The  spring  F,  coiled 
in  the  box  underneath,  keeps  the  plate  well  up  to  the 
head  of  the  screw,  but  the  top  plate  C  can  be  screwed 
down  quite  level  with  the  bench  top,  which  is  a  great 
advantage,  as  it  then  cannot  be  at  all  in  the  way.  The 
lower  plate  is  let  into  a  hole  morticed  in  the  wood  of  the 
bench,  to  which  the  whole  is  fastened  by  the  screws  H  I. 
The  screw  principle  introduced  here  gives  great  advan- 
tages over  the  hammering  up  or  down  of  a  plain  block, 
from  the  fineness  of  the  adjustment  obtainable,  enabling 
the  workman  to  plane  the  thinnest  boards  without  danger 
of  taking  a  piece  out  of  his  plane-iron.  The  price  of  this 
dog  is  about  three  shillings.  There  are  several  other 
patent  stops,  but  this  seems  the  simplest     The   bench 


hook  H  is  useful  for  holding  down  blocks  to  be  morticed, 
and  other  purposes.  It  is  nothing  but  a  piece  of  strong 
iron  bent  something  like  a  crook,  and  fitting  loosely  into 
the  hole  in  the  bench  at  K,  The  block  to  be  held  is 
placed  under  the  part  H,  and  a  sharp  blow  with  a  mallet 
on  the  top  of  the  crook  fixes  it.  A  blow  on  the  back  at  £ 
releases  the  work. 


Fig.  49- 


HINTS    TO    LETTER-WRITERS.— II. 

Of  all  faults  in  letter-writing  the  most  important  to  be 
avoided  is  bad  grammar.  Those  who  are  not  in  the  habit 
of  writing  much  are  very  apt  to  blunder  in  their  grammar, 
although  well  and  correctly-expressed  sentences  are  among 
the  chief  excellencies  of  a  letter.  Everything  should  be 
said  in  as  easy  and  natural  a  style  as  possible,  without 
any  attempt  at  quaintness  and  originality.  A  letter  is 
not  a  fine  oration,  to  be  adorned  with  rhetorical  flourishes^ 
nor  a  poem,  to  be  filled  up  with  pompous  and  high- 
sounding  phrases.  The  choice  of  words  is  very  important. 
They  should  in  no  case   be   low   and   vulgar,  and   any 

approach  to  what  is  called. 
"  slang "    is  to   be    avoided 
most  carefully.    On  the  othei- 
hand  there  must  be  no  fool- 
ish ambition  to  use  uncom- 
mon and  pretentious  words, 
the  meanings  of  which  have 
to  be  sought  out  in  a  dic- 
tionary.    It  is  necessary  t« 
vary  the  style  according  to 
the  persons  addressed.     To 
relatives    and   intimate    ac- 
quaintances  the   style  may 
be  more  lively,  cheerful,  and 
unrestrained.      Playful   and 
affectionate  epithets  can  is 
such  cases  be  properly  in- 
troduced.    When,  however, 
one  writes   to   superiors  or 
strangers,  all  that  is  written 
should   be  in   as  calm  and 
dignified  a  manner  as  can  be 
adopted,  provided  only  that 
the     language     be     alway-s 
simple  and  intelligible.     We 
advise  persons  who  keep  a  diary,  or  put  down  notes  of 
occurrences,  or  write  memoranda,  to  adopt  the  style  ia 
which  they  ought  to  write  to  strangers  and  superiors. 
t      Now  and  then  letters  have  to  be  addressed  to  persons 
of  rank  and  title,   or  to   others,  in  speaking  to  whom 
society  requires  attention  to  certain  formalities.     There  is 
an    etiquette    in   these    things,  inattention   to    which   is 
;  nothing  but  a  breach  of  good  manners.     It  is  therefore 
!  very  desirable  that  we  should  learn  how  to  address  persons 
\  of  rank  and  title,  and,  in  fact,  everybody  we  write  to.     In 
addressing  ordinary  gentlemen  it  is  enough  to  style  them 
'  Sir,  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  letters.     If  we  have  some 
■'  knowledge  of  them,  we  may  say  Dear  Sir ;  and  if  we  are 
;  intimate  with  them  we  may  say  My  dear  Sir.      A  similar 
'  rule  applies  to  ladies,  who,  under  corresponding  circum- 
stances, are  addressed  as  Madam,  Dear  .Madam,  or  My 
'  dear  Madam.      It  is  a  custom  with  some,  who  feel  that 
!  they  need  not  be  quite  so  formal,  to  head  and  end  their 
letters  by  saying  My  dear  Mr.  Jones,  or  Dear  Mr.  Jones  j 
'  A  still  greater  familiarity  is  allowed  in  addressing  very 
intimate  friends,  and  it  is  not  rude  to  say  in  such  a  case. 
My  dear  Jones.     Nay,  there  are  cases  in  which  personal 
names  can  be  employed,  but  prudence  must  dictate  con- 
!  cerning  these  :  they  may  safely  be  admitted  in  writing  to 
brothers,  and  sisters,  and  cousins,  and  also  in  addressing 
playmates    and   school-fellows.     We  reser^'c   to   another 
occasion  the  forms  employed  in  addressing  titled  persons. 


102 


INMATES   OF  THE   HOUSE— DOMESTIC. 


INMATES   OF   THE    HOUSE— DOMESTIC. 

IV.— DOMESTIC  SERVANTS  AND  THEIR  DUTIES. 
The  servant  grievance  is  being  constantly  discussed  to  very- 
little  purpose,  simply  because  more  people  are  capable  of 
deploring  an  evil  than  suggesting  a  remedy.  Admitting  that 
the  class  of  domestic  servants  has  generally  become  more 
deficient  in  ability  than  any  other  body  of  labourers  in  the 
social  scale,  some  allowances  should  be  made  for  their 
shortcomings  owing  to  the  exceptional  circumstances  to 
which  of  late  years  they  have  been  exposed.  To  cite  only 
one  cause,  the  increased  facilities  of  locomotion.  Formerly 
country  girls  were  content  to  live  from  one  year's  end  to 
another  "in  the  same  situations  from  sheer  inability  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  travelling  any  distance.  Now-a- 
days.  railway  trains  have  thrown  the  servant-market  open, 
and,  consequently,  even  remote  provinces  arc  drained  of 
household  help.  The  rush  is  to  large  towns,  and  especially 
to  London,  where  wages  are  high,  and  dress  and  pleasures 
plentiful  and  cheap.  Arrived  at  their  destination,  servant 
girls  very  likely  find  their  mistresses  unable  or  unwilling 
to  help  them. 

It  used  not  to  be  so.  Middle-class  employers  did  not 
always  consider  it  beneath  them  to  engage  practically  in 
the  work  of  housekeeping.  But  since  the  frenzy  for  display 
and  excitement  has  seized  upon  all  classes  alike,  mistresses 
are  apt  to  impose  upon  their  servants  responsibilities 
which  the  latter  are  unfitted  by  previous  training  to  dis- 
charge. Nothing  is  more  natural  than  that  vexations 
and  disappointments  should  be  the  result. 

It  is  not  be  expected  that  any  sensible  change  for  the 
better  will  take  place  yet  awhile.  Not  until  education 
proper  has  corrected  the  existing  false  notions  of  employer 
and  employed,  may  we  hope  for  a  happier  state.  In  the 
meanwhile,  every  mistress  has  it  in  her  power  to  help  the 
good  time  in  coming,  by  fulfilling  her  own  part  of  the 
contract  with  her  servants  scrupulously  and  diligently. 

The  first  step  in  this  direction  is,  as  far  as  possible,  to 
make  no  engagements  which  do  not  promise  to  be  of  a 
lasting  nature.  By  this  is  meant,  not  to  engage  a  servant 
with  a  known  unfitness  for  the  place.  Many_  ladies  are 
prone  to  take  young  v/omen  into  their  service,  just  to  stop 
a  gap,  or  to  tide  over  a  difficulty.  All  that  they  want  is, 
to  find  some  one  to  fill  the  place  for  a  time,  whilst  they  are 
suiting  themselves  at  leisure. 

Of  course  it  will  be  remarked,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
do  the  work  oneself,  and  that  the  risk  must  be  run.  To 
this  it  may  be  replied,  that  it  should  be  every  mistress's 
endeavour  to  acquaint  herself  with  "servants'  work" 
generally,  in  order  to  meet  such  emergencies.  If  ladies 
were  supposed  to  possess  this  knowledge  more  generally 
than  is  commonly  believed,  servants  would  be  less  inde- 
pendent. And  for  this  reason  :  like  other  workers,  they 
have  to  live  by  the  demand  for  their  services.  As  it  is  at 
present,  cooks  that  know  nothing  of  cookery,  and  nurses 
that  are  ignorant  of  the  nurture  of  childhood,  get  as 
good  places,  and  oftentimes  higher  wages,  than  women 
who  really  know  their  business,  and  are  high  principled 
enough  to  do  what  they  undertake. 

Apropos  of  wages.  It  is  a  very  prevalent  notion  that 
high  wages  secure  efficient  service.  The  assumption,  how- 
ever, is  far  from  being  well-founded.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  best  servants  are  satisfied  with  the  average  rate  of 
wages,  and  care  more  for  a  comfortable  situation,  where 
the  payments  are  fair  and  certain,  than  for  higher  remu- 
neration than  is  customary.  Exceptionally  high  wages  are 
apt  to  be  regarded  as  a  bribe  rather  than  as  a  well-earned 
reward.  It  is  better  to  pay  for  length  of  service  than  for 
the  qualities  naturally  supposed  to  be  possessed  by  servants 
in  their  respective  places.  Thus,  if  a  servant  enters  a 
situation,  say  at  twelve  pounds  a  year,  it  is  a  better  plan 
to  increase  her  wages  yearly  one  pound,  than  to  pay  a 
higher  rate  at  the  outset  with  no  prospect  of  a  rise.     Many 


servants  leave  good  places  for  the  sole  reason  that  they 
have  no  such  encouragement  to  remain.  The  policy  of 
refusing  a  similar  increase  is  short-sighted,  for  "  changing" 
is  generally  a  costly  experiment.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed 
that  wages  are  to  go  on  continually  increasing  ;  a  limit  has 
to  be  arrived  at  at  last ;  but  the  limit  should  be  the  full 
extent  of  the  employer's  means,  and  somewhat  over  ai^d 
above  the  possible  worth  of  the  servant's  labours  to  a 
stranger.  By  this  means,  there  is  some  \cxy  great  possi- 
bility of  securing  personal  interest,  if  not  attachment,  in 
those  who  serve. 

Intimately  connected  with  wages  is  the  finding  of  extras. 
For  some  reason  or  other,  which  it  is  difficult  to  account 
for,  many  housekeepers  do  not  undertake  to  find  grocery 
and  beer,  but  allow  money  for  those  articles  of  consump- 
tion. Either  such  things  are  necessary  to  the  diet  of 
servants,  or  they  are  not.  If  they  are  necessary-,  it  is  better 
by  far  to  provide  tea,  sugar,  and  beer,  than  to  give  money 
which  may  not  be  applied  to  its  proper  use.  In  point  of 
economy,  the  money  payment  is  a  losing  one,  because  a 
housekeeper  having  to  feed  a  certain  number  of  persons 
daily,  the  better  all  the  meals  are  supplied,  the  more 
regular  is  the  consumption  likely  to  be.  A  girl  that  goes 
without  a  good  tea  is  more  likely  to  prove  an  inordinate 
supper-eater  than  one  who  has  previously  enjoyed  a  good 
meal. 

With  regard  to  beer  money.  If  beer  be  a  necessary, 
the  money  ought  to  be  spent  in  buying  the  required 
nourishment  ;  if  not,  there  is  no  sense  in  giving  wages  in 
lieu  of  it. 

Perquisites  are  happily  going  out  of  fashion  ;  but  a 
certain  class  of  servants  still  stipulate  for  them.  The 
principle  is  bad,  and  tends  more  to  promote  dishonesty 
than  any  other  flaw  in  our  social  habits.  When  a  mistress 
once  allows  her  servants  of  their  own  accord  to  dispose  of 
any  articles,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  draw  a  line  between 
what  is  a  rightful  perquisite  or  what  is  a  misappropriation, 
not  to  say  a  theft.  The  articles  may  be  of  small  worth, 
and,  perhaps,  useless  to  the  owner  ;  but  the^^ower  of  dis- 
posing of  such  things  is  a  temptation  to  swell  the  profits 
by  unfair  means. 

In  a  well -managed  household  every  remnant  of  food 
and  clothing  should  be  disposed  of  by  the  mistress's 
hand.  If  she  pleases  to  give  away  things  that  are  useless 
to  herself,  the  gift  is  acknowledged  as  such.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  a  servant  has  |the  power  of  taking  certain 
articles  as  a  right,  no  thanks  are  due.  Dripping,  bones, 
rags,  and  worn-out  apparel  all  have  their  uses,  as  we  shall 
endeavour  to  jDrove  in  the  course  of  subsequent  articles 
on  this  subject. 

With  regard  to  a  plan  of  household  work.  Whether 
an  establishment  be  large  or  small,  positive  rules  should 
be  laid  down  for  observance  in  all  that  relates  to  the 
comfort  of  the  family  and  the  despatch  of  work.  The 
best  plan  is  to  have  the  order  of  work  and  rules  for  the 
in- coming  and  out -going  of  the  servants  legibly  and 
tersely  written,  and  pasted  on  the  walls  of  the  kitchen. 
A  little  ornamental  bordering  and  varnish  makes  the  pla- 
card appear  both  pleasing  and  permanent.  Any  express 
duty  required  of  the  seiwant  should  be  particularised 
thereon. 

In  order  to  carry  out  the  above  plan  successfully,  the 
mistress  should  have  a  corresponding  table  at  hand  for 
her  own  reference,  so  as  not  to  give  contrary  orders  in- 
advertently, and  thereby  nullify  the  rules. 

Whether  "followers"  are  allowed  is  a  question  often 
put  by  a  servant  on  applying  for  a  situation.  Except 
under  very  rare  circumstances,  it  is  better  to  disallow  the 
privilege.  While  speaking  on  this  subject,  we  may  add 
that  the  word  "  followers  "  has  a  very  elastic  meaning,  and 
as  it  is  difficult  to  draw  a  line  between  those  that  are 
unobjectionable  and  otherwise,  no  hardship  can  be  felt  in 
refusing  to  admit  visitors  to  the  kitchen  save  upon  express 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


103 


permission.  The  arrangement  to  the  effect  that  periodi- 
cally a  servant  shall  be  permitted  to  go  out  and  see  her 
friends,  does  away  with  the  necessity  for  having  them  to 
call  on  her.  At  the  same  time,  a  mistress  should  be 
careful  not  to  bind  herself  to  spare  her  servant  on  a 
certain  day  in  every  month,  as  is  sometimes  demanded. 
*'  Once  in  a  month  when  convenient"  is  a  better  under- 
standing. 

Most  servants,  in  addition  to  the  monthly  holiday,  ask 
to  be  allowed  to  go  to  church  of  a  Sunday  once  in  the 
day.  This  request  is  reasonable  ;  and  if  a  servant  really 
goes  to  a  place  of  worship,  some  inconvenience  should  be 
borne  by  her  employers  to  secure  her  this  liberty,  but  if 
she  goes  instead  to  see  her  friends,  it  should  be  a  matter 
for  consideration  whether  she  shall  go  out  or  not.  At  any 
rate,  the  absence  ought  not  to  extend  beyond  the  time 
occupied  in  the  church  service. 

Dress  is  a  very  disputed  point  in  these  days  between 
mistress  and  maid.  Any  attempt  to  restrict  young  women 
in  the  choice  of  their  garments  will  be  found  fruitless. 
Certain  fashions,  however,  which  arc  likely  to  be  destruc- 
tive to  the  employer's  property,  or  unfitted  for  the  per- 
formance of  a  servant's  duties,  a  lady  has  a  right  to 
prohibit — for  instance,  crinoline. 

Caps  and  white  aprons  for  answering  the  door  and 
waiting  at  table,  are  befitting  to  young  women  in  service. 
Those  little  crochet  caps,  now  so  cheap  and  becoming, 
are  the  best  head-gear  to  stipulate  for.  Chignons  ought 
to  be  strictly  forbidden  in  the  house.  Large  holland 
aprons,  to  be  worn  whilst  bed-making  and  dusting  furni- 
ture, arc  necessary  garments  ;  also,  cotton  gowns  for 
morning  wear. 

If  ladies  would  be  at  a  little  pains  to  mention  their 
Avishcs  on  this  subject,  young  women  in  service  would 
supply  themselves  with  suitable  wardrobes.  Whatever 
clothing  a  servant  chposcs  to  wear  when  out  for  a  holiday 
is  beyond  a  mistress's  rule. 


COOKING. 


SOU?S  AND  MEAT  DISHES  AT  MODERATE  COST. 
Pea  Soup. — The  quality  of  this  will  much  depend  upon 
the  water  with  which  it  is  made.  The  peas  are  often 
found  fault  with  when  it  is  the  water  which  is  really  to 
blame.  Nevertheless,  some  peas  are  good  boilers — others 
not ;  but  unfortunately  there  are  no  means  of  knowing 
them  beforehand.  Split  peas,  when  good  boilers,  are 
cooked  sooner  than  whole  ones  ;  but  split  peas  will  often 
behave  as  badly  as  the  worst  whole  peas.  The  w^ater  to 
cook  dry  peas,  either  white  or  blue,  should  be  Jt//— rain 
or  river-water,  without  a  particle  of  salt.  Soak  them  for 
a  night  in  some  of  this,  and  then  set  them  on  the  fire 
separately  {i.e.,  not  with  the  meat  nor  with  the  meat-broth 
to  make  the  soup),  in  a  saucepan  with  the  water  cold. 
Let  them  come  to  a  boil  gradually,  and  simmer  slowly  till 
they  are  quite  tender.  Then  pour  them  into  a  cullender 
placed  over  a  bowl,  and  squeeze  them  through  it  witli  the 
back  of  a  wooden  spoon,  so  as  to  retain  the  skins  (if  the 
peas  are  whole)  in  the  cullender.  The  crushed  peas 
which  have  passed  through  the  cullender  are  what  is 
called  the  purde  of  peas.  Take  any  good  meat-broth  or 
stock  you  have,  not  too  salt.  When  it  boils,  throw  into 
it  a  good  quantity  of  celery  cut  into  short  lengths,  and 
a  smaller  quantity  of  chopped  Vcarrot  and  turnip.  The 
flavour  of  the  celery  ought  to  prevail ;  when  it  is  not 
to  be  had,  a  little  celery  seed  crushed  will  be  a  good 
substitute.  When  the  vegetables  are  tender,  stir  in  your 
puree,  and  serve  accompanied  by  toasted  bread,  cut  into 
squares,  to  soak  in  it.  Another  flavour  much  approved  with 
pea  sotip  is  that  of  sage.  Dry  the  leaves  before  a  gentle 
fire,  rub  them  to  powder  between  your  hands,  and  serve 
in  a  saucer  for  each  person  to  dust  into  his  plate  of  soup 


as  much  as  he  chooses.  Pea  soup,  a  good  thing  in  itself, 
may  be  made  still  better  by  taking  one  or  two  hocks  of 
pork,  slightly  salted  (or,  if  much  sailed,  well  steeped  in 
tepid  water  to  draw  out  the  brine),  and  making  the  broth 
for  the  soup  with  them,  and  when  the  soup  is  made,  by 
cutting  up  the  pork  into  small  pieces  and  adding  it 
thereto.  Your  pea  soup  then  becomes  victuals  and  drink 
in  one — substantial  diet  for  a  hard-working  man.  Teas 
are  a  valuable  article  of  food,  and  their  use  might  be 
extended  with  great  advantage.  P'or  instance,  if  you  bake 
your  bread  at  home,  sometimes  add  one  pound  of  ])ea- 
meal  to  every  stone  of  flour,  and  it  will  make  the  bread  all 
the  more  nutritious.  Peas  are  a  very  supporting  food  both 
for  grown  people  and  for  children.  They  should  be  eaten 
— we  are  told  on  medical  authority — once  or  twice  a  week 
all  the  year  round. 

Vegetable  Soup. — Slice  into  a  pail  of  cold  water  two  or 
three  lettuces,  a  leek  or  two,  a  few  onions  and  potatoes, 
and  one  turnip.  Any  garden  vegetables  you  have  may  be 
added  to  the  above.  Put  a  good  lump  of  dripping  into  a 
saucepan  with  a  close-fitting  lid  ;  when  it  is  melted,  put 
in  the  vegetables,  with  no  more  water  than  hangs  to  them ; 
shut  down  the  lid,  and  let  them  stew  gently,  shaking  them 
about  to  avoid  burning.  When  they  are  half  done,  stir  in 
enough  broth  or  water  to  make  the  quantity  of  soup  you 
want,  add  a  few  leaves  of  celery  and  sorrel  (if  to  be  had), 
and  a  teacupful  of  green  peas,  or,  cook  half  a  pint  of  dry 
peas,  and  mash  them  through  a  cullender  into  your  soup. 
Let  it  boil  till  the  vegetables  are  done  enough;  season 
with  pepper  and  salt ;  stir  in  a  little  bit  of  butter.  Put 
slices  of  toasted  bread  into  your  tureen,  and  pour  the  soup 
over  them. 

Shin  of  Beef  Soup. — A  departed  hum.orist  ha^  said, 
"  Of  all  the  birds  that  fly  in  the  air,  commend  me  to  the 
shin  of  beef.  There's  marrow  for  the  master,  meat  for 
the  mistress,  gristle  for  the  servants,  and  bones  for  the 
dogs."  By  successive  stewings  and  warmings-up,  it  be- 
comes better  and  better  every  day,  until  it  is  all  of  it  con- 
sumed. It  may  be  cooked  as  follows  : — Take  three  or  four 
pounds  of  shin  of  beef,  cut  the  meat  into  two  or  three  slices 
down  to  the  bone,  which  should  remain  undivided  and  still 
enclosed  in  the  flesh.  Plug  up  each  end  of  the  bone  with 
a  stiff  paste  made  of  flour  and  water,  to  keep  in  the  marrow. 
Set  it  on  the  fire  in  a  boiler  of  cold  water,  with  six  or  eight 
peppercorns  and  three  or  four  cloves.  Skim  as  long  as 
any  scum  rises.  If  you  season  with  salt,  it  must  be  very 
slightly ;  otherwise,  by  continued  boiling  and  warming- 
up,  the  broth  will  be  so  reduced  as  to  become  too  salt. 
Let  it  boil  gently  for  four  hours,  then  make  it  boil 
fast,  and  throw  in  a  few  peeled  turnips,  carrots,  and 
onions,  with  a  small  bunch  of  thyme  and  parsley.  When 
the  vegetables  are  tender,  you  may  serve  the  soup  with 
bits  of  toasted  bread  floating  in  it.  When  the  soup  has 
been  served,  take  up  your  beef,  remove  the  slices  of 
meat  from  the  bone,  separate  them,  if  needed,  with  a 
knife  and  fork,  put  them  in  the  middle  of  a  hot  dish,  and 
arrange  the  vegetables  round  them,  cutting  the  carrots 
and  turnips  into  shapely  bits.  For  sauce,  fry  chopped 
onions  brown,  stir  in  amongst  them  a  dessert-spoonful  of 
flour,  dilute  with  a  little  of  the  soup,  add  two  dessert- 
spoonfuls of  mushroom  catchup  (for  the  making  of  which 
we  will  give  a  recipe  in  due  course),  pepper  and  salt,  stir 
all  together,  and  pour  it  over  your  slices  of  shin,  then 
serve.  For  the  marrow  :  toast  a  large  round  of  bread, 
lay  it  on  a  hot  plate,  spread  the  marrow  roughly  on  it, 
season  with  pepper,  salt,  and  a  little  mustard,  cut  it  into 
as  many  pieces  as  there  are  persons  sitting  at  the  table, 
and  serve. 

Sausages  and  Cabbage. — Shred  a  fine-hearted  cabbage 
or  savoy  into  a  pail  of  cold  water,  picking  it  over  leaf 
by  leaf  to  see  that  no  impurities  are  left ;  rinse  the  shred 
cabbage  well  therein,  then  put  it  into  a  deep  saucepan 
of  boiling  soft  water,  without  salt.     Let  it  boil,  with  the 


I04 


COOKING. 


lid  off,  and  with  only  just  water  enough  to  cover  it,  till 
the  cabbage  is  tender.  Stir  now  and  then,  to  prevent 
its  sticking  to  the  bottom,  and  if  the  liquor  evaporates  too 
much,  fill  up  with  hot  water.  Contrive,  when  the  cabbage 
is  done,  to  have  just  enough  liquor  left  to  moisten  it. 
Then  bury  in  the  cooked  cabbage  a  pound  or  more  of 
uncooked  sausages.  Put  the  lid  close  down  on  the  sauce- 
pan, to  keep  in  the  heat  and  vapour  ;  let  them  stew,  not 
too  slowly,  shaking  them  now  and  then,  for  twenty  or 
five-and-twenty  minutes.  Have  ready,  on  a  hot  dish,  a 
thickish  round  of  toasted  bread.  Take  the  sausages  out 
of  the  cabbage  with  a  spoon,  and  arrange  them  in  a  row 
on  the  toast.  Squeeze  the  cabbage  in  the  saucepan  with 
the  back  of  your  spoon,  and  pour  the  liquor  over  the 
sausages  and  toast.  Then  serve  the  cabbage,  neatly 
piled  on  another  hot  dish.  This  dish  has  the  advantage 
of  being  easily  heated  up  again,  when  it  is  quite  as  good 
as  at  first.  If  no  sausages  are  left  when  the  cabbage  is 
warmed-up  again,  spread  it  in  a  layer  on  a  dish,  and  on  it 
put  a  few  poached  or  fried  eggs,  or  three  or  four  slices  of 
toasted  bacon. 

Eppitig  Sausages. — Take  sage,  thyme,  and  especially 
knotted  marjoram,  if  you  can  get  it.  If  they  have 
been  splashed  with  earth  or  sand  by  the  rain,  as  often 
happens,  you  must  wash  them  thoroughly  clean,  and  let 
them  dry  in  a  current  of  air.  When  quite  dry,  strip 
the  leaves  from  the  stalks,  and  chop  them  very  fine 
together.  Mix  a  small  quantity  of  this  thoroughly  with  the 
chopped  sausage-meat  (which  should  be  seasoned  with 
allspice  and  nutmeg)  before  putting  it  into  the  skins. 
The  dose  of  this  will  depend  upon  taste ;  at  the  first 
trial,  it  is  better  not  to  overdo  it.  These  aromatic  herbs 
can  be  dried  in  a  slow  oven,  rubbed  between  the  palms  to 
a  powder,  and  kept  in  bottles  for  future  use.  In  a  fresh 
state,  a  very  small  proportion  of  parsley  and  chervil  may 
be  mixed  with  them. 

Roast  Pork  and  Potatoes,  Fried  Whole. — The  pig  must 
be  scalded,  not  singed.  Take  a  good  piece  of  the  loin  or 
spare  rib,  score  the  skin,  to  make  nice  "  crackle,"  and  let 
out  the  fat.  Roast  it  before  the  fire,  over  a  catch-pan. 
Take  middle-sized  or  small  potatoes  ;  first  wash  and  dry, 
then  peel  them,  so  as  not  to  have  to  wash  them  after 
peeling  ;  wipe  them  dry  with  a  napkin.  When  the  pork 
is  roasted,  pour  the  fat  into  a  small  deep  saucepan  ;  set  it 
on  the  fire  ;  when  quite  hot,  fry  the  potatoes  in  it  to  a  light 
clear  brown.  The  fat  will  serve  again,  or  for  other  pur- 
poses. 

Haricot  Mutton. — Take  the  chump  end  of  the  neck, 
or  the  breast,  of  mutton  ;  cut  it  up  into  small  pieces,  of  a 
size  to  be  helped  with  a  spoon.  Set  them  on  the  fire,  in 
just  enough  water  to  keep  them  from  burning.  Keep 
turning  them  about  in  this,  till  they  are  half-cooked  and 
nicely  browned.  Then  take  them  out  and  lay  them  on  a 
dish.  To  the  gravy  remaining  in  the  saucepan,  add  more 
water,  with  flour,  pepper,  salt,  and  a  sprig  of  thyme  and 
parsley.  Stir  these  well  together,  then  return  your  mutton 
to  the  saucepan.  After  it  has  boiled  a  few  minutes,  put 
in  some  peeled  potatoes  (whole,  if  small,  halved,  if 
large),  a  carrot  sUced,  a  turnip  the  same,  and  either 
small  onions  whole,  or  large  ones  sliced.  When  the 
vegetables  are  cooked,  your  mutton  is  ready.  Serve 
the  whole  together  on  the  same ,  dish.  You  may  lay 
slices  of  toasted  bread,  as  sippets,  at  the  bottom  of,  or 
round,  the  dish.  They  will  make  it  both  more  sightly 
and  more  plentiful. 

Pigs'  Fry  is  much  nicer,  tenderer,  and  more  econo- 
mical, baked  than  fried.  Into  a  large  pudding-basin, 
put  slices  of  the  heart  and  liver,  pieces  of  the  chitter- 
ling  "frill,"  and  spleen,  intermixed  with  sliced  onions, 
and  seasoned  with  pepper,  salt,  and  allspice.  Cover 
them  with  water,  in  which  a  little  flour  has  been  care- 
fully mixed  ;  put  a  plate  on  the  top,  and  set  in  the 
oven  till  done  enough. 


Pig^  Liver. — Open  the  liver,  by  cutting  it  in  halves 
horizontally,  but  without  detaching  the  separate  por- 
tions. Lay  it  thus  open  on  a  dish,  season  it  with  pepper 
and  salt,  and  pour  over  it  a  little  oiled  butter  ;  let  it  sa 
remain  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  Then  spread  over  it  equally 
a  stuffing  made  of  bacon,  chopped  parsley,  and  shalot,  or 
whatever  other  stuffing  suits  your  taste  and  judgment. 
Then  close  the  liver,  and  wrap  it  in  caul,  or  "leaf,"  or  thin 
internal  sheet-fat  of  a  pig  or  calf.  Lay  this  in  a  deep  dish, 
with  a  slice  of  bacon  under  and  upon  it  ;  cover  it  closely 
with  another  dish  over  it,  and  s>it  in  a  gentle  oven.  When 
done,  take  it  out  of  the  leaf-fat,  and  serve  it  with  its  own 
gravy,  relieved  by  a  little  vinegar. 

Black  /'«</^z«j^(a  much-approved  recipe). — Have  ready 
well  cleansed  pigs'  entrails,  exactly  the  same  as  are  used 
for  containing  sausages.  Keep  them  steeped  in  cold 
water,  until  you  want  them.  To  one  pint  of  fresh-drawn 
pigs'  blood,  take  three  pints  of  onions  ;  chop  them  toler- 
ably fine,  and  cook  them  till  they  are  nearly  or  three- 
quarters  done,  in  a  saucepan,  with  the  least  drop  of  water 
at  the  bottom,  stirring  them  all  the  while,  to  prevent  them 
browning.  Take  two  pounds  of  fresh  pork,  without  bone, 
fat  and  lean  in  equal  proportions ;  chop  it  up  fine.  Mix 
well  together  the  minced  pork,  the  onions,  and  the 
pigs'  blood,  seasoning  with  salt,  pepper,  and  allspice,  or 
mixed  spices  ground  together.  Tie  one  end  of  your 
sausage-skin,  and,  by  means  of  a  funnel  or  sausage-stuffer, 
fill  it  at  the  other  with  the  mixed  ingredients.  Then  tie  the 
upper  end  of  your  pudding,  coil  it  in  the  desired  shape, 
or  tie  it  into  short  lengths,  and  throw  it  into  boihng 
water,  which  you  will  keep  galloping  for  twenty  or  five- 
and-twenty  minutes,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the 
pudding.  Then  take  it  out,  and  set  aside  to  cool.  So 
prepared,  it  will  keep  good  two  or  three  days  in  summer, 
a  week  in  winter.  When  wanted  to  serve,  you  may 
broil  it  gently  over  a  slow  fire  ;  but  this  requires  care, 
to  prevent  the  skin  from  cracking.  A  better  way  is  to 
set  it  a  few  minutes  in  the  oven  of  a  cooking-stove,  or 
in  a  Dutch  or  American  oven,  in  front  of  an  open 
kitchen-range. 

Pig^  Head,  Boiled  with  Vegetables. — Take  half  a 
pig's  head  (without  the  brains  and  tongue),  put  it  into 
an  earthen  vessel,  with  half  a  pound  of  coarse  salt,  and 
leave  it  three  or  four  days,  turning  it  frequently,  and 
basting  it  with  the  brine  that  forms.  Put  it  into  a  soup- 
kettle,  with  six  quarts  of  cold  water  ;  bring  it  to  a  boil, 
skim,  add  pepper,  shred  onions,  cabbage,  and  celery ;  let 
it  simmer  over  a  gentle  fire,  and  add  potatoes  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour  before  serving  dinner.  Then  taste 
if  the  broth  is  salt  enough  ;  soak  with  it  some  bread  in 
your  soup-tureen ;  pour  the  broth  over  it.  Drain  the  head,, 
and  serve  it,  accompanied  by  the  cabbage  and  potatoes. 
With  a  little  pea  -powder,  previously  steeped,  and  a  boil 
up  after  mixing  it,  you  can  convert  the  broth  into  pea- 
soup. 

Pumpkin  and  Rice  Soup. — Wash  in  cold  water  the 
quantity  of  rice  required  to  make  your  soup ;  set  it  on  the 
fire  in  cold  water,  let  it  boil  till  nearly  done  enough,  set 
it  aside.  Pare  your  pumpkin,  and  cut  it  into  bits  as  big 
as  a  walnut ;  put  it  in  a  saucepan  with  two  or  three  sliced 
onions,  one  or  two  cloves,  a  leaf  each  of  celery  and  parsley,, 
a  trifle  each  of  pepper,  salt,  and  sugar,  and  amply  sufficient 
water  to  make  your  soup.  Boil  till  you  can  crush  the 
onions  and  pumpkin  to  a  mash  ;  mash  them  weil  with 
a  large  wooden  ladle  ;  pour  all  through  a  cullender,  to- 
strain  off  the  fibrous  portions.  Then  set  the  strained 
puree  on  the  fire  again  ;  add  to  it  the  boiled  rice  and  a 
good  bit  of  butter,  and  keep  stirring  (to  mix  well,  and 
prevent  sticking  to  the  bottom)  until  the  rice  is  tender.. 
Then  serve,  and  you  will  have  an  excellent  autumnal  soup.. 
There  is  no  reason  why,  instead  of  water,  you  should  not 
use  any  good  meat  or  poultry-broth  (not  salt)  which  yoa 
happen  to  have. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


105 


Kig. 


THE    AQUARIUM. 

MARINE  AQUARIUM. 

In  a  former  number  instructions  were  given  for  the 
management  of  the  fresh -water  aquarium.  These,  as 
far  as  regards  the  admission  of  light  and  regulation  of 
temperature,  apply  equally  to 
salt-water  aquaria;  but  in 
other  respects,  the  marine  col- 
lection requires  greater  atten- 
tion to  detail,  and  therefore 
must  be  treated  independently. 
In  localities  near  the  coast 
there  is,  of  course,  little  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  the  objects 
necessary  to  furnish  an  aqua- 
rium ;  but  at  a  distance  from  the  sea  it  is  not  always 
easy  to  get  even  a  supply  of  water,  and  therefore  it 
becomes  a  matter  of  considerable  importance,  at  starting, 
to  know  how  to  proceed  in  the  manner  least  likely  to 
result  in  disappointment. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  is  to  choose  the  vessel.  The 
best  form  is  the  ob- 
long square  tank, 
with  the  back 
sloping  inwards  to- 
wards the  bottom, 
all  except  the  glass 
front  being  made  of 
slate.  But  as  this 
is  not  easily  pro- 
curable, the  confec- 
tioner's cover  in- 
verted, and  fixed  on 
a  stand,  will  answer 
the  purpose.  As  it 
is  advisable  to  pre- 
sent as  large  a  sur- 
face of  water  as 
possible  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  air,  the 
vessel  chosen  should 
not  be  deep,  but  the 
greater  the  circum- 
ference the  better. 
It  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  glass  cover  having  a  circular  hole  cut  in 
the  centre.  This  will  check  evaporation,  keep  out  the 
dust,  prevent  anything  getting  out,  and  yet  admit  suf- 
ficient air. 

The  water  is  the  next  matter  to  be  considered.  Some 
writers  have  recommended  the  use  of  artificial  sea-water, 
prepared  by  dissolving  a  mixture  of 
salts  in  rain  water  ;  but  the  risk  of 
failure  is  too  great  to  make  the 
experiment  worthy  of  trial.  There 
are  certain  ingredients  and  living 
organisms  in  natural  sea-water  that 
would  be  absent  from  the  imitation, 
and  upon  the  presence  of  these 
success     may     possibly     depend.* 

The   easiest   method  of  procuring  ^__^ 

real  sea-water,  is  to  take    advan- 

•  An  analysis  of  100  parts  of  the  water  of  the  Channel  gives  the  following 
result : — 


ROCK    TOOL   WITH    SEAWBF.D   AND  ANEMONES. 

[i,  2,  3,  4. — Actinia  tnesembryantJuntum  in  diflerent  stages  of  expansion.] 


Water        

Chloride  of  sodium  (salt} 

Magnesium 

Sulphate  of  magnesium 

Sulphate  of  calcium 

Potassium...         

Carbonate  of  lime 
Bsomide  of  magnesium... 
Residuum 


■  96470 

2'700 

■  0360 

.       0'230 

.  0140 
.  o'oyo 
.     0003 

.       0'002 

.  o'ois 
xoo'ooo 


rl  c  e 


tage  of  a  visit  to  a  watering-place,  and  make  an  agree- 
ment with  a  fisherman  to  fill  a  small  cask  or  large  jar, 
and  transmit  it  to  you  by  rail.  In  giving  him  instructions, 
tell  him  to  procure  the  water  not  less  than  a  mile  from 
the  shore,  in  order  to  avoid  the  importation  of  impurities, 
By  this  means   the  writer   has    succeeded   in   obtaining 

water  from\Veymouth,Broad- 
stairs,  and  Harwich,  the  ves- 
sel used  being  a  nine-gallon 
cask,  and  the  total  expense 
not  exceeding  sixpence  per 
gallon.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  remark  that  the  vessel 
should  be  new,  or,  if  a  stone 
jar,  carefully  cleaned. 
Fig.  2.  There    are    a    very    large 

quantity  of  beautiful  objects  that  may  be  kept  in  a 
marine  aquarium  ;  but  as  the  most  attractive  are  not 
easily  procured,  and  require  some  care  in  their  manage- 
ment, the  beginner  should  first  try  his  "prentice  hand" 
upon  such  as  can  be  most  readily  obtained  ;  these  for- 
tunately are  the  least  likely  to  perish  from  neglect. 

Presuming  that  a 


vessel  has  been  pro- 
vided before  leaving 
home,  and  that  a 
few  gallons  of  water 
(twice  the  quantity 
actually  required  for 
theaquarium)canbe 
forwarded  or  taken 
back  as  luggage,  the 
visitor  to  the  sea- 
side may  easily  ob- 
tain all  that  he  re- 
quires by  takiftg  a 
ramble  over  the 
rocks  at  low  tide. 

The  most  speedy 
method  of  gathering 
the  objects  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Take  a  tin 
can,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  I,  a  net  with 
a  long  handle,  Fig. 
2,  and  a  hammer^ 
and  go  to  the  beach  about  half  an  hour  before  low  water. 
Choose  the  spot  where  the  rocks  stretch  out  farthest  from 
the  shore,  and  make  your  way  over  them  to  the  water's 
edge.  To  do  this  some  care  is  required,  for  the  wrack 
that  covers  the  rocks  is  exceedingly  slipper^-,  and  a  false 
step  may  launch  you  into  a  pool.  As  salt  water  is  not 
beneficial  to  shoe-leather,  those  who 
are  not  provided  with  sand-slippers 
should  nab  a  little  tallow  over  their 
boots,  especially  in  the  crevice  above 
the  sole,  before  starting  out.  First 
dip  your  can  half  full  of  water,  and 
then  wTiggle  the  net  quickly  round 
the  edges  of  the  rock  pools  within 
reach.  There  are  several  kinds  of 
small  fish  that  may  thus  be  caught, 
but  as  they  do  not  live  long  in  con- 
finement, you  need  not  feel  greatly  disappointed  if  you 
fail  You  will  have  no  difficulty,  however,  in  capturing  a 
few  shrimps  or  prawns,  although  it  requires  a  practised 
eye  to  see  them.  \VTien  in  the  water,  they  arc  almost 
transparent,  and  thus  easily  elude  detection,  and  when 
caught  in  a  net  they  are  scarcely  obser\-ablc,  unless  they 
force  themselves  into  notice  by  jumping  about. 

You  will  have  discovered  that  the  rocks  on  which  you 
stand  are  intersected  by  fissures,  which  arc  concealed  by 
the  sea-weed.     Take  the  handle  of  your  net  and  throw 


X.%OV   PRAWM. 


lo6 


ANIMALS   KEPT  FOR  PLEASURE. 


the  weed  back,  so  as  to  expose  the  crevices  to  vie-\y. 
Here,  cUnging  against  the  sides  of  the  rocks,  you  will 
see  convex-shaped  spots  of  a  jelly-like  substance,  the 
colours  being  either  brown,  olive  green,  or  red.  These 
are  the  commonest  kind  of  sea -anemones — the  most 
curious,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  hardy,  of  the 
objects  you  will  find.  But  there  they  are  likely  to  re- 
main, unless  you  know  how  to  dislodge  them.  Place 
your  finger  upon  one,  and  it  will  throw  up  a  jet  of 
•water,  and  at  the  same  time  tighten  its  hold,  so  that 
it  cannot  be  removed  Avithout  being  mutilated  ;  but 
approach  it  cautiously,  and  quickly  force  the  thumb-nail 
under  the  edge  of  its  base,  and  it  may  be  peeled  off 
tinhurt  without  difficulty.  If  you  do  not  succeed  in  the 
first  attempt,  leave  the  creature  alone,  and  try  another. 
This  smooth  anemone  {Actinia  mcsembryantlieinjuit) 
will  well  repay  you  for  the  trouble  of  taking,  for  it 
will  need  loss  care  and  yet  outlive  everything  else  that 
vou  may  happen  to  get. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 

WAYS  AND   MEANS. 


"  J.  B.,"  writing  to  us  for  further  information  on  this  subject, 
says  : — 

At  the  shop  where  I  am  employed  there  are  500  workmen, 
all  males,  chiefly  young  men,  but  not  many  boys.  Three  only 
of  these  are  in  receipt  of  £t,  per  week  ;  three  only  are  in  recbipt 
of  £2  per  week  ;  sixty-three  in  receipt  of  30s.  ;  184  in  receipt 
of  £,1  per  week  ;  and  the  remaining  250  under  £\  per  week. 
You  will  thus  see  that  one-half  are  not  receiving  even  ^^50  per 
year.  Now,  if  you  could  possibly,  in  some  forthcoming  number 
of  the  HousEiiOLU  Guide,  show  these  434,  or  those  in  receipt 
of  30s.  and  under,  how  to  spend  their  weekly  earnings  to  the 
best  advantage,  and  give  them  a  plan,  as  you  have;done  for  the 
higher  salaries,  you  would  then  confer  a  great  boon  upon  tl^e 
hard-working  classes  of  this  country. 

[We  hope  to  be  able  to  comply  with  our  corresi)ondentJs 
request  in  an  early  number. — Ed.] 


*'H.  B.,"  Oxford,  sends  us  the  following  on  the  same  subject  1—7 
I  will    endeavour   to   explain   how  I  have  been  thinking  to 
make  my  income  of  £\  per  week  cash,  keep,  &c.,  myself,  wife, 
and   nine    children — eleven  in  mimber.       I  have  a  six -roomed 
house,  and  about  thirty  poles  of  ground  at  home,  and  I  rent 
about  forty  poles  more  away  from  home — paying  ^'14  per  year 
for  all.     I  consume  eight  sacks  of  flour  per  year,  for  which  I. 
am  paying,  for  good  wholesome  seconds,  35s.  per  sack. 

52  lbs.  of  butter  ( I  lb.  per  week)     •...  ^5     4    o  per  year. 
I4lbs.  of  tea  (3s.)      ...         ...         ...      220         ,, 

I  cwt.   of  sugar  ...         ...         ...       i   17     4         ,, 

2^  tons  of  coals  (inlands,  i6s.  per  ton)    200         ,, 
Four  pigs  (;^i  each)...         ...         ...      400         ,, 

4  qrs.  of  barley-meal  (30S.  per  qr.)...  600  ,, 
"When  the  pigs  have  eaten  these  eight  sacks  of  barley-meal, 
with  the  wash  we  make,  and  all  the  refuse  from  the  garden, 
I  reckon  to  have  about  10  cwt.  of  meat  per  year  to  sell  or  eat. 
Of  vegetables  we  get  all  we  want  of  every  kind  ;  and  I  calculate 
that  we  sell  (I  have  not  kept  an  accurate  account)  of  fruit,  vege- 
tables, &c. ,  at  least  ^^26  worth  per  year.  The  pigs  I  reckon  to 
be  worth  ;^20,  so  there  is  ^10  profit  on  them. 


Income 

Profit  on  Garden. 
Profit  on  Pigs 
Own  VcjTetables  . 


Per  Year. 

£^%  o  o 

26  o  o 

10  o  o 

7  16  o 


Equal  to  an  income  of  95   1 6    o 
JExpenditure 49     3     4 


Expenditure — 

Rent 

Flour 
Butter 

Tea    

Sugar 

Coals 

Pigs 

Barley-meal 


Per  Year. 

£h    o    c 


14 

5 
2 
I 
2 

4 
6 


Balance 46  12     o  49     3     4 

So  now  you  see,  if  I  am  right  in  my  calculations,  I  liave 
£4.6  I2S.  od.  for  sundries,  such  as  clothes,  &c.,  but  I  have  to 
pay  myself  for  vegetables  out  of  it. 


ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PLEASURE. 

III. — THE   DOG  :    TRAINING. 

If  a  dog  be  kept  for  actual  service,  such  as  minding 
sheep,  or  assisting  the  sportsman,  he  will  generally  be 
more  efficient  and  valuable  if  trained  up  from  birth  by  his 
owner,  than  if  purchased  when  professedly  "  broken  "  by 
another.  The  animal  will  not  only  be  much  more  under 
control,  but  will  understand  his  master's  peculiar  signs 
and  gestures  in  a  degree  he  will  not  do  if  broken  by  a 
stranger.  In  fact,  even  when  you  have  trained  your  own 
dog,  if  you  lend  him  a  few  days  to  another  person,  the 
chances  are  that,  on  his  return,  it  will  be  some  little  time 
before  he  is  quite  as  useful  as  before — so  rapidly  and 
strongly  do  even  individual  idiosyncrasies  become  reflected 
in  the  intelligent  animal. 

Training  dogs  is  much  facilitated  by  the  fact  that  habits 
handed  down  through  successive  generations  are  trans- 
mitted almost  as  strongly  to  the  offspring  as  natural  instincts. 
Thus,  a  Newfoundland  maybe  as  intelligent  in  general  as 
a  Scotch  collie  ;  but  the  most  careful  training  would  fail 
in  making  him  so  good  a  sheep-dog  as  the  other  becomes 
with  very  little  trouble,  for  the  simple  reason  that  /lis  an- 
cestors for  generations  have  been  ti'ained  to  that  duty,  and 
he  takes  to  it  almost  as  a  second  nature.  It  is  the  same 
with  sporting  dogs  ;  and  hence  the  great  importance  of 
obtaining,  if  possible,  puppies  from  a  well-bred  strain — 
they  do  not  give  one  quarter  the  trouble  in  training.  They 
are,  in  fact,  naturally  disposed  to  do  what  is  required  of 
them,  and  their  inclinations  often  need  little  beyond  con- 
trolling and  directing.  It  has  been  said,  indeed,  that  a 
cross-bred,  or  otherwise  slow  and  dull  dog,  Ta/ieu  trained, 
will  be  more  reliable  and  useful  than  a  better-bred  and 
more  docile  animal ;  but  we  do  not  think  such  an  opinion 
was  ever  held  by  any  one  who  had  really  tried  both. 

For  the  training  of  the  Shccp-dog  very  little  definite  in- 
struction can  be  laid  down,  success  depending  almost 
entirely  on  the  intelligence,  patience,  and,  we  may  add, 
kindness  of  the  shepherd.  An  impatient,  ill-tempered 
man  will  never  train  a  good  dog  ;  while  with  a  good 
master  a  well-l^red  collie  may  be  taught  to  do  almost  any- 
thing. The  education  of  the  pup  should  commence  as 
soon  as  he  can  run  faster  than  the  sheep,  so  as  to  "  head  " 
them :  till  then  it  is  useless  to  begin,  though  he  should  be 
taken  out  with  them  in  order  to  become  friendly  with 
them,  and  to  understand  the  most  common  words  of 
command,  which  he  will  soon  do  if  in  company  Avith  a 
steady  old  dog.  Indeed,  an  old,  well-trained  animal  is 
almost  essential  to  the  training  of  a  first-rate  sheep-dog 
with  any  ordinary  trouble,  though  they  may  be  trained 
without,  if  the  shepherd  have  time  and  patience  to 
persevere.  If,  however,  there  be  a  sagacious  old  dog  to 
assist,  the  task  is  very  easy.  As  soon  as  the  pup  can  go 
fast  enough,  he  should  be  sent  in  company  with  the  old 
dog  to  fetch  in  stragglers.  After  two  or  three  times  he  will 
do  this  by  himself,  when  he  should  be  most  sedulously 
taught  to  leave  them  alone  when  he  has  performed  the 
duty.  The  next  lesson  is  to  "  go  round  them  "  and  keep 
the  flock  together  ;  and  the  old  dog  again  will  do  half  the 
teaching  ;  Avithout  him,  patience  and  good  temper  is  the 
only  method.  The  young  dog  must  next  be  trained  to 
obey  not  only  the  voice,  but  the  waving  of  the  hand  in  any 
direction.  When,  in  addition  to  this,  the  pup  can  keep  up 
the  flock  behind  while  his  master  walks  before,  he  is  as 
well  trained  as  ordinary  shepherds  have  any  idea  of, 
but  is  very  far  short  of  Avhat  he  ought  to  be,  to  the  incal- 
culable saving  of  time  and  labour.  He  can  be  taught  by 
dividing  the  flock  and  putting  him  in  the  middle,  to  drive 
different  flocks  without  mixing  one  animal  ;  to  jump  over 
a  hedge  in  order  to  head  the  flock  in  a  lane,  and  in  fact 
can  be  made,  and  in  Scotland  often  is,  so  perfect  in  his  busi- 
ness as  to  be  trusted  with  the  sole  oversight  of  thousands 
of  sheep  during  the  whole  day,  keeping  all  in  their  proper 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


107 


fecdinjj-grounds,  and  showing  a  sagacity  and  fertility  of 
invention  in  cases  of  emergency  which  is  sometimes  enough 
tc  stagger  beUef  In  mountainous  countries,  such  as 
Scotland  and  Wales,  it  is  surprising  to  see  the  skill  which 
the  sheep-dogs  will  evince  in  collecting  the  flock  toge- 
ther. They  appear  to  the  full  as  eager  in  their  task 
as  the  shepherd,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  fail  to  collect  all  the 
stragglers,  in  spite  of  the  formidable  difficulties  which 
very  frequently  lie  in  their  way. 

The  English  rough  sheep-dog  is  rarely  capable  of  such 
perfect  education  as  the  collie,  but  will  perform  all  the 
ordinary  work  required  of  him  with  steadiness  and  skill,  if 
carefully  trained. 

In  the  training  of  Pointers  the  greatest  patience  and 
constant  watchfulness  are  necessary,  and  the  first  lessons 
cannot  begin  too  soon.  We  have  already  remarked  on  the 
strong  instincts  of  this  breed,  and  it  is  often  so  developed 
that  puppies  still  suckling  will  point  on  seeing  chickens, 
or  finding  bits  of  meat,  or  coming  on  the  track  of  a 
mouse.  Where  the  dog  is  too  highly  bred,  in  fact,  the 
propensity  sometimes  is  so  exaggerated  as  to  make  him 
useless,  causing  the  animal  to  point  at  valueless  birds,  or 
stale  scent  which  the  game  has  left  for  hours  before.  In 
order  to  prevent  this,  an  occasional  cross  of  the  fox-hound 
is  often  used,  and  some  of  the  very  best  dogs,  such  as  have 
been  sold  for  200  guineas,  are  thus  bred.  This  cross  also 
much  improves  the  endurance  of  the  animal  without 
injury  to  his  powers  of  scent,  but  it  must  always  be  em- 
ployed with  judgment,  and  only  the  best  of  the  offspring 
should  be  preserved. 

At  a  few  weeks  old,  as  soon,  in  fact,  as  they  feed  apart 
from  the  mother,  the  pups — not  only  of  pointers,  but  all 
sporting  dogs  intended  for  breaking — should  be  called  to 
their  meals  bythe  firing  of  a  gun,  commencing  for  a  fewdays 
whilst  actually  engaged  in  devouring  their  food.  At  first, 
they  will  be  more  or  less  terrified,  but  will  soon  associate 
the  sound  with  pleasurable  enjoyment.  It  is  best  to  leave 
off  when  this  object  is  attained.  They  must  also  be  taught 
from  the  first  to  come  to  heel  at  a  call  or  whistle,  being 
invariably,  as  soon  as  they  evidently  tmdcrstafid  the 
command,  made  to  obey  it  by  a  sufficient  but  temperate 
chastisement  for  every  neglect. 

When  old  enough  to  walk  out  into  the  fields,  the  pups 
must  be  well  practised  in  coming  to  heel,  and  when  toler- 
ably perfect  in  it,  taught  to  obey  the  word  '■'' down"  At 
first  the  command  should  be  uttered  with  the  whelp  at 
the  feet,  forcing  it  down  at  the  same  time  by  the  pressure 
of  the  hand ;  repetition  of  this  will  soon  teach  the  pup 
what  is  meant,  and  cause  obedience,  which  may  be  occa- 
sionally rewarded  by  a  bit  of  bread.  When  obedient  at 
the  feet,  the  pup  should  be  ordered  ^'doivn"  when  at  some 
distance,  and  if  a  steady  old  pointer  can  assist,  will  soon 
obey  ;  but,  if  it  does  not,  the  trainer  must  walk  quickly  up 
to  it  and  repeat  the  command  in  a  stern  voice.  On  the 
second  disobedience  a  good  scolding  is  added,  and  if  a 
third  time  the  order  be  neglected,  a  smart  cut  with 
the  whip  accompanies  the  '''down"  and  probably  im- 
presses it  on  the  youngster's  memory.  This  lesson  is  of 
very  great  consequence,  and  must  be  well  attended  to, 
teaching  the  dog  by  degrees  to  drop  at  the  mere  wave  of 
the  hand,  as  speaking  much  in  the  field  would  spoil  the 
sport.  The  animal  must  never  be  allowed  to  rise  till  or- 
dered to  "  hold  up"  or  simply  "  tip"  or  directed  by  some 
expression  of  the  kind. 

The  next  step  is  to  teach  the  pups  to  drop  at  the 
report  of  the  piece  by  ordering  them  '^  down"  imme- 
diately after  discharging  it,  by  degrees  omitting  the  com- 
mand, and  meeting  any  consequent  neglect,  at  first  by 
rebuke,  and  the  second  time  by  slight  chastisement.  On 
no  account  must  they  be  allowed  to  rise  until  the  piece  is 
reloaded,  checking  any  attempt  to  do  so  by  an  imperious 
'''' do-i>n"  This  lesson  also  is  of  the  utmost  importance, 
thoroughly  teaching  a  dog  to  "  down  charge  "  being  of 


more  influence  than  almost  anything  else  in  securing 
good  sport  ;  but  if  the  various  stages  liave  been  attended 
to  as  described,  there  will  be  little  of  either  difficulty  or 
punishment  about  the  process,  and  the  whelps  may  be 
trained  to  perfect  obedience  in  regard  to  all  the  foregoing 
sports  by  the  time  they  have  reached  the  age  of  four  or 
five  months. 

The  young  dogs  may  now  be  taken  to  the  game,  if 
possible,  in  company  with  an  old  one.  Their  incessant 
chasing  of  the  small  birds  should  not  be  checked,  as  it 
will  make  them  eager,  and  the  calm  disdain  of  the  old  dog 
for  such  small  deer  will,  as  soon  as  they  meet  with  real 
game,  soon  make  them  ashamed.  The  example  of  the  old 
dog  will  also  speedily  teach  them  to  point  and  hunt  with 
the  greatest  eagerness  ;  and  as  soon  as  this  is  accom- 
plished, he  should  be  kept  at  home  and  the  pups  taken  out 
by  themselves  for  the  final  stage  of  training,  which  con- 
sists in  bringing  their  eager  delight  in  hunting  under 
perfect  control.  And  here  will  be  found  the  benefit  of 
teaching  them  to  "  down  charge"  or  to  drop  at  a  wave 
of  the  hand,  before  they  have  been  allowed  to  scent  game. 
If  this  lesson  be  deferred  till  after,  when  all  the  dogs' 
hunting  instincts  arc  in  full  exercise,  the  task  of  subduing 
them  will  be  long  and  difficult ;  but,  with  the  habits  of 
obedience  to  signals  and  watching  the  loading  of  the 
gun  thoroughly  taught  first,  it  will  not  take  long  after  to 
turn  out  a  thoroughly  good  pointer. 

The  first  lesson  is  to  prevent  the  other  dogs,  when  a 
comrade  has  found  game,  from  rushing  in  upon  the  scent 
— to  teach  them,  in  fact,  to  back\\\'s,  point.  The  trainer  must 
wait  till  the  first  dog  has  made  a  decided  and  tolerably 
steady  point,  and  then,  if  another  dog  runs  in,  his  name, 
and  the  word  '■^  soho!"  or  other  word  of  caution,  must  be 
shouted  in  a  stern  voice,  at  the  same  time  waving  the 
hand.  Of  course,  if  the  preceding  lessons  have  been  attended 
to  he  will  know  that  he  ought  to  drop  at  the  well-known 
signal;  and  if  he  does  not,  he  nuist  have  both  a  good 
scolding  and  enough  of  the  whip  to  impress  the  fault  upon 
his  memory  pretty  sharply.  We  repeat  here,  once  for  all, 
that  the  great  majority  of  dogs  may  be  trained  with  very 
little  correction,  which  should  never  be  administered  wan- 
tonly or  unmercifully  ;  but  still,  when  needed,  to"  give  less 
than  shall  be  well  i-einembered  will  be  useless,  and  there- 
fore is  nothing  but  mere  cruelty.  Generally  from  two  to 
half-a-dozcn  smart  cuts  with  the  whip  Avill  be  found  quite 
sufficient  for  the  purpose. 

Again,  if  the  game  should  run,  and  the  dog  follows,  the 
others  will  naturally  approach,  and  they  may  be  allowed  at 
first  to  follow  on  the  scent  in  order  to  increase  their 
ardour.  But  if  any  pup  attempts  to  go  before  the  one  that 
found,  he  must  be  at  once  checked,  and  punished  if  he 
disobeys  ;  for  the  first  dog  would  feel  it  keenly  if  his  scent 
were  taken  from  him,  and  probably  prove  quite  unruly  for 
the  rest  of  the  day. 

Young  dogs  should  be  allowed  to  play  with  the  first 
game  they  see  killed.  They  enjoy  this  greatly,  and  with 
every  successive  bird  they  mouth,  their  ardour  in  the  sport 
seems  to  increase,  while  they  rarely  injure  it  much  if  left 
to  drop  it  themselves.  On  no  account  should  it  be  torn 
or  snatched  from  them,  as  it  might  teach  them  to  tear  it, 
and  such  a  habit  makes  a  dog  almost  useless. 

Having  thus  got  the  pups  to  back  each  others  point, 
there  remains  only  to  perfect  them  in  observing  the 
"  dowti  charge  "  when  in  actual  sight  of  the  game.  The 
best  way  is  to  fire  when  the  birds  rise,  but  at  first  not 
hitting  them.  Still  the  dogs  will  endeavour,  in  all  pro- 
bability, to  give  chase,  but  probably  an  angry  "  down 
charge"  will  induce  them  to  obedience  ;  if  not,  the  whip 
must  again  be  used.  If  any  dog  is  peculiarly  obstinate,  it 
is  best  to  fasten  a  light  but  strong  line  to  his  collar,  and, 
just  when  he  has  gathered  full  speed,  to  fetch  him  up 
sharply,  which  will'send  him  tumbling  over  in  a  way  hi? 
I  will  much  aislike,  and  with  a  few  sharp  cuts  of  the  wJUip 


xo8 


ANIMALS    KEPT    FOR  PLEASURE. 


will  soon  bring  him  to  order.  The  same  experiment  may 
be  employed  to  teach  an  obstinate  dog  that  he  must  not 
chase  rabbits,  hares,  or  birds.  We  may  here  remark  that, 
unless  towards  the  latter  part  of  their  training  the  dogs 
are  allowed  to  find  plenty  of  their  proper  game,  it  will  be 
very  difficult  to  prevent  them  hunting  and  pointing  small 
birds,  for  a  good  dog  nitcst  hunt  something  ;  but  if  taken 
among  game  they  soon  learn  the  difference. 

A  pointer  thoroughly  obedient  in  all  the  foregoing  may 
be  considered  a  well-trained  dog,  and  any  other  special 
points  of  training  for  sport  it  will  be  found  comparatively 
easy  to  teach  him.  He  must,  however,  be  taught,  as  far 
as  possible,  to  receive  his  orders  by  motions  of  the  hand, 
in  order  that  he  may  avoid  any  noise  which  might  scare 
the  game  ;  and  he  must  be  made  to  keep  sufficiently 
near  the  sportsman  for  the  birds  he  springs  to  rise  within 
shot. 

If  it  is  desired  to  use  the  pointer  as  a  retriever  also,  the 
pup  should  be  taught  to  "seek"  while  in  the  house  by 
throwing  bits  of  bread  or  meat.  After  awhile  a  small 
carcase  may  be  constructed  out  of  a  rabbit  or  hare- 
skin,  stuffing  it  with  cotton-wool  and  briars  mixed.  This 
will  soon  teach 

him    to    seize  -  "  ^ 

tenderly,  with-  '  ;.:;:;' 

out  breaking 
the  plumage. 
Then,  when 
they  are  being 
trained  in  ac- 
tual pursuit  of 
game,  the  only 
thing  to  ob- 
serve will  be 
that  the  dogs 
do  not  run  in 
and  seize  the 
game  until  or- 
dered to  ^^  seek 
dead."  Point- 
ers which  re- 
trieve seldom 
do  so  well 
when  in  com- 
pany, as  they 
tend  to  spoil 
the  other  dogs 
which  have  not 
been  so  trained ;  but  when  alone  will  often  perform  in 
both  capacities  to  perfection. 

The  SetterJis  trained  in  very  much  the  same  manner  as 
the  pointer,  the  principal  difference  being  that  he  "  sets," 
or  crouches,  instead  of  "  pointing,"  on  finding  his  game.  In 
endurance  the  setter  will  surpass  the  pointer,  having 
harder  feet  and  more  power  of  limb.  A  setter  has  also 
more  fire  and  dash,  which  often  enables  a  quick  shot  to 
bag  more  birds  within  a  given  time,  and  to  get  over  more 
ground;  but  these  very  qualities  tend  to  make  him  a  less 
perfectly  obedient  animal,  his  impulsive  disposition  seek- 
ing to  break  out,  as  it  were,  on  every  occasion.  Some 
sportsmen,  indeed,  affirm  that  a  setter  can  never  be 
thoroughly  broken  ;  but  this  is  contradicted  by  many  dogs 
of  this  breed,  whose  behaviour  in  the  field  is  quite  unex- 
ceptionable. It  is,  however,  essential,  even  more  than  in 
the  case  of  pointers,  that  their  training  should  commence 
when  yet  little  pups,  and  that  they  be  kept  from  the  first 
thoroughly  under  control,  so  far  as  they  have  been  taught; 
but  if  this  be  attended  to  they  will  usually  turn  out  most 
useful  assistants,  whilst  to  our  fancy  they  are  about  the 
handsomest  of  all  the  dog  family. 

The  Retriever  almost  invariably  contains  a  cross  of  the 
Newfoundland,  whatever  the  other  parentage  may  be,  and 
his  training  is  comparatively  a  very  simple  matter,  though 


THE  SCOTCH  COLLIE. 


it  should  be  commenced,  like  that  of  all  other  dogs,  when 
very  young.  As  with  other  sporting  dogs,  he  must  first  be 
taught  to  pay  implicit  obedience  in  the  way  of  coming  to 
heel,  and  dropping  every  time  the  piece  is  fired — in  fact, 
never  to  leave  his  master  when  on  business,"  except 
ordered  to  do  so.  He  should  also  be  taught,  from  the  very 
milk,  to  "seek"  articles  thrown  about, and  to  carry  tenderly, 
by  carcases  stuffed  with  briars,  as  already  described.  Such 
a  dog  is  more  than  half  trained.  Very  often,  retrievers  are 
not  sufficiently  taught  to  "  down  charge,"  and  the  conse- 
quence is,  that  they  break  away  after  the  shot,  whether  it 
be  a  hit  or  miss,  frighten  the  game,  and  spoil  the  chance 
of  a  great  many  other  shots  by  their  impetuosity.  Having, 
therefore,  trained  the  retriever  to  "  down  charge,"  and,  in 
fact,  to  remain  perfectly  quiet  in  the  field,  except'ordered 
to  "  seek,"  little  remains,  except  the  teaching  him  to  bring 
the  game  to  your  very  hand,  and  to  deliver  it  in  no  other 
way.  Nothing  can  be  more  annoying  than  to  see  your 
dog  find  the  game  and  bring  it,  perhaps,  within  a  dozen 
yards,  and  then  drop  it  in  some  heavy  crop,  such  as  a 
thick  field  of  turnips,  which  very  effectually  secures  you 
from  ever  finding  it  also.     The  retriever  must  likewise  be 

taught  to  do 
his  work  with- 
out loss  of  time, 
by  occasion- 
ally giving  him 
food  as  a  re- 
ward, but  never 
until  he  has 
carried  the 
game  by  your 
side  a  little 
while,  and  you 
have  taken  it 
from  his  mouth 
with  your  owtt 
hand.  This  is 
highly  neces- 
sary, or  he  will 
get  the  habit 
of  dropping 
the  game  to 
eat  the  food,  o^ 
which  we  have 
already  spo- 
ken. In  train- 
ing a  retriever 
for  water-fowl  shooting,  it  is  best  to  begin  in  sum- 
mer, in  order  that  the  dog  may  not  have  to  face  the 
cold  water  all  at  once  ;  and  it  is  necessary  to  check 
him  if  he  ever  attempts  to  catch  rats  or  other  vermin, 
as  he  will  often  waste  his  time  in  hunting  on  his  own 
account. 

Spaniels  are  much  used  for  shooting  in  cover,  and  are 
seldom  so  obedient  as  field  dogs,  being  necessarily  often 
out  of  sight.  To  be  of  much  use,  they  must  be  early 
accustomed  to  the  game  they  are  intended  for,  otherwise 
they  will  gad  about  after  anything  alive,  or  open  on  a 
stale  scent,  either  of  which  makes  a  dog  of  little  value; 
They  may  be  easily  taught  to  hunt  in  any  direction,  ac- 
cording to  a  wave  of  the  hand,  and  to  drop  on  the  report 
of  the  piece ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  get  them  to  thoroughly 
"down  charge;"  they  will  generally  rush  to  seize  the 
game,  if  it  falls.  If  the  dog  can  be  taught  to  "  down 
charge,"  like  a  setter,  it  is  better;  but,  if  he  is  too  im- 
petuous for  this,  the  sportsman  may  be  well  content  with 
making  him  retrieve  properly,  by  bringing  it  tenderly  to 
the  hand.  Few  spaniels  will  do  more.  Most  spaniels 
open  on  the  scent,  and  pretty  loudly  too  ;  but  some  breeds 
are  mute  on  certain  scents,  and  the  well-known  Clumber 
spaniel  is  perfectly  so. 

In  traiaing  all  sporting  dogs,  a  command  of  temper  i« 


CASSELL'S  HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


109 


indispensable,  for  an  unnecessary  lash,  or  even  rebuke, 
ought  never  to  be  given.  One  object  only  should  be 
sought  at  a  time,  or  the  dog  will  get  confused  ;  neither 
should  he  be  trained  too  long  at  one  period,  lest  he 
become  tired  and  disgusted.  When  he  behaves  pro- 
perly, he  should  be  patted  and  cncoura^jcd — in  fact, 
made  a  friend  of  throughout,  and  only  corrected  when 
really  nece-ssary. 

Having  trained  your  dog  to  your  own  satisfaction,  and 
got  him  to  understand  and  obey  your  signals,  you  will  do 
well  never  to  lend  him  on  any  consideration,  except  to  a 
person  both  trustworthy  and  not  very  unlike  yourself  in 
conduct  and  habits  wlicn  in  the  field.  To  lend  a  good 
dog  to  a  bad  sportsman,  is  infallibly  to  spoil  him  for  at 
least  several  days.  If  you  have  shot  in  company,  and  your 
friend  and  the  dog  mutually  understand  and  respect  each 
other,  no  harm  can  ensue  ;  the  great 
point  undoubtedly  is  that  the  dog 
must  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
sportsman  who  uses  him,  and  in  the 
hands  of  a  bad  sportsman  a  good  dog 
is  very  soon  spoilt. 

In  training  Greyhounds  for  coursing, 
the  great  point  is  to  exercise  their 
power  by  slow  degrees,  so  as  to 
develop  without  overtasking  them. 
The  exercise  should,  therefore,  com- 
mence with  a  little,  gradually  in- 
creasing as  the  young  dog's  strength 
grows.  The  forenoon  is  always  best, 
if  the  weather  is  fine.  Daily  rubbing 
or  scrubbing,  with  a  tolerably  hard 
brush,  is  very  beneficial,  giving  firm- 
ness to  the  muscles,  and  keeping  the 
skin  in  good  order.  Sometimes  the 
limbs  are  fired  to  increase  their  power, 
bat  we  question  if  any  advantage  is 
gained  by  this  cruel  operation.  The 
feeding  is  very  important  ;  it  usually 
consists  of  oatmeal  and  flesh  ;  but 
the  training  of  all  hounds  is  now  so 
reduced  to  method,  and  comprehends 
so  many  details,  that  it  is  utterly  im- 
possible to  enter  upon  it  here. 

In  training  dogs  for  performance 
no  method  can  be  laid  down  ;  but 
kindness,  firmness,  and  indomitable 
patience  will  always  succeed.  No 
other  rules  can  be  needed,  for  no  boy 
ever  yet  failed  in  training  his  dog  to 
do  anything  he  desired.  We  do  not 
think  severity  is  ever  needed  in  this 
branch  of  training,  but  we  never  look 
at  the  poor  wretch  who  performs  in 
some  penny  show  at  a  fair,  without  commiserating  him 
for  the  brutality  he  has  probably  had  to  suffer. 


HOME  GARDENING. 


Gardens  must  necessarily  vary  in  extent  and  shape. 
We  will  take  as  an  example  a  plot  of  ground  ninety  feet 
long  by  forty  wide^  and  although  this  will  afford  very  fair 
scope  for  carrying  out  a  nice  arrangement  with  economy, 
still  simplicity  of  design  will  be  necessary.  We  do  not 
advocate  intricate  plans  on  a  small  scale,  as  they  only  entail 
extra  labour  without  an  equivalent  return.  Suppose,  then, 
that  the  frontage  is  laid  out  as  a  lawn  and  flower  garden, 
we  will  proceed  to  give  a  few  hints  to  enable  our  readers 
to  follow  out  our  plan  with  such  variations  as  their  own 
inclination  may  suggest.  As  a  rule,  let  all  walks  in  this 
department  be  curved  rather  than  straight,  sharp  angles 
being  very  objectionable  and  harsh  to  the  eye.     Let  the 


beds  and  borders  be  oval,  round,  or  simply  curved,  rather 
than  angular.  If  you  have  room  for  a  grass  plot,  all  well 
and  good  ;  but  we  do  not  like  to  see  a  lawn  too  small  to 
be  effective.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  following  plan  that  we 
have  provided  for  one  in  this  instance.  On  this  lawn  we 
would  plant  a  few  miniature  ornamental  trees,  such,  for 
instance,  as  copper  beech,  silver  birch,  red  or  black  thorn; 
or  some  of  the  better  kinds  of  conifers,  as  cypress,  pines, 
&c.  The  plots  marked  2  may  be  planted  with  flowers  ; 
3  is  shrubbery.  A  deodar  would  form  a  very  good 
centre,  as  it  is  not  of  rapid  growth,  and  it  would  be 
some  years  before  it  would  overgrow  the  place.  For 
kitchen  and  fruit  garden,  we  have  set  apart  two-thirds 
of  the  entire  plot.  On  the  wall  a  let  a  peach,  nectarine, 
apricot,  or  vine  be  planted,  or  one  of  each,  if  the  aspect 
and  situation  allow  of  it.  If  the  produce  is  more  than 
required  for  home,  the  surplus  will 
always  find  a  ready  sale.  The  centre, 
or  main  portion  of  the  ground,  may  be 
cropped  with  vegetables  ;  and  if  you 
follow  a  system  of  rotation  in  cropping, 
and  have  due  regard  to  the  applica- 
tion of  manure,  you  cannot  fail  to 
make  your  garden  pay.  Let  herbs 
occupy  the  border,  b,  cover  the  wall 
c  with  plum,  cherry,  and  pear  trees. 
The  wall  d  will  do  for  tomatoes,  and 
the  border  e  for  smaller  crops,  such 
as  lettuces,  radishes,  and  the  like. 
The  centre  of  the  garden  can  be 
divided  into  csght  plots,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  engraving,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  out  a  complete  system 
of  rotation  cropping,  full  directions  for 
which  we  intend  giving  in  a  future 
number. 

CALENDAR  FOR  DECEMBER. 

At  this  period  of  the  year  all  tea- 
roses  in  exposed  situations  should 
be  taken  up  at  once  and  laid  in  by 
the  heels,  in  a  shed  or  outhouse,  or 
wherever  they  will  be  beyond  the 
rcac'h  of  frost.  Every  description  of 
bulb  should  be  planted  by  this  time, 
though  it  is  better  if  they  are  got  into 
the  ground  by  the  latter  end  of 
November.  Fuchsias  intended  to 
remain  out  of  doors  all  the  winter 
should  be  cut  down,  and  their  roots 
should  be  covered  with  long  litter  or 
coal  ashes.  Pinks,  pansies,  and  other 
choice  things  in  open  beds  and  bor- 
ders, should  be  covered  with  light 
litter  in  frosty  weather,  or  with  hoops  and  mats.  Tulips 
and  other  bulbs  require  protection  from  frost  if  they 
occupy  an  out  -  door  situation.  Plantations  of  sea- 
kale,  rhubarb,  and  horse-radish  may  be  made.  Now 
is  the  time  for  making  new  drains,  improving  water- 
courses, and  planting  edges,  if  you  have  not  had  an 
earlier  opportunity  of  doing  it.  Early  peas  and  beans 
may  be  sown  on  a  wann  border,  or  where  they  can  have 
the  necessary  protection  during  frosty  or  very'  wet 
weather.  Strawberr>--beds  may  be  made,  but  it  is  not 
the  best  time  for  planting  the  strawberries.  Goose- 
berry and  currant  trees  may  be  still  planted,  pruned,  and 
manured.  They  may  afterwards  have  a  slight  forking 
between  the  rows,  taking  care  to  incorporate  the  manure 
with  the  soil  during  the  operation.  Aged  fruit  trees  will  be 
much  improved  by  the  soil  being  well  dug  round  and 
about  their  roots,  and  a  six  or  seven  inch  thickness  of 
old  manure  laid  in  a  ring  at  least  three  feet  round  the 
stem  of  each.     Trees  of  a  younger  description,  that  are 


THE   REARING  AND    MANAGEMENT   OF   CHILDREN. 


necessarily  of  a  luxuriant  growth,  should  have  no  manure. 
Stir  the  surface  of  the  ground  between  advancing  crops 
of  vegetables  whenever  the  weather  will  permit.  Make  a 
sowing  of  small  salading  at  least  twice  a  week  on  a  warm 
border,  or  under  cover,  as  most  convenient. 


THE    REARING    AND     MANAGEMENT    OF 
CHILDREN. 

III.  —  THE     NURSERY. 

The  aspect  of  a  day-nursery  should  be  light,  airy,  and, 
if  attainable,  exposed  to  the  south.  It  is  impossible  to 
over-estimate  the  worth  of  this  situation  in  the  attempt 
to  rear  children  in  full  health  and  buoyancy  of  spirit. 
The  ruddy  bloom  of  a  well-trained  child  betokens  some- 
thing more  than  a  sound  constitution — it  indicates  a 
joyous  temperament  and  keen  enjoyment  of  life.  Children 
immured  in  gloomy  apartments  never  wear  this  look. 
In  all  save  their  clothing,  they  are  liable  to  resemble  the 
ill-fed  population  of  crowded  cities,  whose  playground  is 
the  nearest  gutter. 

Doctors  agree  that  the  best  place  for  children  is  the 
upper  part  of  a  house,  where  the  air  circulates  more 
freely,  and  the  odours  of  the  basement  are  less  penetrat- 
ing. Not  that  nurseries  should  be  in  what  is  termed  the 
"  roof  of  the  house  ; "  still  less  should  a  child's  playroom 
have  a  sloping  ceiling,  such  as  attic  apartments  too  often 
have.  What  children  require  is,  a  cheerful  prospect 
without,  and  an  airy,  roomy  space  to  romp  in.  The 
custom,  which  is  gradually  gaining  ground,  of  converting 
the  breakfast-room  on  the  basement-lloor  of  suburban 
villas  into  day-nurseries,  is  very  objectionable.  One  can 
quite  understand  that  want  of  space  and  insufficiency 
of  attendance  often  render  these  arrangements  arbitrary  ; 
but  the  error  invariably  discovers  itself  in  time  in  the 
increased  want  felt  for  stimulating  food  tonics,  and  other 
remedies  for  enfeebled  constitutions. 

The  Furniticre  of  nurseries  requires  a  few  words  of 
comment.  The  bare  necessaries  of  comfortable  living  are 
all  that  should  be  admitted  into  apartments  where  space 
and  cleanliness  are  indispensable.  A  large  room  full 
of  furniture  is  less  healthy  than  a  small  one  scantily 
fitted  up. 

Beginning  with  the  walls.  It  would  perhaps  shock  most 
people  to  tell  them  that  the  very  best  walls  for  a  nursery 
are  those  which  are  simply  plastered  and  whitewashed. 
Every  year,  in  the  spring,  the  whitewash  may  be  renewed 
at  trifling  cost,  doing  away  with  the  hai-bour  for  fleas  and 
more  objectionable  insects.  Next  in  fitness  is  a  painted 
wall,  admitting  of  easy  cleansing  with  soap  and  water 
when  required.  Equal  in  excellence  is  marbled  paper 
varnished,  like  that  of  halls  and  staircases  of  modern 
houses. 

Bedding  is  an  important  question,  particularly  if  there 
are  many  children  to  provide  for.  If  possible,  each  child 
should  sleep  alone ;  never  with  its  nurse.  Small  iron 
bedsteads  are  best ;  but  if  there  are  many  children, 
especially  little  ones,  it  will  be  a  good  plan  to  have 
wickcrwork  cradles,  made  in  the  shape  of  the  bassinet 
without  the  hood.  A  basket  of  this  description,  measuring 
three  feet  two  inches  at  the  bottom  and  two  feet  two 
inches  wide,  will  be  capable  of  containing  a  child  till 
three  years  of  age,  at  which  time  he  may  be  quartered  in 
some  other  a^partment.  The  advantage  these  basket-work 
bedsteads  have  is  that  the  bedding  may  be  removed  from 
the  nursery  by  day,  and  put  elsewhere  to  air,  and  the 
baskets  themselves  stowed  away  one  upon  another  till 
wanted. 

Horsehair  mattresses  are  the  best  if  the  expense  can  be 
afforded.  They  are  best  because  they  admit  of  being 
easily  unpicked  and  put  together  again.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  unpick  the  "  tabs,"  and  empty  the  horsehair 


into  a  washing-tub  filled  with  soap  and  water.  When  it 
has  been  thoroughly  washed,  together  with  the  casing,  it 
is  as  good  and  sweet  as  new.  Every  one  acquainted  with 
nursery  management  will  be  aware  of  the  necessity  for 
such  cleansing. 

India-rubber  sheeting  is  very  much  used ;  but  unless 
several  folds  of  good  thick  blanket  arc  laid  beneath  an 
infant,  the  bed  is  cold,  comfortless,  and  injurious  to  the 
tiny  body. 

An  excellent  addition  to  the  amount  of  bedding  allowed 
will  be  under-mattresses  of  dry  chaff.  These  are  very 
inexpensive,  can  be  made  at  home,  and  may  be  easily 
renewed.  They  are  warm  and  springy.  Here  and  there 
a  tab  will  add  to  their  evenness.  Bolsters  made  of  the 
same  are  comfortable  and  economical.  For  very  young 
infants,  especially  when  teething,  a  cot  pillow-case  of  wash- 
leather,  filled  with  horsehair,  will  be  most  suitable. 

Nursery  bedding  should  not  be  aired  in  the  same  room 
as  that  occupied  by  the  children.  If,  however,  no  other 
means  exist,  the  mattresses  and  clothes  should  be  laid 
before  the  fire  whilst  the  little  ones  arc  out  walking,  the 
windows  and  doors  being  left  open  during  the  process. 

The  fittings  of  a  nursery  should  be  few  and  washable. 
Plain  chintz  curtains  are  preferable  on  this  account  to 
woollen  materials.  Sand-bags  are  requisite  along  the 
windows,  in  severe  weather,  because  children  cannot  be 
kept  from  looking  out  and  tapping  at  the  panes,  thereby 
exposing  themselves  to  draughts.  The  bags  should  be 
movable  easily. 

Pictures,  illustrative  of  Scripture  subjects,  domestic  ani- 
mals, and  familiar  scenes,  are  admirable  for  ornamental 
purposes.  Mounted  on  card-board  and  covered  with 
varnish,  they  last  a  long  time,  and  may  be  safely  washed 
without  destroying  their  beauty. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  completely  cover  a  nursery  with 
carpet.  A  square  of  felt,  bound  at  the  edges,  and  fastened 
at  the  corners  and  sides  with  a  few  carpet-nails  (those 
made  with  large  flat  brass  heads  are  the  best),  is  easily 
removed,  and  light  to  shake.  The  felt  should  be  taken  up 
one  day  in  every  week,  and  the  room  thoroughly  scrubbed. 
An  excellent  addition  to  the  ordinary  means  of  cleansing 
consists  of  a  lump  of  lime  in  the  pail  of  water  used  for 
scrubbing.  The  lime  not  only  whitens  but  disinfects  the 
boards.  Whilst  the  nursery  is  scrubbed,  the  windows 
should  be  left  open  a  few  inches  top  and  bottom,  and 
a  fire  kept  brightly  burning,  except  in  the  height  of 
summer. 

Chests  of  drawers,  wardrobes,  and  the  like,  are  out  of 
place  in  the  nursery.  The  sharp  angles  of  the  furniture 
make  playing  in  the  room  dangerous  ;  and  such  recep- 
tacles add  to  the  impurity  of  the  air.  A  hamper  for  toys 
is  better  than  the  cupboards  usually  appropriated  for  the 
purpose.  Children  love  to  make  a  litter,  and  to  be  able  to 
get  at  their  possessions  without  much  trouble.  Cupboard 
doors  are  better  off  their  hinges. 

If  the  house  is  large,  and  the  nursery  distant  from  the 
main  supplies  of  provisions,  a  safe  should  be  established 
on  a  landing  or  in  a  spare  room,  wherein  bread,  milk, 
butter,  and  nurse's  grocery  may  be  kept.  One  or  two 
saucepans  for  warming  infants'  food,  and  a  kettle  for  the 
nursery  tea,  add  greatly  to  the  nurse's  comfort  in  busy 
households. 

Another  nursery  fitting  should  be  a  small  kitchen-range, 
instead  of  the  ordinary  fire-place.  These  nursery-ranges, 
fitted  with  a  boiler,  are  a  great  saving  of  time  and  trouble, 
when  hot  water  is  frequently  wanted,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  morning  and  evening  bath. 

Nursery  fenders  are  in  such  general  use,  that  it  seems 
almost  unnecessary  to  recommend  them.  No  room  ap- 
propriated to  children  is  safe  without  such  a  protection 
from  fire.  To  be  perfectly  safe,  however,  and  beyond  the 
reach  of  long  sticks,  it  is  needful  that  a  wire  guard  should 
be  suspended  on  the  grate  within.     With  this  addition, 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


Ill 


the  outer  fender  may  be  used  as  a  clothes-horse  for  airing 
small  articles  of  linen. 

In  planninjr  the  arrangements  of  a  nursery,  the  utmost 
forethought  should  be  displayed  to  make  the  little  estab- 
lisliment  as  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  household  as 
possible. 

With  regard  to  ventilation  :  the  well-being  of  children 
much  depends  on  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  air,  and  dan- 
gerous diseases  arc  generated  by  breathing  over  and  over 
again  the  same  atmosphere.  If  a  child  wakes  languid  in 
the  morning,  instead  of  being  sprightly  and  refreshed,  it 
may  be  taken  as  a  tolerable  indication  of  inadequate  ven- 
tilation of  the  sleeping- room  during  night.  Some  provision 
for  the  admittance  of  fresh  air  is  indispensable.  An  open 
stair-case  (provided  the  door  of  the  sleeping-room  be  left 
open)  will  generally  supply  a  current  of  fresh  air.  The 
register  of  the  fire-place  in  the  sleeping-room  must  also 
be  left  open. 


SEASONABLE   FOOD. 

Every  housekeeper  is  aware  that  many  articles  of  food 
are  considered  in  season  or  out  of  season  at  certain  times 
of  the  year.  It  is  needless  to  inquire  into  the  reasons 
for  this,  though  a  satisfactory  explanation  could  be  given 
in  most  cases.  Bearing  llie  circumstance  in  mind,  we 
propose  to  give  from  mor.t'i  to  month  a  list  of  the  principal 
articles  in  meat,  game,  and  poultry,  fish,  vegetables,  and 
fruit,  which  are  in  season.  It  will  be  observed  that  some 
things,  as  beef,  veal,  and  mutton,  are  always  in  season  ; 
but  they  may  nevertheless  be  repeated  in  the  monthly 
lists. 

December. — Meat. — Beef,  veal,  mutton,  pork,  doe 
venison. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Hares,  rabbits,  pheasants,  grouse, 
partridges,  woodcocks,  snipe,  fowls,  chickens,  pullets, 
turkeys,  geese,  wild  geese,  ducks,  wild  ducks,  teal, 
widgeon,  larks. 

Fish. — Sturgeon,  turbot,  soles,  skate,  codfish,  haddocks, 
smelts,  dorys,  gurnet,  herrings,  sprats,  oysters,  mussels, 
cockles,  lobsters,  crabs,  and  shell  fish  in  general,  perch, 
carp,  eels. 

Vegetables.  —  Cabbages,  broccoli,  savoys,  Brussels 
sprouts,  Scotch  kale,  sea-kale,  spinach,  endive,  cardoons, 
lettuces,  skirret,  salsify,  scorzonera,  sorrel,  potatoes, 
turnips,  parsnips,  carrots,  beetroot,  Jerusalem  artichokes, 
celery,  peas,  haricot  beans,  leeks,  onions,  shalots,  mush- 
rooms, horse-radish,  parsley,  thyme,  tarragon,  chervil, 
mint,  sage,  small  salads.  Garden  herbs,  or  pot  herbs, 
which  are  chiefly  used  for  stuffings,  in  soups,  and  for 
flavouring  dishes,  or  for  garnishing,  are  always  in  season, 
and  can  be  procured  at  any  time,  either  green  or  dried. 

Fruits. — Apples,  pears,  medlars,  grapes,  figs,  chestnuts, 
almonds,  filberts,  nuts,  walnuts,  raisins,  currants,  prunes, 
and  all  sorts  of  preserved  and  dried  fruits,  jams,  marma- 
lades, and  fruit  jellies. 


DOMESTIC     SURGERY. 

SUSPENDED    ANIMATION. 

Under  the  head  of  suspended  animation  are  included  all 
those  cases  of  apparent  death  in  which,  by  the  judicious 
application  of  appropriate  remedies,  the  patient  may  be 
restored  to  vitality  and  health.  The  simplest  form  of  sus- 
pended animation  is  that  seen  inyij/w////^'",  when,  from  the 
effects  of  heat  or  over-exertion  (combined  possibly  with 
tight  lacing),  a  young  lady  becomes  pale,  falls  down  in- 
sensible, and  appears  scarcely  to  breathe.  The  admission 
of  fresh  air  is  of  the  first  importance,  and  she  should  be 
immediately  placed  near  an  open  window,  and  in  the 
recumbent  position,  so  that  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  head 


may  be  accelerated.  At  the  same  time,  any  tightness 
of  dress  should  be  at  once  remedied,  and  a  little  cold 
water  sprinkled  in  the  face.  The  use  of  smelling-salts  is 
occasionally  of  service  in  rousing  a  patient,  but  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  apply  them  too  vigorously,  for  fear  of  irri- 
tating the  nose.  If,  as  sometimes  happens,  a  fainting-fit 
is  only  the  prelude  to  a  fit  of  hysterics,  the  patient  should 
be  thoroughly  roused  by  the  free  application  of  cold  water, 
so  soon  as  the  hysterical  sobbings  begin  to  show  them- 
selves, and  a  brisk  walk  up  and  down  the  room,  between 
two  not  too  sympathising  friends,  will  then  probably  avert 
a  domestic  catastrophe  which  is  always  annoying  to  all 
concerned.  Persons  with  a  feeble  circulation,  and,  there- 
fore, more  liable  to  faintness,  may  be  glad  to  know  that 
they  can  often  avert  a  fainting-fit  when  they  feel  it  coming 
on,  by  at  once  lying  down  flat  on  a  sofa;  or,  if  from  • 
position' — as  in  church — this  is  impossible,  then  that 
bowing  the  head  well  down  on  the  knees  will  have  the 
same  effect. 

Droivning  is  the  most  common  cause  of  serious  sus- 
pended animation,  and,  as  accidents  may  happen  at  any 
moment,  every  well-educated  person  should  know  what 
to  do  on  the  emergency.  In  cases  of  drowning,  every 
moment  is  of  importance,  and  the  attempts  at  resuscita- 
tion should,  therefore,  be  begun  as  soon  as  the  sufferer  is 
drawn  from  the  water,  and  without  conveying  him  any 
distance  to  a  house.  The  great  object  of  treatment 
is  to  rouse  the  heart  by  inducing  respiration,  as  in  the 
case  of  fainting,  and,  if  all  efforts  at  this  have  ceased, 
recourse  must  be  had  at  once  to  "  artificial  respiration," 
by  tJic  following  method,  known  as  "  Sylvester's."  The 
mouth  being  cleared  of  any  dirt  or  saliva  which  may  be 
in  it,  the  tongue  should  be  drawn  forward,  and  held  with 
the  finger  and  thumb,  or  secured  with  a  piece  of  ribbon  or 
an  elastic  band  passed  over  the  tongue  and  under  the  chin. 
This  drawing  forward  of  the  tongue  is  very  important, 
as  it  opens  the  wind-pipe,  and  must  never  be  omitted. 
The  patient  being  then  laid  on  his  back,  with  the  shoul- 
ders and  head  slightly  raised,  the  operator  kneels  behind 
his  head,  grasps  the  arms  just  above  the  elbows,  and 
draws  them  steadily  and  gently  upwards  (as  shown  in 
Fig.  2i)  until  they  meet  above  the  head.  By  this  means, 
the  walls  of  the  chest  are  expanded,  and  air  is  drawn  into 
the  lungs,  and  a  second  or  two  should  be  allowed  for  this  to 
take  place.  The  operator  should  then  lower  the  patient's 
arms  to  his  side,  and  press  them  against  his  chest  (as  seen 
in  Fig.  22),  so  as  to  force  out  the  air  from  the  lungs,  and 
thus  imitate  respiration.  This  series  of  movements  should 
be  repeated  twenty  times  a  minute — not  more — and  the 
time  should  be  taken  from  the  watch  of  a  bystander,  or  it 
will  be  found  in  practice  that  anxiety  will  lead  to  hurry 
and  consequent  damage.  As  it  will  be  impossible  for 
one  person  to  keep  up  the  exertion  necessary  for  many 
minutes,  from  the  fatigue  consequent  upon  it,  he  should 
be  relieved  as  often  as  may  be  necessary  by  another, 
who  should  have  watched  and  learnt  the  method  of  pro- 
ceeding ;  but  it  is  important  that  all  directions  should  be 
given  by  one  person,  since  confusion  and  delay  is  sure 
otherwise  to  occur.  Whilst  efforts  at  restoring  respiration 
are  being  thus  unceasingly  carried  out,  the  attention  of 
other  assistants  should  be  given  to  restoring  the  warmth 
of  the  body  of  the  drowned  person,  by  removing  wet 
clothes,  appl>'ing  hot  blankets  and  bottles,  and  by  using 
friction  assiduously  to  the  limbs,  in  an  upward  direction, 
so  as  to  favour  the  flow  of  blood  towards  the  heart.  The 
utility  of  a  warm  bath  is  questioned  by  many  authorities, 
and  should  only  be  resorted  to  when  the  patient  is  suffer- 
ing from  extreme  cold.  Even  in  this  case,  it  is  well  to 
dash  cold  water  over  the  face  and  chest,  so  as  to  excite 
respiration,  and  the  use  of  the  warm  bath  should  not  be 
continued  more  than  five  minutes,  without  medical  sanc- 
tion. Efforts  at  resuscitation  should  be  continued  for  at 
least  an  lK)ur,  even  in  tmfavourable  cases,  unless,  indeed. 


112 


DOMESTIC    SURGERY. 


a  medical  man  is  able  to  certify  that  the  sufferer  is 
undoubtedly  dead.  Patients  recovered  from  drowning 
generally  require  careful  after-treatment  for  a  few  days, 
but  this  is  best  left  in  the  hands  of  the  medical  attendant. 
Cases  of  Hangings  with  suicidal  intention,  may  un- 
happily be  met 
with,  and  require 
treatment  very 
similar  to  that 
appropriate  for 
drowned  cases. 
Of  course,  the  first 
step  is  to  cut  the 
sufferer  down,  and 
loose  the  ligature 
round  the  neck. 
Cold  water  should 
then  be  dashed 
over  the  head  and 
chest,  and  if  no 
breathing  is  there- 
by excitsd,  re- 
course should  be 
had  at  once  to 
artificial  respira- 
tion, as  above  de- 
scribed. In  cases 
of  hanging,  it  may 
be    necessary    to 

bleed  the  patient  from  the  jugular  vein  or  femoral  artery, 
in  order  to  relieve  the  congestion  of  the  head,  but  neither 
of  these  operations  can  be. safely  undertaken  except  by  a 
medical  man. 

Suspended  animation' from '  7n9«/  G^j^j  is  most  com- 
monly met  with  in  connection  i  with  )  breweries,  where 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  is  apt '  to 'collect  s  in  ^  the  large 
vats  used  for  brewing;^  or  in  swells, ''where  the  same 
gas  collects  and 
is  dangerous  to 
any  workmen 
descending  to 
repair  pump- 
tubes,  &c.  As  in 
these  accidents 
several  lives  are 
often  unneces- 
sarily sacrificed, 
in  the  well- 
meant  but  igno- 
rant efforts  made 
to  rescue  the  first 
sufferer,  it  may 
not  be  out  of 
place  to  say  a 
few  words  as  to 
the  best  method 
of  dispersing  the 
noxious  gases, 
and  removing 
those  who  are 
suffering   '  from 

their  influence.  When  one  man  has  fallen  insensible 
under  the  influence  of  the  carbonic  acid,  it  is  simply 
suicide  for  another  to  attempt  to  rescue  him  without 
proper  precautions.  These  consist  in  having  a  strong 
rope  securely  fastened  round  his  waist,  so  that  he  may  be 
drawn  up  at  once  if  overcome,  and  another  similar  rope 
to  be  carried  in  the  hand  and  to  be  attached  to  the  first 
victim.  The  mouth  and  nose  should  be  thoroughly  muffled 
with  a  woollen  comforter  or  handkerchief,  and  the  rescuer 
should  breathe  as  seldom  as  he  can  whilst  attaching  the 
rope  to  his  fallen  comrade.  If  sufficient  assistance  is  at 
hand,  efforts  should  at  the  same  time  be  made  to  disperse 


^^^s 


Fig.  22. 


the  carbonic  acid  gas  by  throwing  down  buckets  of  water. 
By  this  means  the  ordinary  atmospheric  air  will  to  a 
certain  degree  be  mixed  with  the  deleterious  vapour, 
which  being  heavy  will  speedily  find  its  way  through  an 
opening  in  the  bottom  of  a  vat,  if  such  can  be  rapidly  made 

by  opening  a  trap 
or  cutting  out  a 
plank.  A  garden- 
engine  and  hose, 
if  at  hand,  may 
be  used  to  pump 
fresh  air  to  the 
sufferers,  and  a 
fire-engine,  if  ob- 
tainable, would  be 
a  still  more  effi- 
cient instrument. 
"When  the  sufferer 
is  at  last  placed  in 
safety,  every  effort 
must  be  made  to 
establish  respira- 
tion in  the  manner 
already  explained 
imdcr  the  head  of 
drowning.  It  is 
~  most      important 

that  a  free  access 
of  fresh  air  should 
be  allowed  to  him  by  avoiding  all  crowding  of  anxious 
relations  and  friends  around  the  patient. 

Insensibility  from  Sun-stroke  is  occasionally  met  with 
in  the  summer  months,  from  exposure  in  the  hay-field,  &c. 
The  patient  complains  of  violent  pain  in  the  head,  and  in 
bad  cases  becomes  rapidly  insensible,  the  face  being 
flushed  and  the  head  hot.  The  treatment  is  to  remove 
the    sufferer   i;ito   the    shace    aid    to   apply  cold  water 

freely  to  the  head 
and  nape  of  the 
neck.  The  head 
should  be  sup- 
ported and  cold 
water  Heed  if 
possible)  poured 
from  a  height 
upon  it.  At  the 
same  time  mus- 
tard poultices 
may  be  applied 
to  the  calves  of 
the  legs,  and 
medical  aid 
should  be  im- 
mediately sum- 
moned. 

The  same 
treatment  would 
be  appropriate 
to  a  case  of  apo- 
plexy, care  being 
taken,  however, 
not  to  prolong  the  cold  effusion,  as  the  patient's  strength 
might  not  be  able  to  bear  it. 

Cases  of  insensibility  from  Intoxication  or  Poisoning 
should  be  seen  by  a  medical  man  as  early  as  possible. 
No  harm,  however,  can  be  done  in  any  case  by  inducing 
vomiting,  and  this  is  most  readily  accomplished  by  tickling 
the  interior  of  the  throat  with  a  feather,  if  the  patient  is 
unable  to  swallow,  or  if  he  is  able,  by  the  administration 
of  an  emetic  of  warm  mustard  and  water.  All  constriction 
about  the  neck  and  chest  should  be  removed,  and  the 
patient  be  placed  on  his  side  with  the  head  slightly 
raised. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


"3 


GARDENING. 

THE     WINDOW     GARDEN. 

Ferns  are  among  the  most  beautiful  of  the  plants 
•adapted  to  window  culture.  The  graceful  forms  of  the 
foliage  more  than  compensate  for  the  absence  of  flowers 
when  they  are  used  alone  ;  but  when  they  are  employed 
together  with  flowering  plants,  in  some  such  contrivance 
-IS  the  bulb  case  engraved  in  our  last  paper,  the  effect  is 
extremely  pleasing.  They  may  be  placed  as  a  centre, 
with  dwarf  flowers  around,  according  to  their  size  and 
habit  of  growth.  But  they 
are  also  useful  for  hang- 
ing-baskets,  the  drooping 
fronds  falling  naturally  over 
the  sides,  and  making  a 
liandsome  base  either  for 
the  flowers  or  taller  ferns 
which  may  be  grown  in  the 
centre. 

With  regard  to  the  bas- 
kets used  for  such  purposes 
as  this,  we  may  remind  our 
readers  that  it  is  not  at  all 
necessary  that  they  should 
te  of  a  very  ornamental 
character  ;  so  long  as  they 
are  neat  in  outline,  and 
adapted  to  the  purpose  by 

being  sufficiently  roomy  to  admit  the  soil  and  the  free 
growth  of  the  plants,  it  is  immaterial  what  amount  of 
decoration  may  be  displayed  upon  the  sides.  As  the 
plants  grow,  these  will  be  covered  and  hidden  from  view  ; 
and,  therefore,  the  elaborate  and  expensive  affairs  which 
are  sometimes  sold  for  hanging-baskets,  are  practically 
■worth  no  more  than  the  plain  and  unpretending  articles 
which  may  be  purchased 
for  a  quarter  of  the  sum. 
A  good  example  of  the 
hanging-basket  has  been 
included  in  our  previous 
illustrations. 

When  ferns  are  employed 
alone  in  the  basket,  it 
should  be  fitted  with  a  zinc 
pan,  in  which  to  place  the 
soil,  as  it  will  be  necessary 
to  keep  this  constantly 
moist,  and  without  the  pan 
an  unpleasant  dripping 
would  be  experienced. 

Ferns  for  the  purpose  of 
indoor  culture  may  be  found 
in  abundance  in  any  wood, 
and  in  most  of  our  country 
lanes.  They  may  occasion- 
ally   be   seen    growing    in 

chinks  of  rocks,  upon  old  walls,  &c.  A  good  variety  might 
thus  be  obtained  with  very  little  search,  including  the 
•common  maidenhair,  the  hart's  tongue,  spleenwort,  lady 
fern,  and  many  others.  The  locality  will  in  many  cases 
decide  the  examples  which  may  be  thus  selected  for  growth, 
as  each  district  has  some  kinds  more  or  less  peculiar  to 
itself.  The  plants  chosen  should  be  small — the  smaller 
the  better — as  the  more  pleasure  will  be  found  in  watch- 
ing their  gradual  development  ;  and  when  they  have 
grown  somewhat  too  large  for  the  pot  or  basket,  they  may 
be  removed  to  the  garden,  where  they  will  help  to  make 
a  pleasing  variety  among  the  shrubs  and  flowering  plants. 

If  ferns  be  procured  from  a  nurseryman  or  seedsman, 
the  hardy  native  kinds  should  be  chiefly  chosen  for 
window  gardening,  and  they  may  be  seen  in  numbers  and 
variety  to  suit  any  individual  taste.      Many  of  the  other 

VOL.  I. 


Fig.   I. — SMALL   GREENHOUSE   WITHOUT   HKATINO   APPARATUS, 

(a    b,    hinged    cross-beam ;    c,    movable    sash ;    d   B,    uprights.) 


Fij.  3. — SMALL   GREENHOUSE   WITH    HEATING   APPARATUS. 


species  are  apt  to  require  too  much  heat  and  moisture  to 
render  them  desirable  subjects,  especially  for  growing  in 
baskets.  A  few  good  healthy  ferns  to  start  with,  will 
enable  you  to  keep  up  a  constant  supply,  as  they  may  be 
propagated  with  ease  by  division  of  roots,  and  by  raising 
from  the  spores.  The  spores  are  the  seeds  which  are 
found  on  the  under  surface  of  the  frond,  and  they  are 
most  easily  collected  by  cutting  off  the  frond  entirely 
when  the  spore-cases  become  brown,  and  laying  it  by  in 
a  warm  place,  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  paper.  In  a  few 
days  the  cases  will  have  burst,  and  the  spores  may  be 

collected  and  sown.  They 
may  be  sown  in  a  pot. 
which  should  be  half  or 
three  parts  full  of  material 
for  drainage,  and  the  soil 
should  be  light  and  fine.  A 
little  moss  placed  under- 
neath the  soil  will  keep  it 
sufficiently  moist,  and  assist 
the  growth.  A  small  piece 
of  window-glass  should  be 
put  over  the  pot,  and  left 
there  until  the  shoots  begin 
to  appear  above  the  surface, 
when  it  must  be  raised 
occasionally  for  the  ad- 
mission of  air.  When  the 
plants  have  grown  large 
enough  to  handle,  they  should  be  transplanted  imme- 
diately. 

V  Drooping  plants,  which  will  flower  freely  in  the  basket, 
may  be  had  in  great  variety  and  at  very  little  cost 
Among  the  most  popular  favourites  of  this  kind  are  the 
nasturtium  family,  tropcolum,  canariensis,  and  other 
varieties,   convolvulus  major,   honeysuckle,  and   trailing 

mesembryanthemum  ;  but 
there  is  scarcely  any  limit 
to  the  number  of  plants 
that  may  be  grown  in  this 
way.  The  verbenas,  helio- 
tropes, petunias,  nemophi- 
las,  lobelias,  mimuluses, 
&c.,  may  be  trained  to 
cover  the  sides  of  the  hang- 
ing-basket, and  thus  each 
spring  or  summer  an  entire 
change  may  be  made  in  the 
character  of  the  plants  so 
grown. 

We  will  conclude  these 
papers  on  the  window 
garden  with  some  hints  on 
the  raising  and  keeping  of 
plants  which  require  some- 
thing more  than  the  slight 
degree  of  attention  which 
is  sufficient  for  many  of  the  kinds  described  in  our  last 
paper.  It  will  be  found  advantageous  to  stimulate  the 
growth  of  certain  seeds  by  artificial  means,  some  of  which 
may  be  carried  into  effect  simply  and  inexpensively. 
Bell  glasses  are  useful,  and  not  expensive.  A  cracked 
tumbler  will  answer  the  purpose  in  some  cases  ;  and  in 
others,  a  flower-pot  turned  upside  down.  In  a  cottager's 
garden  we  once  saw  a  very  neat  contrivance  :  a  tray  was 
filled  with  sawdust,  and  placed  in  an  east  window ;  on 
this  the  pots  with  their  seedlings  were  placed,  and  over 
them  was  a  frame  of  glass.  The  sawdust,  by  being  kept 
wet,  moistened  the  soil,  and  at  the  same  time  generated  a 
sort  of  bottom  heat,  which  materially  helped  the  seeds  to 
germinate  on  cold  days.  The  master  and  inventor  of 
this  little  forcing  establishment  sprinkled  the- sawdust 
with  warm  water. 

8 


114 


DOMESTIC  MEDICINE. 


The  pots  must  be  filled  one-third  with  cinders  for 
drainage  ;  we  then  divide  the  remaining  space  into  three 
parts — laying  first  a  layer  of  lumpy,  rough  soil  ;  then  a 
layer  of  finer  soil^  mixed  with  sand  ;  next,  and  lastly, 
finely  powdered  soil,  containing  a  greater  quantity  of  sand. 
*  The  surface  soil  must  be  sandy  and  light.  If  you  can- 
not obtain  heath  soil,  a  little  powdered  charcoal  is  a  good 
substitute. 

Water  the  pots  so  as  to  thoroughly  damp  the  soil, 
and  let  them  stand  for  a  day  to  drain  in  a  drv'  shaded  place. 

Level  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  then  thinly  scatter  in 
the  seeds,  top-dressing  them  with  a  layer  of  fine  soil  of  a 
thickness  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  seeds  used ;  press 
the  soil  down,  and  lay  over  the  top  of  the  pot  a  square  of 
window-glass ;  sometimes,  in  case  the  plants  are  delicate, 
or  the  sun  scorching,  it  will  be  found  advisable  to  shade 
with  a  piece  of  paper. 

For  small  seeds,  such  as  calceolaria,  lobelia,  &c.,  a 
slight  dressing  of  dry  silver-sand  is  best.  Mignonette 
requires  dusty  dry  earth,  lightly  laid  on.  Balsams  will 
take  the  tenth  of  an  inch,  and  convolvulus  one-fourth,  to 
cover  them.  It  is  a  very  common  mistake  to  plant  seeds 
a  great  deal  too  deep. 

The  difficulty  of  cultivating  seeds  in  pots  begins  when 
the  plants  want  singling  or  thinning  out — one  source  of 
trouble  being  watering,  as  you  are  apt  to  drown  and 
break  the  tender  young  stems.  To  avoid  this,  flood  the 
pot,  by  holding  a  piece  of  broken  pot  against  the  rim,  and 
pouring  over  it  a  supply  of  water.  Another  method,  and 
perhaps  the  best,  is  to  immerse  the  pot  up  to  the  rim,  but 
not  over  it,  in  a  pail  of  water,  leaving  it  until  completely 
moistened.  The  water  will  rise  gradually  through  the  earth 
in  the  pot,  and  thus  the  chance  of  damaging  the  plants  is 
entirely  avoided. 

For  bringing  on  tender  plants,  and  keeping  the  less 
hardy  kinds  in  winter,  the  miniature  greenhouse  is  a  most 
useful  contrivance.  Any  ingenious  person  possessed  of  a 
few  tools  may  make  one  for  himself.  The  size  and  kind 
of  the  house  must  depend  upon  the  number  and  nature  of 
the  plants  he  wishes  to  provide  for,  and  it  may  be  either 
little  more  than  the  ordinary  garden-frame  in  character 
and  appearance,  or  so  constructed  and  fitted  as  to  keep 
stove-plants  in  health  in  a  severe  season.  Our  illustra- 
tions will  afford  an  idea  both  of  the  more  simple  and 
the  more  elaborate  contrivances  of  this  kind,  and  they 
may  be  of  very  moderate  dimensions — in  fact,  in  length 
from  four  feet  upwards. 

Fig.  I  represents  a  small  house,  which  may  be  placed 
in  the  corner  of  a  garden  or  yard,  to  act  as  a  receptacle 
for  the  window-plants  when  they  have  ceased  to  flower, 
a  training-house  for  young  plants  raised  from  seed  or 
cuttings,  and  a  shelter  for  fuchsias,  calceolarias,  verbenas, 
&c.,  in  the  winter.  It  should  be  erected  with  the  back  on 
the  north  side  of  the  garden,  and  the  roof  sloping  towards 
the  south,  so  as  to  receive  as  much  as  possible  of  the  sun's 
rays.  A  good  layer  of  fermenting  dung,  placed  under- 
neath the  soil,  and  removed  from  time  to  time,  will 
generate  heat ;  but  in  fine  and  temperate  weather  the  roof 
should  be  lifted  for  the  admission  of  the  air,  which  is 
necessary  to  keep  the  plants  thoroughly  dry  and  healthy. 
At  night,  if  the  weather  be  frosty,  the  structure  should  be 
covered  with  a  cloth  or  mat  to  prevent  radiation. 

Our  next  illustration  represents  an  arrangement  for  the 
supply  of  heat  by  artificial  means  without  much  expense 
or  trouble,  and  this  also  is  adapted  to  a  greenhouse  on  a 
very  small  scale.  The  means  used  is  a  hot-air  chamber, 
kept  at  a  certain  temperature  by  means  of  a  spirit-lamp 
placed  under  a  water-reservoir.  A  is  here  the  reservoir, 
and  B  the  opening  for  the  water  supply,  covered  by  a  lid 
when  the  lower  portion  of  the  reservoir  is  full,  c  may  be 
either  a  stand  for  pots,  or  the  soil  in  which  the  plants  are 
embedded.  D  D  represents  the  air  chamber  surrounding 
the  reservoir,  and  which  moderates  the  heat  before   it 


reaches  the  plants  ;  while  E  is  the  flue  through  which  the 
heat  is  allowed  to  make  its  escape  when  it  becomes 
excessive.  F  is  the  spirit-lamp,  G  the  movable  sash  by 
which  the  outer  air  is  freely  admitted  in  temperate 
weather,  and  H  the  tap  by  which  the  water  may  be  drawn 
off.  Either  of  these  plans  is  capable  of  adaptation  to  any 
corner  of  ground  that  may  be  available  for  the  purpose, 
and  the  amateur  gardener,  who  has  but  little  space  at  his 
disposal,  will  find  an  apparatus  of  this  sort  of  immense 
assistance  to  him. 


HINTS  ON  ARRANGING  THE  DINNER- 
TABLE. 

So  much  of  the  general  comfort  of  a  dinner  depends 
iipon  the  neatness  and  taste  with  which  it  is  served,  that  a 
few  hints  regarding  the  proper  arrangement  of  the  table 
will  probably  be  useful  to  our  readers.  Of  course,  the 
actual  laying  out  of  the  table  must  depend  upon  circum- 
stances— the  viands  to  be  served,  the  number  of  the 
family,  or  guests  expected,  and  the  means  of  the  host. 
The  cleanliness  of  the  linen,  and  the  knives,  forks,  spoons^ 
&c.,  should,  of  course,  always  be  scrupulously  regarded. 
A  very  clever  writer  on  this  subject  says,  "  Everything 
should  be  brilliantly  clean,  and  nothing  should  be  placed 
on  it  except  what  is  wanted."  It  is  desirable,  if  possible,, 
not  to  have  lights  upon  the  table  or  anything  in  the  shape 
of  flowers,  raised  dishes,  or  the  like,  which  may  interrupt 
the  freest  communication  between  the  guests.  It  is  also 
important  that  the  salt  should  look  neat.  Most  persons 
use  prepared  salt.  This  will  cake  in  cellars,  and  should 
be  removed  at  least  once  a  week  into  a  pie-dish,  crushed 
and  replaced.  Common  salt  must  be  grated  fine  after 
it  has  been  placed  in  the  oven  to  dry  ;  then  laid  between 
a  folded  paper,  and  pressed  with  a  rolling-pin  till  perfectly 
smooth.  Bread  for  table  should  be  cut  in  thick  squares 
very  evenly.  The  napkins,  when  used  for  the  first  time,, 
should  be  neatly  folded,  enclosing  the  bread,  and  after- 
wards brought  to  table  in  rings. 

Joints  which  require  carving  should  always  be  placed 
on  commodiously  large  dishes,  otherwise  they  give  a  great 
deal  of  trouble,  and  splash  the  gravy.  However  crowded 
the  table  may  be,  the  carver  must  have  plenty  of  room, 
and  it  is  most  important  that  the  knives  should  be  in. 
good  order.  Nothing  is  more  irritating  to  a  carver,  or 
more  indicative  of  bad  household  management,  than  the 
unpleasant  necessity  of  sharpening  knives  before  meat 
can  be  helped.  One  or  more  sets  of  cruets  should  be 
placed  upon  the  table,  according  to  the  size  of  the  party,, 
containing  the  different  sauces,  flavours,  &c.,  that  are  con- 
tinually wanted. 

Space  at  table  can  be  gained  by  placing  entremets 
which  do  not  need  carving,  in  small  dishes,  to  be  renewed 
if  needed,  or  handing  them.  The  vegetables  also  may  be 
placed  on  a  sideboard,  if  there  is  insufficient  room.  It  is 
a  common  practice  now-a-days  to  hand  all  dishes  round, 
but  there  are  still  some  people  who  like  to  have  every- 
thing upon  the  table,  in  order,  as  far  as  possible,  to  dis- 
pense with  attendance,  and  the  necessity  of  continually 
asking  for  something. 


DOMESTIC   MEDICINE. 

DISEASES   INCIDENTAL  TO  CHILDREN   {cotlttnued). 

Teething. — The  process  of  teething  is  a  natural  one,  and 
should  be  unattended  with  any  particular  symptoms  of 
ailment.  It  generally  begins  about  the  sixth  or  seventh, 
month,  though  in  some  children,  especially  those  of  a 
rickety  constitution,  its  commencement  is  often  long- 
deferred.  There  are  two  sets  of  teeth  in  the  human  body,, 
the  first  or  temporary  set,  and  the  second  or  permanent. 
The  first  teeth  to  appear  are  generally  the  front  teeth  of 


CASSELUS   HOUSEHOLD  GUIDE. 


"5 


the  lower  jaw,  and  then  the  two  corresponding  teeth  of 
the  upper.  Although  teething  is  a  natural  process,  it 
is  often  accompanied  with  certain  ailments  ;  the  most 
common  of  these  are  diarrhoea  and  bronchitis,  especially 
the  former.  Diarrhoea  is  so  common  an  accompaniment 
of  the  process  of  teething,  that  by  some  it  is  considered 
natural.  In  any  great  degree,  however,  it  is  weakening, 
and  should  not  be  disregarded.  We  shall  treat  of  the 
various  ailments  which  are  apt  to  happen  during  teething, 
under  the  heads  of  their  various  names,  such  as  DiarrhcEa, 
Bronchitis,  Convulsions,  &c.  We  shall  only  here  remark 
that  the  child  during  teething  is  unusually  sensitive,  and 
requires  to  be  preserved  from  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  ; 
to  be  fed  regularly  and  very  simply.  When  a  tooth  is 
obviously  pressing  on  the  gum,  and  the  gum  is  swollen  or 
tted,  and  the  child  disordered  in  any  way,  no  objection 
should  be  offered  by  parents  to  having  the  gum  lanced. 
The  relief  afforded  by  this  measure  is  often  most  marked. 
Bronchitis  and  Diseases  of  the  Breathing  Apparatus. — 
Few  diseases  are  more  common  in  young  children  than 
some  degree  of  bronchitis,  especially,  perhaps,  in  the 
earlier  or  teething  years  of  life.  This  complaint  is  not  only 
common,  but  it  is  attended  with  some  danger,  and,  unless 
speedily  relieved,  a  doctor  should  be  sent  for.  The  disease 
consists  in  an  inflammation  of  the  bronchial  tubes  leading 
to  the  lungs.  The  wind-pipe  divides  into  two  tubes,  these 
two  divide  into  other  two,  and  these  again  subdivide  into 
two  more,  and  so  on  until  they  attain  a  great  minuteness, 
and  on  the  minutest  air-tubes  the  cells  of  the  lungs  are 
placed.  Bronchitis,  or  inflammation  of  these  tubes,  is 
one  of  the  most  fatal  diseases  in  our  climate,  especially  to 
young  children  and  old  people.  The  symptoms  of  bron- 
chitis vary  according  to  the  extent  of  the  disease,  and  as 
the  disease  affects  more  the  smaller  or  the  larger  bronchial 
tubes.  The  child  is  quickly  bereft  of  its  usual  liveliness, 
and  shows  the  following  symptoms  : — It  is  feverish  ;  the 
breathing  is  quick,  and  the  nostrils  expand  more  or  less  ; 
there  is  cough,  which  at  the  first  is  probably  hard  and 
painful,  often  making  the  little  patient  cry  ;  a  wheezing 
sound  may  be  heard  with  the  breathing.  All  these  symp- 
toms are  apt  to  be  worse  at  night,  the  breathing  getting 
shorter  and  the  child  getting  hotter.  If  the  smaller  tubes 
are  much  affected,  the  inconvenience  in  breathing,  and 
the  fever,  and  the  danger  of  the  disease  are  the  greater. 
All  such  symptoms  are  more  serious  when  they  occur  in 
delicate  children,  or  in  such  children  as  have  large  heads, 
or  who  have  their  teeth  slowly  and  late.  If  these  symp- 
toms occur  only  in  a  slight  degree,  they  may  yield  to  a 
little  domestic  treatment.  If  the  weather  be  cold,  the 
child  must  be  kept  in  a  room  comfortably  warm.  Large 
linseed  poultices  should  be  applied  to  the  chest,  the  first 
of  which  may  contain  a  few  grains  of  mustard.  The  fol- 
lowing mixture  may  be  given  : — 


Ipecacuanha  wine... 
Spirits  of  nitre 

Syrup  

Bicarbonate  of  potash 
Water  


I    drachm. 

1  drachm. 

2  drachms. 
6    grains. 

I J  ounce. 


A  teaspoonful  may  be  given  to  a  child  nine  months  old, 
a  little  more  or  less  to  older  or  younger  children,  or 
according  to  the  severity  of  the  symptoms.  If  the  first 
few  doses  cause  a  little  sickness,  they  will  do  no  harm. 
The  above  mixture  is  ver)'  good  for  feverish  coughs  in 
children.  The  symptoms  which  indicate  danger,  and  the 
propriety  of  regular  medical  advice,  are  great  feverishness, 
quick  or  laboured  bpeathing,  and  any  duskiness  or  blue- 
ness  of  the  colour  of  the  face. 

Croup  atui  Nervous  Croup. — We  will  treat  first  of  real 
croup,  which  consists  of  inflammation  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  wind-pipe.  It  occurs  for  the  most  part  in  cliiklren 
between  the  ages  of  two  and  five  years,  and  is  more  com- 
njon  in  boys  than  girls.     It  is  noticed  that  the  children  of 


certain  families  are  more  liable  to  croup  than  the  children 
of  other  families.  The  disease  often  comes  on  in  the  night. 
It  may  set  in  with  symptoms  of  a  common  cold,  with 
more  or  less  hoarseness  and  soreness  about  the  top  of  the 
wind-pipe  ;  the  child  becomes  feverish  and  coughs  quite 
peculiarly — the  peculiarity  consisting  in  the  cough  having 
a  dry,  hoarse,  harsh,  ringing  sound,  the  "  clangey"  or 
"  brassy "  cough  described  by  Dr.  Cullen,  The  cough 
does  not  acquire  this  brassy  sound  all  at  once,  probably 
not  before  twenty-four  or  thirty-six  hours.  It  is  very 
characteristic,  and  needs  only  to  be  heard,  and  to  be 
associated  with  a  feverish  state  of  the  child,  to  teach  us 
that  croup  is  present.  More  or  less  coincidently  with 
this  cough,  occurs  a  peculiarity  of  breathing.  The  child 
breathes  with  a  crowing  or  barking  sound.  This  crowing 
or  barking  sound  in  breathing,  together  with  the  brassy 
cough,  the  restlessness  and  feverishness,  and  the  general 
difficulty  in  breathing,  get  worse  at  times,  and  especially 
they  all  tend  to  be  worse  at  night.  The  severity  of  the 
case  is  to  be  judged  of  by  the  degree  of  fever  and  the 
amount  of  the  peculiar  noises  in  coughing  and  breathing 
which  we  have  described.  These  sounds  arc  caused  by 
the  swelling  and  inflammation  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
wind-pipe,  which  may  be  so  great  as  almost  to  block  it  up, 
in  which  case  the  child  becomes  blue,  and  breathes  with 
painful  struggles  and  difficulty.  We  need  not  say  that  iii 
such  a  case  as  this,  medical  assistance  should  be  sought 
as  soon  as  possible.  In  the  meantime,  the  child  should 
be  put  into  a  warm  bath.  After  this  a  large  linseed  poul- 
tice should  be  put  upon  the  chest,  and  a  sponge  dipped 
in  hot  water  (as  hot  as  can  comfortably  be  borne  by  the 
child)  should  be  applied  to  the  neck  of  the  patient  for 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  twenty  minutes  at  a  time  ;  on 
discontinuing  the  sponge,  a  little  dry  flannel  should  be 
wrapped  round  the  neck.  The  child  should  be  in  a  wann 
room,  in  which  a  kettle  should  be  kept  boiling,  sending 
out  steam  into  the  apartment,  as  moisture  in  the  air  is 
very  agreeable  and  beneficial  in  this  disease.  If  any  dif- 
ficulty or  delay  is  experienced  in  getting  a  doctor,  and  the 
cough  is  brassy  and  the  breathing  of  the  crowing  kind 
described  above,  a  little  ipecacuanha  wine  should  be  pro- 
cured at  the  chemist's,  and  .of  this,  a  third,  or  a  half,  or 
the  whole  of  a  tea-spoonful  may  be  given  every  quarter  of 
an  hour,  in  a  very  little  water,  until  vomiting  is  produced. 
The  smaller  doses  will  do  for  children  about  two  years, 
even  lesser  ones  for  younger  children,  and  the  largest  dose 
for  older  ones.  The  hotter  the  child,  the  older  it  is.  and 
the  more  ringing  the  cough,  the  more  ipecacuanha  wine 
will  it  take  and  need.  After  vomiting  has  been  brought 
about,  ten  drops  of  the  wine  may  be  given  in  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  water  every  three  or  four  hours,  till  relief  is 
obtained.  Children  liable  to  croup  should  not  sleep  ir 
cold  bedrooms.  Ipecacuanha  wine  should  always  be  kept 
in  the  house. 

False  or  Nervous  Croup  {Chiid-crowing). — This  disease 
is  liable  to  be  confounded  with  true  croup,  but  it  is  quite 
different  in  its  nature.  Like  true  croup,  it  is  most  apt  to 
occur  in  the  night.  It  may  occur  quite  suddenly.  It  is  a 
nervous  disease  and  not  an  inflammatory  one.  It  is  cha- 
racterised by  a  sudden  difficulty — almost  a  suspension— 
of  breathing.  When  breathing  does  take  place,  it  is 
accompanied  by  a  loud  crowing  sound,  which  gives  the 
naiTie  to  the  disease.  It  is  really  a  spasm  of  the  muscles 
of  respiration,  and  may  be  accompanied  by  twitches  of  the 
thumbs  or  face,  and  even  by  general  convulsions.  It  differs 
from  true  croup  in  that  it  occurs  to  younger  children,  often 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  nine  months.  It  often  comes 
on  while  the  child  is  getting  a  tooth.  It  is  not  attended 
with  fever,  like  true  croup,  and  comes  on  and  goes  off  sud- 
denly. A  warm  bath  should  be  given,  and  a  medical  man 
sent' for.  The  child  might  be  suffocated  in  one  of  the 
attacks.  If  a  tooth  is  pressing  on  the  gum,  it  should  be 
lanced,  and  this  measure  often  relieves  wonderfully. 


ii6 


THE   REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF   CHILDREN. 


THE     REARING     AND     MANAGEMENT 
OF    CHILDREN. 

IV. — children's     clothing. 
We  promised  in  our  last  number  to  lay  before  our  readers 
practical  directions  for  making  babies'  long  frocks  and 
petticoats.     These  are  not  worn  so  long  in  the  skirt  as 
they  were  formerly.     For  full-dress  toilette  for  a  baby  the 


eighths  of  an  inch  wide.  The  long-cloth  not  dressed ^owXdi 
be  procured.  It  can  always  be  had  by  inquiring  for  it  at 
a  really  good  shop.  The  thrifty  housewife  will  find  that 
she  saves  ten  or  twenty  per  cent,  by  going  to  a  large,  well- 
established  shop,  and  the  trouble  and  fatigue  of  a  long 
walk,  or  the  expense  of  an  omnibus,  will  be  amply  repaid 
to  her  in  the  end.  When  a  lady  has  to  go  a  distance  to  a 
shop  she  should  try  and  make  all  the  purchases  needed 


5  5 


r.g.  41. 


Fig.  42. 


skirt  of  the  robe,  however, 

is  still  very  long ;    and  as 

the  body,  including  the  band, 

is   two    and    a  half   inches 

deeper  than  the  old-fashioned 

ones,  the  difference  in  the 

length    is    not    very   great. 

The  length   of  the  skirt  of 

a  robe  thirty  or  forty  years  Pig_  ^7. 

ago  was   forty  inches,   and 

the  body  three  inches.     A  full-dress  robe  is  now  made 

thirty-six  laches  long  in  the  skirt,  and  five  and  a  half  in 

the  body.     It  will  be  the  best  plan  for  the  young  mother 

to  commence  by  making  the  petticoats  before  she  attempts 

the  frocks,  by  which  arrangement  she  will  get  her  hand 

accustomed  to  the  work. 

Half  a  dozen  white  petticoats  and  half  a  dozen  plain 
frocks,  with  one  or  two  nandsomer  for  best,  will  be  suffi- 
cient ;  but  where  means  allow  of  frequent  change,  double 
the  number  can  be  made,  and  the  every-day  frocks 
embroidered  also.  For  the  petticoats,  a  fine,  thin,  soft 
long-cloth  should  be  chosen,  and  will  cost  ninepence  or  a 
shilling  a  yard.  Eleven  yards  will  be  sufficient  for  six 
petticoats  ;  a  very  wide  material  is  not  needed.  Also  two 
pieces  of  tape,  one  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  the  other  three- 


at  once,  which  may  easily 
be  done  by  keeping  a  little 
memorandum-book  and 
pencil    in   the  pocket,  and 
jotting  down  from  time  to 
time  the  articles  in  requisi- 
tion.    The  petticoat  may  be 
made  in  two  ways.     First, 
the  simplest — Cut  off  nine 
breadths,  of  thirty-four 
inches  each.     Split  three  of  these  in  half  lengthways,  to 
make  half  breadths.      Each  skirt  consists  of  a  breadth 
and  a  half. 

If  the  material  is  undressed,  soaking  is  necessary. 
Rubbing  between  the  hands,  or  soaping  the  work  with  dry 
soap,  is  sometimes  sufficient  preparation  if  it  is  dressed. 
It  should  always  be  soaped  for  the  sewing-machine. 
Any  dress  in  the  material  clogs  the  teeth  of  the  feeder, 
and  impedes  the  motion.  If  the  work  is  soaked  it 
should  be  ironed  whilst  damp,  and  made  very  smooth, 
otherwise  it  is  not  easy  to  work  evenly  upon  it.  Where 
the  selvidges  come  the  breadth  and  half-breadth  of  the 
skirt  need  only  be  run  together  neatly.  The  other  seam 
must  be  run  and  felled. 
Make  a  cut  down  the  centre  of  the  half-breadth,  seven 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


117 


and  a  half  inches  long,  as  shown  at  C  in  Fig.  33,  and  hem 
it  round  with  the  narrowest  hem  that  can  l^  turned  down, 
neatly  button-hole  stitching  the  angle  A,  Fig.  32,  and  then 
making  a  loop  across,  shown  at  B  B  B.  In  case  any  of  our 
readers  are  not  acquainted  with  the  correct  mode  of 
making  a  loop,  we  will  describe  it  in  detail,  with  the  help 
of  the  diagram,  Fig.  34.    Pass  the  cotton  across  from  side 


to  break  in  the  drawing.  However  the  body  is  made, 
the  skirt  is  always  constructed  in  the  same  way.  To 
make  the  simple  body.  Fig.  32,  cut  a  strip  of  long-cloth 
five  inches  wide  and  twenty-six  long.  Fold  it  in  four,  and 
hollow  out  a  piece  for  the  arms,  as  shown  in  Fig.  36  by  the 
dotted  line  between  F  and  F.  How  these  arm-holes  look 
when  the  piece  of  long-cloth  is  opened  up  may  be  seen  by 


Fig.  49- 


Fig.  46. 


Fig.  45- 


Fig.  51. 


Fig 


Fig.  44- 


Fig.  50 

to  side  two  or  three  times,  taking  an  imperceptible  stitch 
through  the  material,  and  keeping  the  three  bars  of  cotton 
as  close  together  and  as  much  like  one  as  possible.  Then 
work  over  them  closely  in  button-hole  stitch,  as  shown  in 
Fig-  35-  The  object  of  this  loop  is  to  prevent  the  placket- 
hole  from  tearing  down,  and  must  be  made  to  all  the 
frocks  as  well  as  the  petticoats. 

Next  hem  round  the  skirt,  as  shown  at  D  in  Fig.  33, 
and  then  gather  it  finely  at  the  top  (E  and  e)  all  round. 
Gathering  is  simply  running,  and  drawing  up  the  thread. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  use  rather  coarse  cotton  for  this 
purpose,  because  a  fine  thread  is  always  exceedingly  liable 


'^^^^^ 


Fig.  47- 


referring  to  the  diagram  of  the  completed  body  (Fig.  37)  at 
G  and  G.  Cut  two  little  strips  of  long-cloth  (cutting  {/own 
the  stuff,  not  across),  each  four  inches  long  and  one  inch 
and  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch  wide.  These  are  to  form 
shoulder-straps,  run  and  felled  on  at  H  and  H  in  Fig.  37, 
having  first  just  nipped  off  the  corners  with  the  scissors, 
as  shown  at  j  j  in  Fig.  38,  treating  both  arm-holes  alike. 
Then  hem  all  round  the  arm-hole,  and  inside  the  shoulder- 
strap,  making  the  hem  no  wider  than  the  sixteenth  of  an 
inch,  which  is  the  smallest  division  you  will  find  marked 
on  an  English  yard-measure.  [The  French,  who  are  much 
neater  workers,  preciser  copyists,  and  better  "fitters,  divide 


n8 


THE  REARIN.G  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  CHILDREN. 


their  inches  into  thirty  parts.]  Then  hem  the  backs  (k 
and  K  in  Fig.  37)  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep.  Next  hem  all 
along  the  top,  shoulder-straps  includedj  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  deep,  and  run  the  narrowest  tape  in  for  a  band.  Cut 
two  strips  of  long-cloth  (down  the  material)  half  an  inch 
wide  and  nineteen  inches  long.  Gather  the  waist  of  the 
body  a  little  at  each  side  of  the  back  and  in  the  centre  of 
the  front,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37,  the  limit  of  the  gathers 
marked  by  four  o's.  Measure  if  the  strips  just  cut  exactly, 
and  run  it  to  the  body  on  the  wrong  side,  and  turn  it  over. 
Join  the  other  end  of  the  band  to  the  gathers  of  the  skirt. 
The  second  band  strip  is  used  to  line  this,  turning  it  down 
at  both  edges,  and  hemming  it  on  the  wrong  side,  taking 
care  not  to  let  the  stitches  show  through  on  the  right  side. 
This  completes  the  petticoat. 

The  second  or  cheaper  petticoat  bodice  is  made  like  a 
dress  body,  and  the  same  illustration  will  serve  for  both. 
Take  a  piece  of  long-cloth  six  and  a  half  inches  wide  and 
thirteen  inches  long,  double  it  exactly  in  half,  the  short 
way,  and  cut  out  the  front  of  the  bodice  like  Fig.  39,  the 
fold  coming  in  the  centre,  at  M.  Pencil  the  shape  on  the 
stuff,  before  cutting  it  out,  into  a  one  inch  wide  band, 
marked  at  P,  which  is  put  on  afterwards,  and  with  ends. 
Next  take  long-cloth  eight  inches  wide  and  fourteen  long, 
double  it  the  narrow  way,  the  fold  at  R,  and  cut  it  the 
shape  illustrated  by  Fig.  40  ;  afterwards  cut  it  in  half  at  K, 
as  the  back  is  in  two  pieces.  The  two  back  pieces  and 
the  front  will  resemble  Fig.  42.  Join  the  pieces  together, 
T  to  T,  running  and  felling  the  seam  from  the  arm-hole  to 
the  waist.  Do  the  same  at  the  other  side,  at  U  and  U. 
Then  also  run  and  fell  the  shoulders,  V  to  V  and  W  to  w. 
Cut  a  strip  band  half  an  inch  wide,  and  turn  it  down  to 
make  a  narrow  false  hem  round  the  top,  in  which  a  tape 
must  be  run.  Hem  the  arm-hole,  and  let  the  waist  into  a 
band.  A  petticoat  bodice  needs  no  sleeves.  Whip  the 
sfkirt  instead  of  gathering  it,  and  sew  it  to  the  bodice 
when  the  bodice  itself  is  quite  completed.  Whipping  is 
done  by  rolling  the  edge  of  the  calico  very  finely  between 
the  fingers,  and  sewing  over  the  roll  in  rather  long  stitches, 
but  such  as  will  draw  up  into  fine  gathers.  The  rolling  is 
done  piece  by  piece,  as  you  sew  it  along.  It  is  less  trouble 
to  turn  down  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  material, 
instead  of  rolling  it,  but  it  is  less  neat.  Some  persons 
stroke  the  gathers  down  with  the  point  of  the  needle,  which 
gives  them  a  regular  finished  appearance,  but  it  is  better 
not  to  do  this,  especially  to  the  fine  muslin  of  the  frocks, 
because  it  helps  to  wear  out  the  fabric. 

For  the  frocks,  plain  cambric  muslin,  at  eighteenpence 
a  yard,  is  all  that  is  needed,  and  about  three  yards  will 
be  wanted  for  each  frock.  There  are  two  breadths  in 
each  skirt,  a  yard  and  a  quarter  long,  the  body  is  nearly 
a  quarter  of  a  yard  deep,  and  the  sleeves  and  band  cut 
into  another  quarter  width  way.  Eighteen  yards  will 
therefore  be  wanted  for  six  frocks.  The  addition  of 
embroidery  is  entirely  optional,  except  round  the  top  and 
sleeves,  where  a  little  fancy  work  cannot  be  dispensed 
with.  The  embroidery  used  for  the  purpose  should  be 
very  narrow.     A  simple  scallop  and  dot  is  pretty  enough. 

To  make  the  skirt,  cut  two  breadths  (these  should  not 
be  less  and  need  not  be  more  than  twenty-six  inches 
wide),  each  breadth  a  yard  and  a  quarter  long.  Run 
and  fell  them  together  with  as  narrow  a  turning  as  -pos- 
sible, and  very  fine  cotton  and  small  stitches.  Hem  the 
bottom,  and  reduce  the  length  of  the  skirt  to  thirty-six 
inches  (that  is,  a  yard)  by  making  a  number  of  tucks. 
The  hem  must  he  of  the  same  width  as  the  tucks. 

There  are  different  ways  of  tucking  the  skirts,  which 
give  variety  to  the  plainest  frocks.  We  will  describe 
two  or  three  ways.  First,  a  half-inch  wide  hem,  and  a 
number  of  half-inch  wide  tucks,  each  half  an  inch  apart. 
Second, half-inch  hem  and  half-inch  tucks,  each  one  inch 
apart.  Third,  half-inch  hem  and  one  tuck,  half  an  inch 
apart.     Leave  two  inches,  and  make  two  more  tucks,  half 


an  inch  apart.  Leave  two  inches  again,  and  repeat 
making  the  tucks  in  the  same  way  till  you  have  suffi- 
cient. Fourth,  a  number  of  tucks  the  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  wide,  with  the  same  space  between  each,  and  the 
hem  to  correspond.  Fifth,  a  hem  and  two  tucks  the 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  wide,  and  the  same  space  between  ; 
miss  half  an  inch,  three  tucks  again ;  miss  another  half 
inch,  and  repeat  once  more.  Either  of  these  patterns 
will  look  well  with  a  single  row  of  embroidery  added  at 
the  bottom,  but  it  is  not  necessary.  Wide  tucks  may 
also  be  run  in  threes,  with  a  wide  space  between.  Sixth, 
an  inch  wide  hem,  three  quarter  inch  tucks,  each  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  apart.  Miss  an  inch,  and  make  an 
inch  wide  tuck  and  three  quarter  inch  ones,  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  apart.  Repeat  the  tucking  once  or  twice  more 
in  the  same  way. 

A  plain  body  can  be  made  with  tucks  to  correspond, 
perpendicularly  down  the  body.  To  make  a  tucked  body, 
a  piece  of  muslin  eight  inches  wide  and  the  whole  length 
of  the  material  should  be  cut  and  tucked  across,  com- 
mencing the  tucks  three  inches  from  the  end  ;  when  the 
tucked  piece  measures  four  and  a  half  inches  from  S  to 
S  in  Fig.  41,  allow  three  more  inches,  and  cut  it  off.  This 
piece  resembles  Fig.  41.  Fold  it  in  the  centre,  and  care- 
fully pin  it  together  ;  then  pencil,  and  afterwards  cut  it  to 
the  shape  of  Fig.  39,  having  the  folded  part  at  M.  The 
back  should  be  made  quite  plain,  and  cut  in  two  pieces, 
like  Fig.  40 ;  join  it  in  the  same  way  at  the  sides  and 
shoulders,  as  shown  in  Fig.  42.  Set  the  top  into  a 
quarter  wide  band,  the  front  of  embroidery,  or  worked 
with  dots  or  corals,  which  we  will  presently  describe. 
The  band  for  the  top  is  made  in  two  pieces  ;  cut  each 
half  an  inch  wide,  and  allow  for  turning  in.  First  run 
the  embroidery  to  the  band  ;  then  lay  the  body  on  the 
table,  the  right  side  up,  towards  you.  Put  the  band  on  it, 
the  wrong  side  upwards,  so  that  the  right  side  of  the  band 
lays  face  to  face  with  the  right  side  of  the  body,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  43,  where  the  tucks  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  band 
can  be  seen.  Pin  it,  and  run  it  to  the  top  of  the  body, 
then  turn  it  up,  and  you  have  the  right  side  of  both  facing 
you.  Line  the  band  by  running  on  the  second  strip  of 
muslin.  Run  a  tape  in.  Let  the  waist  into  an  inch  wide 
band,  made  of  embroidery  or  worked  with  coral  or  dots. 
The  sleeve  is  cut  on  the  cross,  like  Fig.  44,  nine  inches 
long  and  three  and  a  half  wide.  Y  Y  is  the  piece  for  the 
hem,  which  is  made  after  it  has  been  run  and  felled 
together  at  Z  Z.  Run  and  fell  it  into  the  arm-hole.  The 
skirt  must  have  a  placket-hole  made,  and  be  drawn  into 
gathers  in  the  same  way  as  the  petticoat,  and  then  sewn 
to  the  body.  Fig.  45  shows  a  plain  frock  completed — 
the  neck,  waist,  and  sleeve  edges  set  in  bands  worked 
with  dots. 

To  Work  the  Dots. — Fill  a  needle  with  rather  coarse 
embroidery  cotton  ;  commence  with  a  stitch,  just  as  if 
you  were  about  stitching  a  waistband.  You  have  thrust 
your  needle  in  the  stuff  thus — but  do  not  take  it  through — 
leave  it  so,  as  shown  in  Fig.  46  ;  twist  the'  cotton  round 
it,  close  up  to  where  it  comes  out  of  the  stuff  (the  place  is 
marked  by  the  letter  a)  ;  twist  it  a  second  t-ime  in  the 
same  way.  Bring  the  needle  through  ;  if  the  worsted 
cotton  is  not  close  up  to  the  stuff,  pull  the  thread,  and  set 
it  with  your  fingers.  Take  a  second  stitch  through  the 
very  same  holes — B  and  A — and  the  dot  is  formed.  When 
dots  of  graduated  sizes  are  required,  take  a  small  stitch, 
and  twist  the  cotton  once,  for  the  first  size  ;  a  larger 
stitch,  and  twist  the  cotton  twice,  for  the  second  ;  a  still 
larger,  and  twist  it  thrice  for  a  larger  dot.  Two  stitches 
taken  in  the  same  place  (from  B  to  A)  raise  the  work  still 
more. 

Coral  Stitch. — Coral  stitch  is  simply  a  number  of  long 
stitches  worked  at  right  angles  with  very  coarse  embroidery 
cotton,  in  the  way  shown  in  Fig.  47. 

A  pretty  Baby's  Robe  (Fig.  48).— -A  very  pretty  baby's 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


iig 


robe  may  be  made  with  the  help  of  the  sewing  machine, 
with  a  front  en  iablie.  A  very  fine  musUn  should  be  chosen 
for  this  purpose.  The  tucks  will  require  a  breadth  about 
two  yards  long.  It  is  best  to  work  the  tucks  before  cutting 
the  material,  as  if  there  is  any  variation  in  the  width,  t«he 
length  will  not  be  exact.  First  leave  five  inches  the  six- 
teenth of  an  inch  wide,  and  work  a  similar  one  between. 
Miss  two  inches,  and  repeat  till  the  work  is  a  yard  long. 
Then  cut  it  off.  This  tucked  piece  must  be  gored  on  both 
sides.  Fold  it  in  the  middle  and  pin  it  well  together  and 
cut  both  sides  together.  The  half  width  as  it  lies  doubled 
must  be  gored  off  to  five  inches  across  the  top.  It 
is  better  also  not  to  let  it  measure  more  than  fourteen 
inches  at  the  bottom.  The  five  inches  left  are  to  come  at 
the  bottom,  one  of  which  is  allowed  for  the  hem.  Join  a 
plain  width  to  this  to  make  the  skirt ;  but  before  joining, 
run  down  each  side  of  the  gored  breadth  a  piece  of  em- 
broidery— simply  a  scalloped  edge — carry  it  also  across 
the  bottom  of  the  skirt  just  below  the  tucks,  marked  A  to 
A  in  Fig.  48.  When  the  skirt  is  completed,  add  a  three 
and  a  half  inch  flounce,  to  be  fluted  all  round  the  bottom, 
the  edge  scalloped  in  button-hole  stitch.  For  the  body, 
tuck  a  straight  piece  horizontally  with  small  tucks  close  to- 
gether, and  cut  it  stomacher  shape,  as  shown  in  Fig.  49, 
inserting  it  into  the  remainder  of  the  body,  with  a  brace  of 
the  scalloped  muslin  added  each  side,  and  straight  round 
the  back  like  a  berthe.  The  sleeves  are  made  the  same 
as  Fig.  44,  but  over  them  is  a  frill  of  the  scallops.  The 
waist  and  neck-band  are  slightly  embroidered,  and  a 
simple  edging  placed  round  the  neck. 

To  obtain  the  stomacher  pattern  is  not  difficult :  cut  the 
bodice  pattern.  Fig.  39,  in  paper,  with  a  pencil  mark  off  the 
line  of  the  stomacher  shown  in  Fig.  49  ;  cut  the  tucked 
piece  stomacher-shape,  and  the  side  pieces  form  the  re- 
maining portion  of  the  pattern. 

A  Christening  Robe  (Fig.  50). — To  make  this  dress, 
take  half  a  width  of  muslin  and  run  tucks  three  and  three 
with  about  four  inches  between  each.  Cut  them  apart. 
In  paper  cut  the  pattern  of  the  front  of  the  robe,  which  is 
to  be  a  gore  twenty-eight  inches  at  the  bottom,  and  ten  at 
the  top.  Cut  the  half  of  it  in  paper,  and  allow  three  inches 
for  the  centre  and  outside  insertion.  Between  every  three 
tucks  place  a  row  of  insertion,  laying  each  on  the  paper 
pattern,  so  as  to  cut  them  the  right  length  and  not  waste 
the  embroidery,  which  is  expensive.  Between  every  three 
tucks  there  must  be  a  piece  of  inch  wide  embroidered 
insertion.  Cut  both  tucks  and  insertion  a  little  longer 
than  the  pattern  to  allow  for  working  up,  then  neatly  join 
them.  Down  the  centre  there  is  a  row  of  embroidery, 
bordered  each  side  by  edging,  and  this  is  repeated  at  each 
side  and  carried  round  the  bottom.  A  plain  breadth  of 
wide  muslin  completes  the  skirt,  which  is  bordered  all 
round  by  an  embroidered  flounce  four  inches  deep.  The 
body  is  composed  of  a  stomacher  of  two  tucks  and  one 
insertion,  placed  alternately.  An  insertion  double  edged, 
occupies  the  centre,  and  the  braces,  which  fonn  a  berthe 
behind,  are  of  the  flouncing  embroidery  that  robes  the 
front  of  the  skirt.  The  sleeves  are  plain,  like  Fig.  44  ; 
but  covered  with  a  frill  of  the  flouncing.  The  waist  and 
neck-band  are  made  of  insertion,  and  a  narrow  edge 
finishes  the  top.  Christening  robes  for  babes  are  some- 
times made  of  lace  instead  of  embroidery  ;  but  of  course 
this  requires  everything  en  suite  in  richness  and  costliness, 
and  is  by  no  means  necessary.  Many  parents  prefer  to 
use  a  plain  robe  for  the  christening, 

A  baby's  bib  is  commonly  made  of  a  piece  of  piqud  or 
fine  marsella,  shaped  like  Fig.  51,  and  made  braided  or 
plain.  If  braided,  the  edge  is  button-stitched  and  cut  out. 
If  plain,  it  should  be  piped  round,  and  then  a  tape  run 
over  the  piping  on  the  wrong  side.  To  keep  a  baby  nice, 
six  bibs  should  be  made,  and  one  every  other  day  used. 
A  fresh  one  every  day  is  still  nicer.  Fig,  52  is  a  pretty 
fancy  design  for  a  bib.     It  should  be  made  in  fine  pique. 


white,  piped  with  long-cloth,  edged  all  round  with  narrow 
embroidery,  and  run  down  on  the  wrong  side  with  a  false 
hem  of  tape. 


COOKING. 


MEAT  DISHES  AT  MODERATE  COST. 

Sheep^  Trotters. — When  these  can  be  bought,  as  in  many 
large  towns,  ready  scalded  and, with  the  hair  removed, 
they  are  not  dear.  Keep  them  steeped  in  cold  water 
till  you  set  them  on  the  fire  to  boil,  which  will  take  at 
least  three  or  four  hours.  When  done,  they  may  be  eaten 
with  pepper,  salt,  and  vinegar,  A  nice  sauce  for  them  is, 
to  put  some  fat  and  flour  in  a  stewpan,  to  mix  in  smoothly 
some  of  the  broth,  to  throw  in  a  little  chopped  parsley, 
and  season  with  salt  and  a  dash  of  vinegar.  Cold  sheep's 
trotters  can  be  covered  with  melted  fat,  rolled  in  bread- 
crumbs, and  broiled  over  a  clear  fire. 

Sheep s  Feet  Pate, — (French). — Have  a  coarse  earthen 
pot  or  pate-dish,  with  a  well-fitting  cover.  Get  at  the 
tripe-shop,  or  of  your  butcher,  three  gangs  of  sheep's 
feet  (twelve)  ready  cleaned  and  scalded.  Divide  them  at 
the  joints  into  two  or  more  pieces  ;  boil  them  a  couple  of 
hours ;  then  pack  them  closely  in  the  patd-dish,  inter- 
spersing with  them  equally,  as  seasoning,  sprigs  of  thyme 
and  parsley,  a  few  bay  leaves,  cloves,  pepper,  allspice, 
salt,  and  button-onions,  whole.  Put  in  the  liquor  in  which 
the  feet  were  boiled  ;  then  put  on  the  cover ;  tie  it  in  its 
place  with  string  passed  over  it  round  the  dish  ;  cover  it 
down  closely  all  round  with  paste,  and  send  the  patd  to 
pass  the  night  in  a  baker's  oven  after  the  bread  is  drawn. 
Next  morning,  the  pate  will  be  done,  and  may  be  either 
eaten  hot  or  allowed  to  get  cold.  The  oven  being  slow,  the 
feet  will  be  cooked  to  a  jelly.  If  the  oven  is  too  fierce, 
they  will  of  course  be  dried  up,  burnt,  and  rendered  good 
for  nothing.  When  properly  done,  this  is  an  excellent 
dish ;  but  success  entirely  depends  on  the  moderate 
temperature  of  the  oven,  the  close  fastening  down  of  the 
lid  with  paste,  and  care  on  the  part  of  the  baker  to  pre* 
vent  its  drying  up. 

Pigs'  feet  and  pettitoes  may  be  dressed  in  exactly  the 
same  way. 

Calf's  Liver,,  Stewed. — Choose  it  fresh  killed,  of  a  clear 
bright  colour,  withotU  spots.  Dr.  Edward  Smith,  a  high 
authority,  says,*  "  Liver  should  be  cut  into  thin  slices,  and 
boiled  or  fried  with  bacon.  Cook  it  well,  but  not  with  a  hot 
fire,  and  do  not  make  it  dry  and  hard.  See  that  it  looks 
healthy."  It  is  perhaps  the  part  of  our  butchers'  meat 
which  is  most  liable  to  be  aftected  by  disease.  By  our 
mode  of  dressing  liver,  it  is  just  as  good  warmed  up  again 
as  it  was  at  first  ;  indeed,  nobody  would  know,  unless 
they  were  told,  that  this  was  the  second,  or  even  "  the 
third  time  of  asking."  Having  as  much  calf's  liver  as 
your  family  want,  cut  it  into  pieces  the  size  of  a  hen's  Q%%, 
season  them  with  pepper  and  salt,  roll  them  in  flour,  and 
let  them  so  remain  on  a  dish  while  you  are  doing  what 
follows.  Peel  potatoes,  halve  or  quarter  them,  if  large; 
do  the  same  with  onions  ;  slice  two  or  three  carrots.  Put 
some  fat  or  dripping  into  a  broad  shallow  saucepan  or 
stewpan,  and  when  it  is  melted,  brown  in  it  a  soup-spoon- 
ful of  flour.  Stir  in  a  little  water  ;  mix  well  ;  then  put  in 
your  liver,  shaking  it  about  ;  then  enough  warm  water  to 
cover  it.  When  it  boils,  put  in  your  vegetables  ;  when 
they  have  boiled  a  few  minutes,  draw  the  saucepan  aside, 
and  let  them  simmer  till  they  are  done  enough.  Taste  if 
sufficiently  seasoned.  It  will  be  a  great  improvement  if  you 
can  put  in  with  the  vegetables  a  sprig  of  parsley,  celery 
leaf,  and  thyme.  Lay  the  pieces  of  liver  in  the  middle  of 
your  dish,  put  the  vegetables  round  them,  and  pour  the 
gravy  over  all. 

If  you/ry  slices  of  liver  and  bacon,  thicken  the  grease 

*  "  Practical  Dietaiy,"  p.  9^6. 


I20 


COOKING. 


left  in  the  pan  with  flour  and  water,  season  with  pepper, 
allspice,  and  vinegar,  and  pour  it  over  them  for 
gravy. 

Sliced  Calfs  or  Sheefs  Liver  Fried, — Cut  up  the  liver 
into  small  thin  slices.  Cut  some  onions  crosswise  into 
very  thin  slices.  Brown  them  in  a  stewpan  with  a  lump 
of  butter ;  dust  in  a  little  flour ;  stir  in  enough  boiling 
water  to  cook  them  tender  ;  season  with  pepper  and  salt. 
In  your  frying-pan  fry  the  sliced  liver  in  butter,  taking 
care  not  to  do  them  too  much.  Grate  a  little  nutmeg 
over  them,  and  add  a  dash  of  vinegar  ;  then  put  them  to 
the  onions  in  the  stewpan  ;  mix  them  together ;  let  them 
stew  gently  for  five  or  six  minutes,  and  serve  with  the 
gravy  poured  over  them,  which  may  be  further  thickened, 
if  too  greasy,  with  a  little  flour  and  hot  water. 

Calf's  Liver  Cheese. — Chop  fine  a  couple  of  pounds  of 
calf's  liver,  half  a  pound  of  beef  suet,  half  a  pound  of 
white  bacon,  and  a  few  mushrooms,  if  there  happen  to  be 
any.  Mix  these  well  together,  then  add  to  them  three 
or  four  good-sized  onions  chopped  and  browned  in  butter 
in  the  frying-pan,  six  egg-yolks,  a  small  glass  of  brandy, 
pepper,  salt,  and  grated  nutmeg,  and  lastly,  stir  in  the 
whites  of  six  eggs  beaten  to  a  froth.  Line  the  bottom 
and  sides  of  a  well-tinned  iron  saucepan  with  very  thin 
slices  of  white  bacon ;  put  in  the  minced  liver,  &c.,  and 
cover  with  thin  slices  of  bacon.  Close  the  saucepan 
tightly  with  a  lid  on  which  you  can  heap  hot  cinders  or 
ashes.  Cook  over  a  very  gentle  fire.  It  does  very  well 
on  a  hearth  where  wood  is  burnt,  with  the  hot  ashes  piled 
round  it.  Let  it  remain  in  the  saucepan  till  quite  cold 
and  stiff.  To  turn  it  out,  set  the  saucepan  a  minute  or 
two  in  boiling  water ;  place  the  dish  over  it,  and  then 
reverse  it. 

Bullock's  Heart  ci  la  Mode. — Split  open  the  heart  at  its 
thinnest  side,  without  cutting  it  in  two  ;  take  out  the 
arterial  cartilage  and  the  coagulated  blood  left  in  it ;  fill 
its  inside  with  bacon  cut  into  dice,  seasoned  with  pepper, 
salt,  and  chopped  parsley.  Tie  it  round  with  string  into 
its  original  shape.  Stew  it  in  a  saucepan,  covered  with 
broth,  and  half  as  much  cider,  if  it  comes  handy;  add 
a  bunch  of  sweet  herbs,  and  as  many  onions  and  carrots 
as  there  is  room  for.  When  it  has  simmered  gently  full 
four  hours,  lay  it  on  a  dish ;  put  the  carrots  and  onions 
round  it ;  let  the  liquor  boil  a  few  minutes  longer  to 
thicken,  then  pour  some  of  it  over  the  heart,  and  serve 
the  rest  in  a  sauce-boat.  If  you  like  it,  you  may  flavour 
the  latter  with  mushroom  catchup  and  a  little  red  wine, 
which  will  give  the  heart  the  flavour  of  hare. 

Bullock's  Kidney. — This  is  often  cut  up  into  dice,  and 
made  into  kidney  pudding,  exactly  as  we  have  directed 
above  for  beef  pudding.  The  crust  helps  it  out  very  well;  but 
it  is  less  agreeable  cold,  and  the  kidney  is  very  apt  to  be 
hard.  As  a  change  from  this,  cut  up  the  kidney  into  very 
thin  slices,  dust  them  plentifully  with  flour,  and  season 
with  pepper  and  salt.  Put  a  lump  of  butter  into  a  sauce- 
pan ;  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  melt,  put  your  sliced  and 
seasoned  kidney  to  it  ;  add  a  little  cold  water,  just  enough 
to  prevent  burning  ;  if  you  live  in  a  cider  country,  use 
cider  instead.  You  |may  add  a  table-spoonful  of  catchup. 
Keep  shaking  and  stirring  over  a  gentle  fire  without  ever 
letting  it  come  to  a  boil.  If  it  does,  your  kidney  will  be 
hard  and  leathery.  The  secret  of  success  consists  in  not 
letting  it  cook  too  much,  too  fast,  nor  too  long.  Lay  bits 
of  toasted  bread  round  the  edge  of  a  dish.  With  a  spoon 
put  the  kidney  in  the  middle ;  give  the  gravy  a  boil  up, 
and  pour  it  over  it.  Some  cooks  would  garnish  with 
sliced  lemon,  and  stew  in  red  wine,  or  even  in  champagne ; 
for  the  latter,  the  cider  is  not  a  bad  substitute,  and  is 
often  more  obtainable.  If  any  is  left,  let  it  be  warmed 
up  over  a  very  gentle  fire. 

Tripe  Normandy  Fashion. — Wash  your  tripe,  scald  it ; 
wash  it  again,  scald  it  again ;  scrape  it,  wash  it,  re-scrape, 
and  re-wash  it  in  several  waters ;  then  cut  it  in  pieces, 


and  put  it  to  cook  in  a  boiler  with  chopped  bacon,  carrots, 
onions,  garlic,  cloves,  thyme,  bay-leaf,  parsley,  and  pepper- 
corns. Moisten  with  white  wine  or  cider,  and  the  fat 
skimmed  from  the  pot-au-feu,  or  family  soup-kettle. 
Instead  of  these,  you  may  use  good  soft  water,  setting 
on  cold.  Let  it  simmer  gently  for  about  eight  hours  (we 
say,  till  tender,  which  will  probably  come  to  pass  in  a 
little  less  time).  Before  cooking  tripe  to  serve  it  in  any 
way,  cut  it  into  neat  pieces  two  or  three  inches  square. 
Tripe  has  been  recommended  to  invalids,  stewed  with 
beef,  seasoned  to  taste,  and  with  thickened  gravy  poured 
over  it.  It  may  also  be  stewed  with  onions  and  milk, 
seasoned  with  pepper,  salt,  and  nutmeg.  It  can  be 
fricasseed  brown  with  fried  onions  and  gravy  or  good 
broth,  and  heightened,  just  before  serving,  with  allspice 
and  tarragon  vinegar.  In  all  these  cases  the  tripe  must 
have  long  stewing,  unless  it  has  been  done  very  nearly 
enough  by  the  regular  tripe-dresser  of  whom  it  was  bought. 
One  of  the  nicest  ways  of  cooking  tripe  so  prepared  is  to 
fry  it  in  batter  in  the  way  already  directed  for  other  things. 
It  then  requires  no  sauce  whatever  ;  if  any  is  wished  for, 
make  it  with  water,  flour,  butter,  a  little  vinegar,  and  still 
less  mustard. 

Lady  Harriet  St.  Clair,  in  her  "  Dainty  Dishes,"  gives 
three  recipes  for  tripe,  of  which  we  borrow  two,  on  ac- 
count of  their  excellence  and  simplicity. 

Stewed  Tripe. — Select  two  pounds  of  double  tripe  well 
cleaned  and  blanched,  cut  in  pieces  of  rather  less  than  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  each ;  put  in  a  clean  stew-pan  with  a 
pint  of  milk  and  one  of  water,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  salt, 
one  of  pepper,  eight  middle-sized  onions  carefully  peeled. 
Set  it  on  to  boil,  which  it  should  do  at  first  rather  fast, 
then  simmer  till  done,  which  will  be  in  rather  more  than 
half  an  hour.  Put  it  into  a  deep  dish  or  tureen,  and  serve 
with  the  milk  and  onions. 

Tripe  H  la  Lyonnaise  (Lyons  Fashion).  —  When  any 
cold  tripe  remains,  cut  it  in  thin  slices  about  an  inch 
square,  and  wipe  it  very  dry.  Mince  two  onions,  put  some 
butter  (in  the  proportion  of  three  ounces  to  a  pound  of 
tripe)  into  a  frying-pan  with  the  onions.  When  they  are 
about  half  done  put  in  the  tripe,  and  let  all  fry  for  about 
ten  minutes  ;  season  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  vinegar  to  each  pound  of  tripe.  Serve  very- 
hot.     This  is  a  favourite  dish  in  Lyons  with  all  classes. 

Besides  these  ways,  French  cooks  serve  tripe  broiled  in 
oiled  paper,  bread-crumbed,  white,  with  sauce  piquante; 
with  sauce  Robert,  au  gratin,  or  browned  in  the  oven,  like 
fricasseed  fowl ;  in  flat  sausages  after  chopping,  with  skate 
sauce,  like  ox-palates  ;  Provencal  way,  plenty  of  garlic  and 
oil ;  Milanese  way,  with  grated  cheese ;  Italian  way, 
stewed  with  macaroni,  &c.  &c. 

Neat's  Foot  or  Cow  Heel. — The  feet  are  mostly  sold 
so  nearly  cooked  as  only  to  require  a  warming-up ;  but 
the  substance  of  neat's  feet  consists  of  so  little  else 
besides  gelatine  and  bone  (the  oil,  strong  in  flavour,  being 
extracted  in  their  preparation),  that  we  consider  them  more 
fit  to  enrich  other  dishes — soups,  stews,  fricassees,  &c. — 
than  to  be  served  as  a  dish  by  themselves. 

Neat's  Foot  with  Parsley  Sauce. — Warm  up  or  finish 
cooking  your  neat's  foot  in  as  little  water  as  may  be. 
When  ready  to  serve,  make  sauce  with  a  little  of  the 
liquor,  flour,  butter,  chopped  parsley,  and  a  dash  of 
vinegar.     Pour  this  over  the  foot,  and  serve. 

Breast  of  Pork  with  Rice  (Economical). — Wash  and 
scald  a  pound  of  rice.  Wash  and  cut  up  into  dice  half 
or  thnee-quarters  of  a  pound  of  breast  of  pork,  fat  and 
lean  together  ;  then  add  to  it  a  little  butter  in  a  stew-pan. 
When  nicely  browned,  add  the  rice  ;  stir  in  gradually 
three  pints  of  water  or  broth  and  a  little  pepper.  Let  it 
stew  for  five-and-twenty  minutes,  stirring  now  and  then, 
to  keep  it  from  sticking  to  the  bottom.  When  done,  serve 
it  in  a  heap  in  the  middle  of  a  dish.  A  few  boiled  or  fried 
sausages  laid  round  it  make  a  very  pleasant  addition. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


I2f 


ANIMALS    KEPT    FOR   PROFIT. 

IV. — POULTRY. 

It  will  always  be  found  a  desirable  plan  to  cut  the 
straw  into  short  lcn<jths  for  a  hatching  nest,  and  the 
neglect  of  this  precaution  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of 
breakage  ;  the  hen,  during  her  twenty-four  hours'  stay, 
gets  her  claws  entangled  in  the  long  straws,  and  on 
leaving  for  her  daily  meal  is  very  likely  to  drag  one  or 
two  with  her,  fracturing  one  or  more  eggs,  or  even  jerking 
them  quite  out  of  the  nest. 

Should  such  a  mishap  occur  (and  the  nest  should  be 
examined  every  two  or  three  days  when  the  hen  is  absent, 
to  ascertain  this),  the  eggs  must  be  removed,  clean  straw 
substituted,  and  every  sound  egg  at  all  soiled  by  the  broken 


sprinkle  the  eggs  slightly  with  water  every  day  while  she 
is  off.  This  is  done  best  by  dipping  a  small  brush  in  tepid 
water ;  and  is  always  necessary  to  success  in  dry  weather, 
when  a  hen  is  set  in  a  box  at  a  distance  from  the  ground, 
as  is  the  case  in  large  sitting-houses.  But,  where  it  can 
be  had,  we  prefer  the  natural  moisture  of  a  damp  soil : 
it  never  fails,  and  avoids  the  need  of  going  near  the 
hen. 

When  the  number  of  eggs  set  yearly  is  considerable,  it 
is  worth  while  to  withdraw  the  unfertile  ones  at  an  early 
period.  About  the  eighth  day  let  the  hen  be  removed  by 
candlelight,  and  each  egg  be  held  between  the  eye  and 
the  light,  in  the  manner  represented,  Fig.  8.  If  the  egg  be 
fertile,  it  will  appear  opaque,  or  dark  all  over,  except 
perhaps,  a  small  portion  towards  the  top  ;  but  if  it  be 


Fig.  7. — WHITB  COCHIN   CHINA   FOWLS. 


one  be  washed  with  a  sponge  and  warm  water,  gently 
but  quickly  drying  after  with  a  cloth.  The  hen,  if  very 
dirty,  should  also  have  her  breast  cleansed,  and  the  whole 
replaced  immediately,  that  the  eggs  may  not  be  chilled.  A 
moderate  hatch  may  still  be  expected,  though  the  number 
of  chicks  is  always  more  or  less  reduced  by  an  accident  of 
this  kind.  If,  however,  the  cleansing  be  neglected  for 
more  than  a  couple  of  days  after  a  breakage,  or  less  at 
the  latter  period  of  incubation,  probably  not  a  single  chick 
will  be  obtained  ;  whether  from  the  pores  of  the  shell 
being  stopped  by  the  viscid  matter,  or  from  the  noxious 
smell  of  the  putrefying  egg,  it  is  not  very  material  to 
inquire. 

Every  egg  should  also  be  marked  quke  round  with 
ink  or  pencil,  so  that  if  any  be  subsequently  laid  in 
the  nest  they  may  be  at  once  detected  and  removed. 
Hens  will  sometimes  lay  several  eggs  after  beginning 
to  sit. 

^n  ordinary  winters  the  hen  should  be  set  as  in  summer, 
givmg  her,  however,  rather  more  straw.  Only  in  severe 
weather  should  she  be  brought  into  the  house  ;  and  in 
that  case,  or  in  summer  if  the  ground  be  very  dry,  it  will  be 
necessary  during  the  last  half  of  the  hatching  period  to 


unimpregnated,  it  will  be  still  translucent,  the  light  passing- 
through  it  almost  as  if  new  laid.  After  some  experience 
the  eggs  can  be  distinguished  at  an  earlier  period,  and  a 
practised  hand  can  tell  the  unfertile  eggs  even  at  the 
fourth  day.  Should  the  number  withdrawn  be  con- 
siderable, four  batches  set  the  same  day  may  be  given  to 
three  hens,  or  even  two,  and  the  remainder  given  fresh 
eggs  ;  and  if  not,  the  fertile  eggs  will  get  more  heat,  and 
the  brood  come  out  all  the  stronger.  The  sterile  eggs  are 
also  worth  saving,  as  they  are  quite  good  enough  for 
cooking  purposes. 

It  is  a  common  mistake  to  set  too  many  eggs.  In 
summer,  a  large  hen  may  have  thirteen,  or  a  Cochin 
fifteen  (of  her  own) ;  but  in  early  spring  eleven  are  quite 
enough.  We  have  not  only  to  consider  how  many- 
chickens  the  hen  can  hatch,  but  how  many  she  can  cover 
when  they  are  partly  grown.  If  a  hen  be  set  in  Januar>-, 
she  should  not  have  more  than  seven  or  eight  eggs,  or  the 
poor  little  things,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  get  large,  will 
have  no  shelter,  and  soon  die  off.  It  is  far  better  to 
hatch  only  six  and  rear  five,  or  maybe  all,  to  health  and 
vigour,  than  to  hatch  ten  and  only  probably  roar  three 
puny  little  creatures,  good  for  nothing  but  to  make  broth. 


122 


ANIMALS    KEPT   FOR   PROFIT. 


In  April  and  May  broods,  such  a  limitation  is  not  needed ; 
but  even  then  eleven  or  twelve  chickens  are  quite  as 
many  as  a  large,  well-feathered  hen  can  properly  nourish, 
and  the  eggs  should  only  be  one  or  two  in  excess  of  that 
number. 

A  good  hen  will  not  remain  more  than  half  an  hour 
away  from  her  nest,  unless  she  has  been  deprived  of  a 
dust-bath,  and  so  become  infested  with  lice,  which  some- 
times causes  hens  thus  neglected  to  forsake  their  eggs 
altogether.  When  a  hen  at  the  proper  time  shows  no 
disposition  to  return,  she  should  be  quietly  driven  towards 
her  nest ;  if  she  be  caught,  and  replaced  by  hand,  she  is 
often  so  frightened  and  excited  as  to  break  the  eggs.  A 
longer  absence  is  not,  however,  necessarily  fatal  to  the 
brood.  We  have  had  hens  repeatedly  absent  more  than 
an  hour,  which  still  hatched  seven  or  eight  chicks  ;  and 
on  one  occasion  a  hen  sitting  in  the  fowl-house  returned 
to  the  wrong  nest,  and  was  absent  from  her  own  more 
than  five  hours.  We  of  course 
considered  all  chances  of  hatching 
at  an  end;  but  as  the  hen  had  been 
sitting  for  a  fortnight,  concluded  to 
let  her  finish  her  time,  and  she 
hatched  five  chickens.  We  have 
heard  of  a  few  hatching  even  after 
nine  hours'  absence,  and  therefore 
would  never,  on  account  of  such  an 
occurrence,  abandon  valuable  eggs 
without  a  trial. 

The  chickens  break  the  shell  at 
the  end  of  the  twenty-first  day,  on 
an  average;  but  if  the  eggs  are 
new-laid,  it  will  often  lessen  the 
time  by  as  much  as  five  or  six 
hours,  while  stale  eggs  are  always 
more  or  less  behind. 

We  never  ourselves  now  attempt 
to  assist  a  chick  from  the  shell. 
If  the  eggs  are  fresh,  and  proper 
care  has  been  taken  to  preserve 
moisture  during  incubation,  no  as- 
sistance is  ever  needed.  To  fuss 
about  the  nest  frets  the  hen  exceed- 
ingly; and  we  have  always  found 

that  even  where  the  poor  little  creature  survived  at  the  time, 
it  never  lived  to  maturity.  Should  the  reader  attempt  such 
assistance,  in  cases  where  an  egg  has  been  long  "chipped," 
and  no  further  progress  made,  let  the  shell  be  cracked 
gently  all  round,  without  tearing  the  inside  membrane  ;  if 
that  be  perforated,  the  viscid  fluid  inside  dries,  and  glues 
the  chick  to  the  shell.  Should  this  happen,  or  should 
both  shell  and  membrane  be  perforated  at  first,  introduce 
the  point  of  a  pair  of  scissors,  and  cut  up  the  ^'g  towards 
the  large  end,  where  there  will  be  an  empty  space,  re- 
membering that  if  blood  flow  all  hope  is  at  an  end.  Then 
put  the  chick  back  under  the  hen;  she  will  probably 
squeeze  it  to  death,  it  is  true,  it  being  so  very  weak  ;  but  it 
will  never  live  if  put  by  the  fire — at  least,  we  always  found 
it  so.  Indeed,  as  we  have  said,  we  consider  it  quite 
useless  to  make  the  attempt  at  all. 

Cleanliness  in  the  house  and  run  has  already  been 
insisted  upon,  and  is  only  again  alluded  to  on  account  of 
the  value  of  the  manure.  This,  collected  daily,  should  be 
put  in  any  convenient  receptacle  where  it  can  be  kept  dry, 
and  either  used  in  the  garden,  if  there  is  one,  or  sold.  It 
pays  best  to  use  it,  where  possible ;  it  should  always  be 
mixed  with  earth,  being  very  strong,  and  is  especially 
valuable  for  all  plants  of  the  cabbage  kind ;  it  is  also 
excellent  for  growing  strawberries,  or,  indeed,  almost  any- 
thing, if  sufficiently  diluted.  If  there  be  no  possibility  of 
so  using  it,  it  is  worth  about  seven  shillings  per  cwt.  to 
sell,  and  is  greatly  valued  by  all  nurserymen  and  gardeners 
who  know  its  value ;  but  there  is  often  difficulty  in  finding 


those  who  do,  and  getting  a  fair  price.  At  seven  shillings 
(which  we  believe  to  be  about  a  fair  value,  compared  with 
that  of  guano,  on  account  of  the  moisture  contained),  or 
when  it  can  be  used  in  the  garden,  we  consider  the  value 
of  the  manure  equal  to  fully  one-fifth — perhaps  one-fourth 
would  be  nearer  the  mark — of  the  total  profit  from  the  fowls. 
It  is,  therefore,  an  item  too  important  to  be  neglected. 

Where  a  considerable  number  of  fowls  are  killed  an- 
nually the  feathers  also  become  of  value,  and  should  be 
preserved.  They  are  very  easily  dressed  at  home.  Strip 
the  plumage  from  the  quills  of  the  larger  feathers,  and 
mix  with  the  small  ones,  putting  the  whole  loosely  in  paper 
bags,  which  should  be  hung  up  in  the  kitchen,  or  some 
other  warm  place,  for  a  few  days  to  dry.  Then  let  the 
bags  be  baked  three  or  four  times,  for  half  an  hour  each 
time,  in  a  cool  oven,  drying  for  two  days  between  each 
baking,  and  the  process  will  be  completed. 

Eggs  should  be  collected  regularly,  if  possible  twice 
every  day  ;  and  if  any  chickens  are 
to  be  reared  from  the  home  stock, 
the  owner  or  attendant  should  learn 
to  recognise  the  ^g'g  of  each  par- 
ticular hen. 

Before  concluding  this  article,  it 
may  be  expected  that  something 
definite  should  be  said  respecting 
the  actual  profit  of  what  may  be 
called  domestic  poultry-keeping.  It 
is  extremely  difficult  to  make  any 
such  statement,  so  much  depends 
upon  the  price  of  food,  upon  the 
management,  selection  of  stock,  and 
value  of  eggs.  But  in  general  we 
have  found  the  average  cost  of 
fowls,  when  properly  fed,  to  be 
about  id.  per  week  each  for  ordi- 
nary sorts,  and  not  exceeding  ijd. 
per  week  for  the  larger  breeds ; 
when  the  cost  is  more  we  should 
suspect  waste.  A  good  ordinary 
hen  ought  to  lay  120  eggs  in  a 
year,  and  if  good  laying  breeds  are 
selected,  there  ought  to  be  an  aver- 
age of  1 50,  not  reckoning  the  cock. 
Of  course,  good  management  is  supposed,  and  a  regular 
renewal  of  young  stock,  as  already  insisted  upon.  For 
domestic  purposes  eggs  ought  to  be  valued  at  the  price  of 
new-laid,  and  from  these  data  each  can  make  his  own  calcu- 
lation. The  value  of  the  manure,  when  it  can  be  sold  or 
used,  we  consider  is  about  gd.  to  is. per  annum  for  each  fowl. 
The  whole  undertaking — be  it  large  or  small — must  be 
conducted  as  a  real  matter  of  business.  If  more  than 
three  or  four  hens  a-re  kept,  buy  the  food  wholesale,  and 
in  the  best  market  ;  let  the  grain  be  purchased  a  sack  at 
a  time,  potatoes  by  the  cart-load  or  hundred-weight,  and 
so  on  ;  and  let  a  fair  and  strict  account  be  kept  of  the 
whole  concern.  The  scraps  of  the  house  may  be  thrown 
in,  and  the  cost  of  the  original  stock,  and  of  their  habita- 
tions, may  be  kept  separate,  and  reckoned  as  capital 
invested  ;  but  let  everything  afterwards  for  which  cash  is 
paid  be  rigorously  set  down,  and,  on  the  other  side,  with 
equal  strictness,  let  every  tgg  or  chicken  eaten  or  sold  be 
also  valued  and  recorded.  This  is  of  great  importance. 
The  young  beginner  may,  perhaps,  manage  his  laying 
stock  well,  but  succeed  badly  with  his  chickens,  or  vice 
versdj  and  it  is  no  small  matter  in  poultry-keeping,  as  in 
any  other  mercantile  concern,  to  be  able  to  see  from  re- 
corded facts  where  has  been  the  profit  or  where  the  loss. 
The  discovery  will  lead  to  reflection  ;  and  the  waste, 
neglect,  or  other  defective  management  being  amended, 
the  hitherto  faulty  department  will,  also  contribute  its 
quota  to  the  general  weal.  We  shall  deal  with  the 
rearing  of  chickens  in  our  next  paper. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


123 


A   WORD    OR    TWO    ABOUT    CAMEOS. 

The  term  cameo  is  popularly  applied  to  precious  stones  and 
shells,  the  surfaces  of  which  are  covered  with  raised  figures, 
mostly  of  a  different  colour  from  the  ground,  and  mounted 
as  brooches,  bracelets,  pins,  car-rings,  finger-rings,  and 
other  personal  ornaments.    What  arc  called  stone  cameos 
are  most  valuable  and  durable  ;  but  the  actual  cost  varies 
greatly,  owing  to  differences  of  material  and  workmanship. 
Very  often  fraud  is  practised  by  unprincipled  artists,  who 
cut  out  the  figures  separately  and  attach  them  by  cement 
to  the  flat  surface  of  stones  prepared  for  them.     Many 
cheap  imitations  of  cameos  arc  formed  in  moulds  and 
fastened   to  glass  or  some  other  common  material.     A 
splendid  Roman  cameo  for  a  brooch  may  cost  fifteen  or 
twenty  pounds,  while  one  of  the  same  size  and  inferior  work 
in  shell   will  cost  but  a  few   shillings.      We  gather  the 
following  from  an   interesting   essay  on  this  subject  : — 
"  There  a.re  antiques,  to  produce  which  the  chemical  skill 
of  the  artist  had  to  be  exercised.   A  species  of  enamel  was 
made,  and  with  this  cornelians  of  the  required  grain  and 
density  were  covered  by  the  application   of  fluxes   and 
intense  heat,  thus  forming,  artificially,  the  much-desired 
layer  of  clear  hard  substance,  out   of  which    to  cut  the 
wished-for  design.     Many  works  which  rank  amongst  the 
stone  or  true  cameos,  although  of  comparatively  simple 
design,  moderate  size,  and  not  antique    specialities,   are 
worth    £t)0    and    upwards ;    whilst    shell    cameos,    well 
executed,  and  representing  precisely  the  same  subjects, 
may  be  bought  for  £2  los.  or  ^3.     The  reason  for  this 
immense  difference  in  value  lies,  first,   in   the   intrinsic 
worth  of  the  material  operated  on;  next,   in   the   great 
facilities  afforded  to  the  artist,  who  Works  on  the  soft  and 
yielding  shell  with  instruments  and  appliances  of  ordinary 
power  ;  and  lastly,  in  the  almost  indestructible  qualities 
of  the  stone  cameos  when  finished."     Cameos  in  onyx, 
agate,  cornelian,  and  some  others  are  particularly  beautiful 
when  the   colours  of  the  layers  of  the  stone   or  veins 
are  strongly  contrasted.     The  oriental  onyx  is  black  and 
white  ;  the  cornelian,  brown  and  white  ;  the  agates  vary. 
Shell  cameos  are  chiefly  of  two   sorts,   some  having  a 
reddish   ground,   others  a  brownish  ground,  both  with 
white  or   whitish  figures.     Those  with  a  vivid  reddish- 
tinted  ground  and  pure  white  figures  are  best.     There  are 
antique  cameos  which  are  very  expensive.     Many  modern 
pieces  with  classical  subjects  arc  also  costly,  though,  when 
of  infarior  materials   and   finish,  they  are   often  cheap. 
The   settings,   of  course,  are   of   all  kinds,  and  should 
correspond  m  material  and  value  with  the  cameos  they 
display.  ^ 


THE    TOILETTE. 


I.— MANAGEMENT  OF  THE   SKIN   {continued). 

Discharging  Eruptions.— ThesQ  are  generally  matters 
that  cannot  be  trifled  with,  and  it  may  possibly  Ip.c,  cc 
more  harm  than  good  if  we  do  more  than  indicate  what 
may  be  done  for  the  simpler  cases,  or  for  those  instances 
m  which  It  is  inconvenient  or  impossible  to  obtain 
medical  advice  at  the  moment.  In  all  cases,  the  parts 
attacked  about  the  trunk  of  the  body  should  be  kept  at 
^"^  j^"d  ver>'  cleanly,  but  without  any  rough  usage.  If 
the  diseased  part  is  very  red  and  tender,  it  may  be  as 
well  to  apply  a  little  water  dressing  ;  or  if  this  do  not 
agree,  as  is  the  case  in  some  instances,  the  surface  may 
be  covered  over  with  a  little  whiting  paste  ;  this  may  be 
removed  by  warm  water  fomentation  each  day  or  so.  A 
variety  of  scabbed  eruptions  occur  about  the  heads  of 
children,  and  constitute  scald-head  ;  and  mothers  are  by 
tar  too  fond  of  putting  a  host  of  messes  recommended 
tnem  as  cures,  upon  the  discharging  surface,  or  the  scabs 
wmch  lorm ;   the   hair  then   becomes   matted  together 


with  the  scabs,  and  the  whole  presents  a  most  uncom- 
fortable appearance.  The  great  thing  in  these  cases  is 
to  keep  the  head  perfectly  free  from  scabs  by  judicious 
poulticing  (bread  and  water),  and  then  to  aj.ply  to  the 
surface,  at  least  at  the  outset,  a  little  oxide  of  zinc  oint- 
ment, which  can  be  got  from  any  chemist.  The  surface 
should  be  cleansed  every  day  with  sponging  or  poulticing 
but  only  just  sufficient  to  loosen  the  scabs  and  not  to 
sodden  the  scalp.  These  cases  of  free  discharge  about 
the  head  (and  the  remarks  just  made  may  apply  to  those 
about  the  face)  are  generally  contingent  upon  the  exist- 
ence of  distinct  conditions  of  ill-health  or  mal-nutrition, 
that  require  cod  liver-oil  and  steel  wine,  with  alteratives ; 
and  for  that  reason  it  is  best  at  once  to  seek  medical 
advice,  if  the  simple  plans  of  treatment  just  mentioned 
do  not  answer. 

Chilblains. — These  are  the  result  of  the  action  of  cold 
upon  the  skin  of  weakly  individuals  ;  and  they  occur  on 
the  parts  of  the  body  most  distant  from  the  centres  of 
life,  so  to  speak — viz.,  the  nervous  centre  and  the  heart. 
The  cold  benumbs  the  foot  or  hand,  heel  or  ear,  or 
whatever  part  may  be  attacked,  arrests  its  circulation  and 
disorders  its  sensibility.  Then,  when  the  chilled  part 
is  brought  near  the  fire,  or  becomes  warm,  inflammation 
sets  in  with  troublesome  sensations.  Every  one  knows, 
by  common  report,  if  not  by  experience,  what  chilblains 
are,  how  they  itch,  and  thereby  torment  the  sufferer, 
and  how  they  crop  up  in  fresh  places  from  time  to  time, 
in  those  who  suffer  from  them,  in  the  winter-time.  It  is  a 
very  bad  plan  to  bring  the  feet  or  hands  too  near  the  fire 
after  being  out  in  the  cold,  as  the  heat,  acting  after 
the  chill,  induces  chilblains.  In  some  cases  the  inflam- 
mation is  severe,  and  there  is  effusion  beneath  the  skin, 
which  gives  way,  so  that  what  is  called  a  "broken" 
chilblain  is  produced.  Now  the  treatment  of  chilblains 
involves  the  employment  of  means  for  their  prevention,  in 
the  first  place  ;  these  consist  in  the  use  of  garments  to 
keep  the  feet  and  hands  protected  from  the  cold— such 
as  woollen  socks,  proper  exercise,  and,  if  there  is  a 
threatening  of  mischief,  friction,  with  some  slight  stimu- 
lant, such  as  camphor  liniment.  If  the  subject  is  weak, 
tonics  must  be  given.  Wljen  chilblains  have  formed, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  relieve  the  intolerable  itching 
by  sedatives  applied  locally,  and  then  to  use  stimulating 
friction.  When  they  are  not  broken,  any  of  the  following 
recipes  may  be  employed  : — 

No.  I. 

Soap  liniment 2  ounces. 

Oil  of  Cajeput  2  drachms. 

Tincture  of  belladonna         ...     2  drachms. 

No.  2. 

Two  yolks  and  whites  of  cg^. 

Spirits  of  turpentine    ...         ...     2  ounces. 

Distilled  vinegar         2  ounces. 

To  be  well  shaken  together ;  and  if  there  be  very  much 
itching  add  half  an  ounce  of  laudanum. 

No.  3. 

Strong  ammonia  solution      ...     i  an  ounce. 
Camphor  liniment       ...         ...     2  ounces. 

Laudanum        ...     i  ounce. 

No.  4. 

Soap  liniment 2  ounces. 

Tincture  of  belladonna  ...     2  drachms. 

Friar's  balsam i  drachm. 

Tincture  of  aconite     ...         ...     2  drachms. 

Camphor  10  grains. 

This  is  useful  in  allaying  itching. 

No.  5. — Dr.  Balfour,  of  the  Royal  Military  Asylum  at 
Chelsea,  uses  with  success  amongst  the  boys  there  equal 
parts  of  compound  tincture  of  iodine  and  sLiong  solution  of 
ammonia  ;  painting  it  in  night  and  morning  gently  with  a 
brush. 


124 


THE   TOILETTE. 


N.B. — The  above  are  not  to  be  used  to  broken 
chilblains. 

For  broken  chilblains  the  following  application  is  per- 
haps the  best.  It  should  be  applied  on  strips  of  lint  :— 
Calamine  cerate  ...         ...     i  ounce. 

Carbonate  of  lead        i  drachm. 

Camphor  5  grains. 

Warts. — These  occur  mostly  about  the  hands,  also 
the  wrists,  the  forehead,  and  the  scalp,  particularly  in  the 
young  and  aged.  They  may  be  congenital,  solitary,  or 
in  the  form  of  a  regular  crop  of  extensive  nature.  In  the 
latter  case  a  long  course  of  arsenic  is  needed  for  their 
removal.  When  they  are  few,  they  may  be  got  rid  of 
readily  by  caustics.  Mason  Good,  an  eminent  writer, 
says  that  in  Sweden  they  are  destroyed  by  the  wart- 
eating  grasshopper — the  Gryllus  verrucivorus — with 
green  wings,  spotted  brown ;  the  common  people  catching 
it  for  this  purpose  :  and  it  is  reported  to  bite  off  the  wart, 
and  discharge  into  the  root  which  is  left  behind  a  corrosive 
liquid.  In  some  parts  of  our  own  country  the  juice  of  the 
Chelidonuim  majus  is  used  with  more  or  less  success ;  but 
our  readers  had  better  trust  to  none  of  such  things,  but 
use  caustic  pota3h,'or  acid  nitrate  of  mercury — both,  how- 
ever, powerful  things,  to  be  used  with  caution.  The  wart 
should  be  soaked  in  warm  water,  then  touched  each  day 
at  its  centre  with  a  solution  of  caustic  potash  and  water  in 
equal  parts  until  it  becomes  sore.  The  solution  is  to  be 
applied  with  a  piece  of  wood.  After  a  few  applications  the 
wart  will  shrivel  and  come  away.  When  the  acid  nitrate 
of  mercury  is  u^ed,  the  same  system  of  application  is  to 
be  followed,  but  the  acid  should  be  carefully  rubbed  on  to 
the  wart  until  it  smarts  ;  this  must  be  repeated  several 
times,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  acid  does  not 
trickle  over  the  skin  so  as  to  ulcerate  it. 

Corns. — These  always  arise  from  pressure.  They  are 
of  two  kinds,  soft  and  hard.  The  former  occur  between 
the  toes,  from  the  pressure  of  the  joints  of  the  smaller  toes 
against  the  skin  opposite.  Corns  are  not  limited  to  the 
feet,  but  are  seen  on  the  hands  of  workmen  who  use  tools 
that  press  much  on  the  palm  of  the  hand.  The  effect  of 
pressure  is  to  stimulate  the  skin,  then  to  cause  an 
increased  flow  of  blood  to  the  part  whose  activity  is 
excited,  so  that  the  cells  of  the  cuticle  are  more  rapidly 
produced  than  natural,  and  become  pressed  together  into 
Avhat  we  know  as  corns.  In  the  soft  corn  there  is  a  collec- 
tion of  fluid  under  the  cuticle,  and  the  corn  is  constantly 
bathed  in  perspiration  ;  so  that  we  have  a  more  or  less 
circular  white  softish  elevation,  exuding  a  moisture.  Now 
the  cure  of  corns  is  really  an  easy  matter.  The  first  thing 
is  to  have  an  easy  soft  boot,  with  a  good  broad  square  toe, 
so  that  the  toes  of  the  feet  are  in  no  degree  pressed 
together.  Small-toed  boots  and  corns  go  together.  Then 
corns  must  be  soaked  in  warm  water,  scraped  or 
shaved  down,  touched  with  a  little  acetic  acid  now  and 
again,  whilst  a  corn-plaister  should  be  worn — we  mean  a 
circular  one  with  the  hole  in  the  centre,  so  as  to  take  off 
the  pressure  from  the  centre  of  the  corn.  The  sufferer 
should  never  wear  a  boot  which  is  in  the  least  worn  away 
at  the  heel.  The  extraction  of  a  corn  is  only  a  temporary 
palliative.  It  does  not  remove  the  cause.  In  the  case  of  a 
soft  corn  we  must  take  care  to  be  very  cleanly,  to  remove 
as  much  of  the  white  loose  cuticle  as  we  can,  to  keep  the 
toes  betwixt  which  it  is,  separate  by  a  bit  of  cotton  wool ; 
then  we  may  use  a  little  "  glyceral  tannin,"  which  can  be 
got  at  the  chemist's,  painting  it  in  each  night  for  a  week 
or  so,  anil  when  it  has  become  less  tender  and  moist  we 
may  apply  caustic  gently.  This  will  generally,  if  we  keep 
pressure  off  it,  remove  the  corn. 

Moles  and  Mothers'  Marks. — These  may  usually 
be  removed  by  caustics,  or  by  ligaturing,  and  it  is  best 
that  they  be  destroyed  at  the  earliest  possible  time, 
because  they  frequently  increase  with  some  rapidity,  and 
fill  with  blood  to  an  extent  which  makes  their  removal  the 


more  difficult.     It  is  of  no  use  giving  further  details.     In 
all  cases  they  must  be  left  to  professional  treatment. 

Discolorations  of  the  Skin.  —  These  are  of  various 
kinds.  We  shall  only  speak  of  the  more  common.  First 
we  have  freckles,  or  the  little  brown  specks  developed 
about  the  face  and  hands  in  the  summer-time  by  the 
action  of  the  sun  upon  the  skin  in  hot  weather.  There  is  a 
second  form,  which  occurs  on  the  covered  parts  of  those 
who  are  of  a  bilious  temperament.  This  latter  form 
requires  careful  medical  treatment.  The  former  may 
be  more  or  less  removed  by  the  use  of  local  remedies  : — 
No.  I. 

Elder-flower  ointment         i  ounce. 

Sulphate  of  zinc,  finely  powdered  ...  25  grains. 
To  be  applied  with  the  finger  night  and  morning. 

No.  a. 

Sal-ammoniac  60  grains. 

Distilled  water  i  pint. 

Lavender  water         ...         ...         ...     Jounce. 

Bichloride  of  mercury  2  grains. 

To  be  used  with  a  sponge  every  night  and  morning. 
No  3  is  an  elegant  form  ; — 

Red  rose-leaves  ...         ...         ...  J  ounce. 

Fresh  lemon-juice       i  pint. 

Rum      J  pint. 

Digest  these  for  a  day,  and  squeeze  away  the  fluid,  to  be 
used  by  means  of  a  piece  of  sponge,  night  and  morning. 
No.  4. 

Carbonate  of  potash 5  grains. 

Citrine  ointment         i  drachm. 

Otto  of  roses i  drop. 

Simple  cerate  ...         ...         ...         ...   i  ounce. 

To  be  smeared  en  every  night. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  persons  are  attacked 
with  a  discoloration  about  the  chest,  especially  where 
flannel  is  worn.  The  parts  become  itchy — slightly  red, 
perhaps — and  then  little  light  pale  straw-coloured  spots 
appear  on  the  front  of  the  chest  ;  they  itch,  and  a  few 
bran-like  scales  can  be  scratched  from  off  the  patches, 
which  gradually  join,  and  form  a  pale,  fawn-coloured 
eruption.  This  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a  vegetable 
parasite,  and  is  called  Chloasma.  It  is  readily  cured  by 
first  washing  the  skin  with  soap  and  water,  in  order  to 
get  away  the  natural  fatty  matter,  and  then  applying 
freely  what  are  called  parasiticides,  viz.,  agents  that  de- 
stroy vegetable  life.  The  recipe  No.  2,  recommended 
above  for  discolorations,  may  be  given  a  trial.  This  should 
be  applied  night  and  morning  after  the  use  of  soap,  and 
be  continued  for  three  weeks  or  so.  If  this  do  not  radi- 
cally cure  the  affection,  medical  advice  must  be  sought, 
since  stronger  remedies  of  an  active  kind  will  be  needed, 
and  most  likely  internal  medicines. 

Chapped  Hands  and  Lips. — These  are  well  known,  and 
equally  simple  to  cure.  Those  persons  whose  hands  are 
constantly  in  the  wet  in  cold  weather,  get  chapped  hands 
because  they  make  the  skin  thereby  moist  and  soft,  and 
remove  the  natural  fatty  secretion,  which  is  protective 
against  cold.  It  is  said  that  those  who  work  amongst 
tallow  and  oil  never  get  chaps  of  any  kind  ;  and  this 
simple  fact  is  in  keeping  with  the  proper  mode  of  curing^ 
chapped  hands,  which  is  to  keep  the  hands  as  dry  as 
possible,  and  to  apply  a  layer  of  grease  night  and  morn- 
ing. Cold  cream,  or  a  little  weak  zinc  or  camphor  oint- 
ment, will  do.  Where  the  hands  are  livid  and  cold,  it 
will  be  well  to  use  the  camphor-balls  sold  in  the  shops. 
Occasionally  an  ugly  and  obstinate  crack  occurs.  This 
may  be  cured  by  applying  a  little  friar's  balsam  once  or 
twice,  or  if  it  be  in  the  middle  of  the  lip,  by  drawing  the 
two  sides  together  and  keeping  them  in  close  apposition, 
when  the  crack  heals.  The  muscles  about  the  mouth  \n 
constant  action  tend  to  stretch  open  the  crack,  and  to 
prevent  it  healing. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


125 


FURNITURE. 

II.— THE  GENERAL  FURNITURE  OF  THE  HOUSE. 
From  the  kitchens  we  proceed  upwards  to  the  passage, 
by  custom  termed  a  hall,  but  which  is  either  a  large  room 
at  the  entrance  to  the  dining  and  other  rooms,  or,  as 
is  most  frequently  the  case  in  modern  houses,  a  passage 
more  or  less  narrow.  It  is  certainly  bad  taste  to 
crowd  into  what  is  generally  a  narrow  space  the  fur- 
niture fitting  only  for  a  large  one  ;  but  how  often  are 
seen  pictures  crowded  on  to  the  walls  as  if  it  were 
the  entrance  to  a  photographer's  studio,  and  heavy 
chairs  and  tables  that  have  perhaps  seen  service  in  a 
more  appropriate  place  !  In  small  houses  the  passages 
are  generally  so  narrow  as  to  admit  only  of  one  chair,  a 
table,  and  a  hat-rack — these  are  all  inexpensive  matters  ; 
but  where  means  will  permit,  a  hat  and  umbrella  stand, 
with  table,  and  looking-glass  above  it,  and  all  arranged  in 
one  piece  of  furniture,  makes  the  most  compact,  completest, 
and  handsomest  piece  of  furniture.  Some  of  these  have 
the  framework  made  in  painted  iron,  the  paint  being  a 
mixture  of  colours  resembling  a  grey  agate  stone  more 
than  any  other  tint,  and  which  really  looks  light  and 
elegant.  An  oak — that  is,  wood  painted  and  grained  as  oak 
— hat  and  umbrella  stand  can  be  purchased  for  30s. ;  but 
oak  furniture  is  out  of  place  except  in  large  halls.  Ma- 
hogany is  best  for  passages.  A  mahogany  hat-rack,  with 
brass  hangers  tipped  with  white  china,  will  cost  los.  6d. 
There  are  some  long  narrow  tables  with  legs  turned  in 
pattern,  but  without  a  drawer  for  hat  and  clothes  brushes, 
that  can  be  purchased  for  a  guinea.  A  plain  mahogany 
hall-table,  with  drawers,  will  cost  £2.  A  mahogany 
hall-chair  can  be  had  for  15s.  A  folding  iron  chair, 
with  cane  seat  and  back,  is  an  excellent  substitute 
for  the  usual  chair  seen  in  passages,  as  it  is  cheaper, 
more  comfortable  to  sit  in,  does  not  require  so  much 
cleaning,  and  may  be  pressed  into  instant  service,  either 
in  a  room  or  in  a  garden  where  a  heavy  hall-chair  could 
not  be  carried  about.  Heaviness,  as  regards  weight, 
seems  to  be  a  characteristic  of  much  modern  furniture, 
but  without  any  advantage — lightness,  with  strength  of 
joint,  glue,  and  scr-ew  being  generally  attainable. 

A  gas-light  in  a  passage  should  spring  from  the  wall 
opposite  to  and  between  the  doors  of  the  two  sitting-rooms, 
the  projecting  gas-pipe  having  a  movable  joint.  Thus 
one  gas-jet  will  light  a  portion  of  the  staircase,  the  pas- 
sage in  its  whole  length,  and  prevent  a  stranger  from 
stumbling  into  either  room  when  both  are  unlighted.  Also, 
the  gas  can  be  turned  back  against  the  wall,  as  far  as  the 
ground-glass  globe  will  permit,  to  allow  of  the  removal  of 
furniture  or  boxes.  In  large  halls  the  arrangement  would 
not  be  suitable.  The  floor-cloth  should  be  the  width  of 
the  passage,  but  if  it  be  not,  the  floor  on  each  side  should 
be  painted  of  the  same  colour  as  the  ground  of  the  floor- 
cloth— by  no  means  of  a  different  tint.  The  most  useful 
colour  for  wear  is  a  very  light  yellow-brown,  having  a 
dark  brown  pattern  upon  it.  The  cloth  is  primed  with 
much  the  same  tint,  hence  if  the  pattern  wears  off  the 
defect  is  not  so  much  seen.  When  there  is  much  walking 
over  it,  a  narrow  strip  of  stair-carpet,  which  may  be  of 
bordered  felt,  inexpensive  and  efficient,  should  be  laid 
down  ;  it  will  save  the  oil-cloth  very  much  ;  but  this, 
however,  must  be  taken  up  every  day  and  swept  under, 
otherwise  the  grit  and  dust  will  very  soon  abrade  the 
surface  of  the  cloth  underneath  it.  Oil-cloth  is  very 
quickly  destroyed  by  cleaning  it  with  soap  and  soda, 
which,  in  taking  off  the  dirt,  remove  the  paint  also. 
The  use  of  warm  water  and  a  clean  flannel,  with  a  clean 
cloth  afterwards  to  wipe  it  dry,  once  a  week,  will  keep  it 
fresh  without  injury.  Once  a  month  a  scrubbing-brush 
may  be  used,  but  no  soap  or  soda. 

In  houses  where  the  passage  is  large  enough  to  be 
termed  a  hall,  a  design  on  the  oil-cloth  in  imitation  of 


encaustic  tiles  looks  very  well,  and  in  one  of  large  dimen- 
sions the  real  tiles  instead  of  oil-cloth  at  all.  These  are  oc- 
casionally troublesome  by  getting  loose,  and  a  man-servant 
should  know  what  cement  or  mortar  to  use  to  reset  them  ; 
but  when  the  tiles,  or  their  imitation,  are  used  the  sur- 
roundings should  harmonise.  The  staircase  generally 
faces  the  door,  and  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
look  and  degree  of  respectability  which  attach  to  a  house  ; 
but  there  is  one  especial  nuisance  in  modern  houses  of 
moderate  rental — say  from  twenty  to  sixty  pounds — that 
the  staircases  are  usually  exceedingly  narrow  and  mean- 
looking — a  defect  which  cannot  be  remedied. 

The  landlord  generally  leaves  the  sides  of  the  stairs  un- 
painted  or  painted  white.  Now  if  the  stairs  were  made  of 
white  deal  they  need  never  be  painted,  because  they  could 
be  kept  clean  and  white  with  hot  water,  sand,  and  soda  ; 
but  when  of  red  deal,  they  have,  if  unpainted,  an  unsightly 
appearance.  Yet  where  there  is  much  use  of  the  stairs, 
the  clothes  brushing  on  the  sides  rapidly  wear  r)ff  the 
paint,  leaving  the  edges  of  a  dirty  hue.  To  grain  them 
and  varnish  them  is  at  first  an  expensive  process,  but  it 
is  the  most  lasting,  inasmuch  as  they  can  be  re-varnished 
every  six  months,  by  any  one  in  the  house,  with  but  very 
little  expense  of  material  and  of  labour.  An  oil-man  will 
always  recommend  the  proper  varnish,  but  oak  varnish 
has  been  found  to  answer  extremely  well. 

In  the  matter  of  stair-carpets,  as  a  rule  the  softest 
texture  is  the  best.  The  hard  Dutch  carpets  wear  out 
directly.  The  real  Venetian  is  the  best,  but  is  now  rarely 
to  be  obtained.  We  cannot  point  out  particularly  the 
kind  of  carpet  which  should  be  bought,  other  than  the 
best  Brussels,  if  it  can  be  had ;  this  lasts  a  very  long  time 
with  care — that  is,  care  in  sweeping  it  with  a  soft  brush — 
not  scrubbing  it  with  the  hard  side  of  a  baluster  brush,  as 
most  servants  will  if  they  are  let  alone.  Much  injury 
arises  to  all  carpets  from  servants  being  allowed  to  run 
about  with  high -heeled,  and  sometimes  nailed  boots. 
The  only  way  to  get  over  the  difficulty  is,  when  engaging 
them,  to  mention  that  only  house  slippers  can  be  allowed 
to  be  worn  by  them  in  the  house. 

Stair  carpets  should  be  in  length  a  yard  longer  than 
is  needful  for  each  flight  of  stairs,  so  that  when  they  are 
taken  up  for  shaking  (not  beating),  they  may  not  be  put 
down  again  in  the  same  creases,  and  thus  at  a  trifling 
expense  the  carpets  will  wear  as  long  again  as  by  the 
usual  method  of  exact  measurement.  The  len^^th  required 
is  ascertained  by  allowing  half  a  yard  for  each  stair,  and 
adding  to  this-the  length  needed  for  the  landings.  Brass 
stair-rods  of  the  ordinary  kind  are  not  expensive,  and  the 
stair-eyes  are  purchased  by  the  dozen.  Parlours  with 
folding  doors  are  the  most  convenient  for  a  small  house, 
as  the  doors  may  be  closed  at  pleasure  ;  but  both  rooms 
should  be  similarly  furnished  as  far  as  the  carpet,  chairs, 
and  curtains  are  concerned.  The  patent  "felt"  carpet  is 
to  be  had  in  suitable  tints;  it  is  not  expensive,  and  is 
easily  made,  and,  when  good,  will  wear  tolerably  welL 
There  are  many  advantages  in  a  felt  carpet  :  not 
among  the  least  is  that  when  it  is  worn  out  in  the  centre, 
the  sides  which  are  good  can  be  cut  off,  bound,  and 
arranged  for  bedside  carpets;  and  that  which  is  very  much 
worn  serves  instead  of  buying  house-flannel  for  cleaning 
doorsteps,  kitchen  hearths,  and  other  rough  work.  But  if 
a  carpet  be  cut  through  the  worn  part,  and  the  two  unworn 
sides  be  joined  together,  and  so  the  worn  part  be  placed 
against  the  wall,  it  will  have  the  most  undesirable  look  of 
flue  and  dust,  and  never  being  swept  underneath  the 
chairs.  For  this  reason  felt  carpets  are  not  convertible 
for  the  same  rooms,  and  this  is  a  disadvantage.  Also,  when 
taken  up  for  shaking,  the  felt  shrinks,  and  cannot  without 
trouble  be  stretched  to  fit  the  same  room  again  ;  and  even 
if  pieces  have  been  turned  down  all  round  to  allow  of  this 
shrinking,  yet  the  bright  colours  of  the  unworn  edges 
contrast  unfavourably  with  the  worn  portion. 


n6 


FURNITURE. 


Kidderminster  carpets  of  a  good  quality  are  almost 
indestructible,  because  they  have  two  surfaces,  thus  are 
really  double.  They  are  soft  to  the  touch,  being  all  wool  ; 
if  hard,  the  wool  is  mixed  with  hemp  or  other  harsh  sub- 
stance, and  will  then  quickly  wear  out.  They  will  wash 
well — a  process  neither  difficult  nor  troublesome  when 
done  at  home — and  wear  better  after  the  process  than 
previously  ;  but  allowance  will  have  to  be  made  in  the 
quantity  of  carpet  purchased  for  the  shrinking  occasioned 
by  this  cleansing.  The  designs  on  Kidderminster  carpets 
ave  rarely  ever  suitable  for  parlours,the  green  moss  or  small 
green-and-black  coral  pattern  excepted.  These  are  in 
good  taste,  but  cannot  everywhere  be  met  with,  and  are 
expensive.  Some  really  good  woven  imitations  of  this 
kind  of  carpet,  in  pattern  and  quality,  are  to  be  met  with 
in  wide  width  for  3s.  6d.  or  4s.  a  yard. 

The  quality  of  Brussels  or  velvet-pile  carpets  may  be 
ascertained  in  the  same  way  that  a  lady  tests  the  excel- 
lence of  her  velvets — by  bending  down  the  surface  of  the 
fabric  with  the  lines  running  lengthways  ;  it  will  then  be 
seen  how  close  the  lines  of  wool  are  to  each  crther,  and  upon 
this  degree  of  closeness  depends  the  qualitv  of  the  carpet- 
ing. Also,  if  the  back  of  the  carpet 
— that  is,  the  foundation  upon 
which  the  wool  is  woven  in — looks 
coarse  and  loose  it  will  wear  badly. 

Tapestiy  carpeting  is  distin- 
guished from  Brussels  by  each 
colour  of  the  latter  being  woven 
in  separately,  the  wool  never  being 
cut,  but  carried  over  or  under- 
neath another  colour  :  while  ta- 
pestry is  woven  entirely  of  one 
tint,  and  then  the  brightest,  most 
seductive  colours  are  printed  upon 
it.  Of  course  this  cannot  wear 
like  Brussels,  neither  can  the 
gradation  of  shade  of  colour  or 
luxuriance  of  tint  be  found  in  the 
latter  as  in  tapestry  ;  so  a  pur- 
chaser has  to  choose  between 
strength  and  beauty.  A  Brussels  carpet  having  many 
colours  is  very  expensive,  but  it  wears  well. 

Finger-plates  of  white  china  are  easily  put  on,  and 
prevent  fiinger-marks  ;  but  they  should  be  fixed  both  above 
and  below  the  key-hole,  and  as  close  to  it  and  the  edge  of 
the  door  as  possible. 

In  the  two  rooms  there  will  need  to  be — a  couch,  one 
or  two  easy-chairs,  eight  other  chairs,  and  a  chiffonnier, 
one  centre-table,  also  one  to  form  a  dining-table  in  the 
back  room.  In  most  houses,  low-rented  ones  excepted, 
the  useful  low  cupboards  have  gone  much  out  of  fashion  ; 
the  upper  part  of  these,  where  they  exist,  above  the  top 
slab,  should  be  utilised  as  book-cases,  which  are  not 
difficult  to  make,  nor  expensive  to  have  made,  consisting 
entirely  of  shelves  ;  but  whatever  number  there  may  be, 
each  should  have  a  strip  of  leather  or  leather-cloth  two 
inches  in  depth,  to  protect  the  upper  part  of  the  books 
from  dust. 

A  Chiffonnier  is  one  of  the  most  useful  pieces  of 
furniture  in  every  room.  When  made  plainly  of  ma- 
hogany it  does  duty  for  a  sideboard  where  the  latter  would 
be  too  expensive  an  article,  or  the  room  too  small  to 
admit  one.  If  it  be  placed  in  the  front  and  superior  room, 
the  addition  of  glass  in  the  doors  and  back  makes  a  room 
look  lighter  and  gayer,  but  the  expense  is  something 
considerably  more  than  a  plain  one  would  be.  Glass 
does  not  look  well  set  in  mahogany  ;  it  should  have  rose- 
wood or  walnut,  in  which  woods  a  very  pretty  one  can 
be  obtained  from  six  to  eight  pounds,  but  then  the  tables 
and  chairs  should  match. 

Chairs. — The  best  material  to  cover  chairs  is  Utrecht 
plush,  which  will  last  excessive  wear  for  twenty  years  ;  it 


has  never  been  made  popular  in  England  by  furniture 
makers,  but  it  is  the  most  economical,  even  if  the  expense 
be  greater  in  the  first  instance  than  woollen  rep,  which  is 
the  next  best  thing  to  it.  The  latter  must  be  all  wool, 
otherwise  there  is  no  wear  in  it  ;  very  good  can  be  had 
for  6s.  a  yard,  double  width.  It  is  best  to  purchase  the 
chairs  ready  covered  ;  still,  old  ones  may  be  made  to  look 
like  new,  and  be  covered  at  home  with  comparatively 
little  expense.  In  the  back  parlour  there  should  be  a 
dining-table,  which  may  have  a  deal  top  if  expense  is  an 
object.  Its  size  must  depend  upon  that  of  the  room.  And 
here  we  recommend  that,  as  far  as  possible,  the  meals 
of  the  family  should  be  taken  in  the  back  parlour. 

Easy  Chairs. — There  is  more  care  required  in  the 
selection  of  these  necessary  articles  than  in  almost  any 
other.  Some  appear  as  if  they  were  arranged  rather  for 
penitential  chairs  than  anything  else.  The  back  aches, 
or  the  neck  becomes  stiff,  when  sitting  in  them,  although 
perhaps  they  look  truly  comfortable  till  they  are  tried. 
The  cane-seated  arm-chairs  are  useful  and  inexpensive, 
but  are  a  nuisance  if  they  creak.  The  very  best  of  them 
may  be  had  for  17s.  6d.  ;  also  one  of  the  same  kind, 
termed  the  Derby  chair,  which  is 
without  arms,  and  if  not  cane- 
seated  to  match  the  arm-chair,  is 
made  of  laths,  the  cost  being 
about  4s.  6d.  This  can  be  padded, 
cushioned,  and  covered  in  chintz 
or  worsted  rep,  and  thus  it  makes 
a  most  comfortable  easy-chair  for 
a  lady,  in  which  she  can  work  or 
read ;  quite  as  pleasant  to  sit  in  as 
many  of  the  expensive  kind.  Our 
engraving  will  show  the  kind  that 
is  meant. 

IV indoiv- curtains.  —  For  these 
the  best  material  is  good  woollen 
damask  ;  it  wears  well  and  keeps 
its  colour,  and  may  be  after  four 
years  re-dipped  and  calendered, 
and  will  look  like  new.  Very  good 
quality  can  be  purchased  for  less  than  3s.  a  yard,  double 
width.  Rep  will  cost  double  the  price,  and  is  not  suitable 
but  for  lofty  and  large  rooms. 

A  Chimney-glass,  by  its  shape  or  size,  gives  either  a 
common  or  a  refined  aspect  to  a  room.  If  it  be  possible 
to  afford  one  -higher  than  it  is  broad,  but  having  it  nearly 
the  breadth  of  the  chimney-piece,  it  will  look  far  better 
than  one  which  is  wider  than  it  is  high.  Very  good  ones 
indeed  may  be  purchased  for  ^5  ;  and  it  is  better  to 
sacrifice  something  else  in  the  room,  and  expend  the 
money  on  a  good  glass.  One  with  a  neat-patterned 
frame,  gilt  all  round,  with  scrolls  at  the  bottom  of  the 
two  sides,  always  looks  well  and  appropriate ;  while 
glasses  with  a  nondescript  gilt  ornament  in  the  centre 
of  the  top,  look  pretentious  and  vulgar. 

Fenders  atid  Fire-irons,  more  in  their  shape  than  their 
quality,  give  a  look  of  refinement  and  culture  about  the 
room.  The  pretty  twisted  irons,  neither  too  small  nor 
too  large  for  the  grate,  should  be  chosen  rather  than 
those  with  a  plain  surface.  The  fiirst  are  more  easily 
kept  clean  than  the  last,  and  do  not  look  so  shabby 
if  they  have  been  neglected  in  the  cleaning  ;  but  if  they 
are  cleaned  daily,  and  the  bright  poker  and  shovel  are 
used  as  much  as  they  need  to  be,  they  are  easily  kept 
bright,  unless  the  dangerous  practice  of  putting  the 
poker  into  the  fiire,  and  letting  it  remain  till  red-hot 
be  resorted  to.  A  plain  fender,  bronzed,  with  a  flat  steel 
rim,  upon  which  the  feet  may  be  put  to  warm  if  needed, 
looks  better  than  one  of  a  more  elaborate  pattern,  which, 
is  difficult  to  keep  free  from  dust. 

It  would  be  quite  useless,  in  these  days  of  "follow  my 
leader,"  to  suggest  how  very  comfortable  and  convenient 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


127 


the  old  squab  sofa  is,  with  its  square  mattress  and 
cushions,  to  the  more  modern  but  unmeaning  couch, 
with  a  scroll  end,  very  pretty  to  look  at,  but  not  con- 
vertible, nor  so  pleasant  for  use.  In  France  couches 
look  their  best,  and  do  duty  for  sofas  during  the  day, 
not  in  the  least  assuming  to  be  other  than  they  are ;  but 
at  night  they  can  bo  carried  into  any  bedroom,  be  un- 
covered, the  two  scrolls  at  the  end  turned  down,  and 
the  cushions  taken  off,  when  a  luxurious  spring  mattress 
is  revealed,  upon  which  the  cushions  are  replaced,  and  a 
good,  comfortable  bed  is  at  once  arranged.  However, 
this  contrivance  has  not  yet  been  introduced  into 
England.  As  a  covering  for  a  couch,  the  American 
leather-cloth  wears  badly,  but  it  is  rapidly  superseding  the 
use  of  horse-hair.  But  better  than  the  former  is  a  good 
dark  green  Coburg  cloth ;  it  wears  well,  does  not  look 
obtrusive,  and  can  be  replaced  when  shabby  at  small 
expense. 


HOUSEHOLD    AMUSEMENTS. 

It  is  related  of  one  of  England's  greatest  statesmen, 
that  some  one  calling  to  see  him  unexpectedly  on  grave 
political  affairs,  found  him,  not  absorbed  in  state  papers 
and  official  documents,  but  on  all  fours  in  his  nursery, 
with  his  children  romping  upon  and  around  him.  And 
of  another  eminent  man,  the  late  Earl  of  Derby,  it  has 
been  recorded,  in  a  graceful  tribute  paid  to  his  memory, 
that  while  at  timgs  he  would  seek  recreation  from  political 
labours  in  the  translation  of  Homer,  at  others  he  loved  to 
find  it  in 

"  Making  some  wonder  for  a  happy  child." 

Many  other  instances  might  be  quoted  to  prove  that  the 
busiest  and  greatest  men,  as  well  as  the  humblest,  have 
often  found  delight  and  solace  in  participation  in  the 
amusements  of  youth  in  their  own  households.  Not,  there- 
fore, to  the  young  only,  but  to  those  in  more  advanced 
life,  the  best  among  us  feel  that  it  is  desirable  to  cultivate 
the  recreations  of  home,  and  to  be  ready  at  times  for  frolic 
and  the  innocent  enjoyment  of  household  pastimes.  We 
shall  try,  in  a  series  of  papers,  to  guide  all  who  may  read 
this  work  in  the  choice  of  such  recreations,  by  giving  a 
description  of  many  which  are  familiar,  and  of  others 
less  generally  known  ;  sometimes  choosing  the  simplest 
in-door  games,  and  at  others,  commenting  on  pastmies 
of  a  more  intricate  character,  and  thus  enabling  all  to 
select  the  amusement  which  is  most  suited  to  the  tastes 
and  circumstances  both  of  themselves  and  those  around 
them. 

The  winter  season,  bringing  Christmas  with  it,  calls  into 
request  games  for  round  parties,  and  we  shall  devote  the 
present  paper  to  some  of  these.  To  commence  with  a 
very  simple  one,  we  will  describe  a  game  of  German 
origin,  known  as 

The  Ball  of  Wool. — The  party  are  seated  round  a  table, 
from  which  the  cloth  must  be  drawn.  A  little  wool  is  rolled 
up  into  the  form  of  a  ball,  and  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
table.  The  company  then  commence  to  blow  upon  it,  each 
one  trying  to  drive  it  away  from  his  own  direction,  and 
the  object  of  all  being  to  blow  it  off,  so  that  the  perscm 
by  whose  right  side  it  falls  may  pay  a  forfeit.  The  longer 
the  ball  is  kept  on  the  table  by  the  opposing  puffs  of  the 
surrounding  party,  the  more  amusing  the  game  becomes, 
as  the  distended  cheeks  and  zealous  exertions  of  the 
players  afford  mirth  to  lookers-on  as  well  as  to  them- 
selves. 

Similar  to  this  is  a  game  called  "  Blowing  the  Feather," 
in  which  a  small  feather  set  floating  in  the  air  answers 
the  same  purpose  as  the  ball  upon  the  table.  The  forfeit 
falls  to  the  individual  whose  puff  is  ineffectual  in  keeping 
the  feather  afloat,  or  who  suffers  it  to  drop  when  it 
reaches  him. 


Of  a  different  character,  and  still  more  comic  in  its 
results,  is  a  game  called 

Shadows. — This  game,  sometimes  called  "  Shadow  Buff,'* 
is  productive  of  much  amusement  in  a  round  party.  It 
consists  in  the  detection  of  the  individuals  who  compose 
the  company  by  their  shadows  ;  but  these  they  are  at 
liberty  to  disguise  as  much  as  possible.  The  following  i& 
the  method  pursued  : — 

A  white  tablecloth  or  a  sheet  is  suspended  on  one  side 
of  the  apartment,  and,  at  a  short  distance  before  this 
sheet,  one  of  the  party,  chosen  for  the  purpose,  is  seated 
upon  either  the  ground  or  a  low  stool,  with  his  faca 
directed  towards  the  cloth.  Behind  him,  on  the  farther 
side  of  the  apartment,  the  table  is  placed,  and  upon  it  a 
lamp  or  taper,  all  other  lights  in  the  apartment  being 
extinguished.  Each  of  the  company  in  turn  passes  before 
the  lamp  and  behind  the  person  who  is  gazing  upon  the 
cloth,  which  thus  receives  a  strong  shadow.  If  the 
individual  seated  can  name  the  person  whose  shadow  is 
thus  thrown,  the  latter  has  to  pay  a  forfeit,  or  to  take  the 
place  of  the  guesser,  as  may  be  agreed  upon.  It  would 
be  easy,  in  playing  this  game,  to  detect  particular 
individuals  if  they  passed  in  their  natural  attitude  ;  but 
they  are  free  to  change  this  as  much  as  lies  in  their  power, 
by  stooping,  standing  more  erect  than  usual,  bending  the 
limbs,  or  using  the  arms  in  any  way  calculated  to  obscure 
the  outline  of  the  shadow  and  render  it  difficult  of 
detection.  An  alteration  in  costume,  such  as  turning  up 
the  collar  or  changing  the  coat,  if  a  gentleman,  and 
enveloping  the  head  in  a  hood,  in  the  case  of  a  lady,  is 
also  allowable.  The  game  gives  rise  to  a  good  deal  of 
ingenuity  in  this  fashion,  and  may  often  proceed  for  some 
time  before  many  forfeits  have  resulted. 

The  Messenger. — The  party  are  seated  in  line,  or  round 
the  sides  of  the  room,  and  some  one  previously  appointed 
enters  with  the  message,  "  My  master  sends  me  to  you^ 
madam,"  or  "  sir,"  as  the  case  may  be,  directed  to  any 
individual  he  may  select  at  his  option.  "  What  for  ?  "  is 
the  natural  inquiry.  "  To  do  as  I  do  ;"  and  with  this  the 
messenger  commences  to  perform  some  antic,  which  the 
lady  or  gentleman  must  imitate — say  he  wags  his  head 
from  side  to  side,  or  taps  with  one  foot  incessantly  on  the 
floor.  The  person  whose  duty  it  is  to  obey  commands  his 
neighbour  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  to  "  Do  as  I  do,"  also  ; 
and  so  on  until  the  whole  company  are  in  motion,  when 
the  messenger  leaves  the  room,  re-entering  it  with  fresh 
injunctions.  W^hile  the  messenger  is  in  the  room  he  must 
see  his  master's  will  obeyed,  and  no  one  must  stop  from 
the  movement  without  suffering  a  forfeit.  The  messenger 
should  be  some  one  ingenious  in  making  the  antics 
ludicrous,  and  yet  kept  within  moderate  bounds,  and  the 
game  will  not  fail  to  produce  shouts  of  laughter. 

Among  the  other  tricks  which  may  be  commended  are 
such  as  rocking  the  body  to  and  fro,  wiping  the  eyes  with 
a  pocket-handkerchief,  yawning,  whistling,  stroking  the 
chin  or  the  beard,  and  making  any  grimace. 

Another  game,  of  much  the  same  character,  is  known 
by  the  title,  "  Thus  says  the  Grand  Seignor."  The  chief 
difference  is  that  the  first  player  is  stationed  in  the  centre 
of  the  room,  and  prefaces  his  movements,  which  the  others 
must  all  follow,  by  the  above  words.  If  he  varies  his 
command  by  framing  it,  "  So  says  the  Grand  Seignor," 
the  party  must  remain  stiU,  and  decline  to  follow  his 
example.  Any  one  who  moves  when  he  begins  with 
"So,"  or  does  not  follow  him  when  he  commences  with. 
"  Thus,"  has  to  pay  a  forfeit. 

Magic  Music. — In  this  game  a  player  is  seated  at  the 
piano,  and  one  of  the  others  leaves  the  room,  while  the 
company  decides  what  the  last-mentioned  is  to  do  on  his 
return.  When  called  in,  he  is  given  a  hint,  but  only  a  hint, 
of  what  he  is  expected  to  do.  \Ve  will  suppose  that  he  is 
told  that  he  is  to  "  make  an  offering  to  a  certain  lady." 
He  is  left  to  himself  as  to  what  the  offering  muy  be,  but 


128 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 


he  must  g^ess  the  lady  to  whom  it  is  to  be  offered,  and 
offer  to  each  in  succession  until  he  discovers  the  in- 
dividual selected.  The  musical  part  of  the  performance 
is  this  :  When  he  re-enters  the  room,  the  person  at  the 
piano  commences  to  play  some  piece,  with  a  moderate 
degree  of  vigour.  As  the  guesser  approaches  the  right 
lady,  or  the  right  thing  to  be  done,  whatever  its  nature, 
the  music  becomes  louder  or  quicker ;  but  if  he  appears 
to  be  going  farther  and  farther  from  his  appointed  task, 
the  music  becomes  softer  and  softer,  until  it  is  scarcely 
heard.  This  gives  him  a  clue  as  to  whether  he  is  on  the 
right  scent,  or  otherwise.  If  there  is  no  piano  in  the 
room,  the  "  magic 
music "  may  be  of 
another  character. 
It  may  consist  in 
the  tinkling  or  clash- 
ing together  of  any 
articles  that  will 
emit  either  a  har- 
monious or  a  dis- 
cordant sound, 
according  to  the 
degree  of  hilarity 
or  boisterousness  to 
which  the  age  and 
other  circumstances 
of  the  company  dis- 
pose them.  But, 
played  with  a  little 
tact,  the  game  in 
any  of  its  forms  will 
be  found  amusing. 

We     have     had 
occasion    to    men- 
tion   forfeits  ;    and 
as    those    form  an 
important    element 
in    many    in  -  door 
games,    we    shall    have    some- 
thing to  say  about  them  in  our 
next  paper,  in  which  we  hope, 
at  the  same  time,  to  introduce 
to  the    notice    of  our  younger 
readers    several  novel  amusements,    which   in'  the  long 
winter   evenings    they    may  find    especially  acceptable. 


z 

A 

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Fig.  S3. 


THE   HOUSEHOLD  MECHANIC. 

DOORS. 
An  ordinary  frame  door  will  supply  good  practice  chiefly 
in  the  mortice  and  tenon  joint,  and  will  be  a  capital 
example  of  the  principle  of  joinery — to  build  up  of  sepa- 
rate pieces  a  fabric  of  lighter  weight  and  greater  strength 
than  if  solid,  and  also  so  pieced  together  as  not  to  be 
affected  to  any  extent  by  changes  in  the  atmosphere. 

It  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  article  on  Wood  that 
the  tendency  of  boards  to  shrink  or  expand  is  in  the 
direction  of  the  width  and  not  of  length.  If  a  door  is 
made  up  of  boards  simply  fastened  edge  to  edge,  the 
expansion  of  its  width  will  be  very  considerable,  while  its 
length  remains  the  same.  Therefore,  if  a  "  ledge"  door, 
as  it  is  termed,  fits  in  damp  weather,  in  dry  it  will  be 
smaller  and  too  loose.  Ledge  doors  are  made  by  placing 
boards  together  edge  to  edge,  and  strengthened  with  two 
or  three  ledges  or  battens  nailed  across  the  back,  but 
these  are  only  suited  for  common  work. 

Fig.  50  shows  that  the  essential  principle  in  the  proper 
construction  of  an  ordinary  frame  and  panel  door  is  such 
a  combination  of  length  and  width  of  grain  as  reduces 
the  possibility  of  expansion  or  contraction  to  a  minimum. 
The  frame  consists  of  the  styles  or  vertical  pieces,  degf, 
and  the  rails  or  horizontal  bars,  ABC.     The  method  by 


which  they  are  firmly  united  is  seen  in  Fig.  51,  in  which 
each  piece  is  detached  and  lettered  to  show  where  each 
joint  is  made.  The  styles,  DEGF  should  be  about  four 
inches  wide,  and  from  one  and  a  quarter  to  two  inches  in 
thickness,  and  the  rails  of  the  same  thickness,  but  only 
the  top  rail,  A,  of  the  same  width ;  the  middle  and  lower 
rails,  B  c,  being  about  double  the  width  of  the  styles. 
The  middle  styles  are  tenoned  into  the  middle  rail  at  d 
and  /,  and  into  the  upper  and  lower  at  b  and/  The  side 
styles  are  then  morticed  a.i  a  e  g,  cfh,  to  fit  the  tenons 
corresponding  on  the  rails. 
H  I J  K  show  the  panels,  which  are  of  much  thinner  ma- 
terial, usually  about 


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Fig.  54- 


one-third,  and 
which  are,  as  will 
be  seen,  larger  than 
the  spaces  in  the 
frame  which  they 
occupy  visibly.  On 
the  inner  edges  of 
both  styles  and 
frames,  a  groove  is 
planed  out  with  a 
plough  of  the  exact 
width  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  panel, 
and  about  half  an 
inch  in  depth.  Into 
these  grooves  the 
panels  are  loosely 
fitted,  and  the  outer 
styles  are  driven 
into  their  respec- 
tive mortices,  and 
wedged  up  as  usual. 
The  panels  not  quite 
filling  up  the  groove 
in  their  width,  have 
a  slight  amount  of 
room  for  expansion.  The  dotted 
line  imno,  Fig.  50,  shows  the 
room  occupied  by  the  panel. 
The  comers  formed  between 
the  frame  edge  and  panel  are 
to  be  filled  in  with  a  bead  or  moulding,  which  must 
be  cut  to  the  exact  size,  and  accurately  bevelled  at 
each  corner.  These  mouldings  are  fitted  by  means  of 
brads  to  one  or  both  sides  of  the  door,  according 
to  circumstances,  and  are  merely  ornamental.  Fig.  52 
is  a  section  across  the  door  in  the  middle  of  the 
panels,  and  shows  the  whole  arrangement  very  clearly, 
D  E  F  being  the  styles,  and  H  I  the  panels.  Fig.  53 
shows  enlarged  section  of  the  joint  of  the  style  A  and 
panel  B,  and  shows  the  moulding  c  fitted  in  the  corner. 
This  panel  is  used  for  light  doors  for  inside  work,  a 
stronger  variety  being  needed  for  the  outside  doors,  which 
require  much  greater  strength.  This  panel  is  of  double 
thickness,  and  is  tongued  to  fit  the  groove  in  the  styles 
and  rails,  as  in  Fig.  54,  and  is  indented  only  on  the  front 
or  outside,  the  back  being  flush  with  the  surface  of  thb 
frame  ;  the  edges  of  the  panel  at  the  back  are  usually 
beaded,  as  at  D.  The  corners  in  the  front  are  filled  in  with 
the  moulding,  c.  We  have  taken  as  an  example  a  four- 
panelled  door,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  the  construction 
being  similar  for  six,  the  usual  number.  In  a  six-panel 
door  the  top  rail  is  known  by  that  name,  the  next  is  the 
frieze  rail,  the  next  the  middle  or  lock  rail,  and  the  last  the 
bottom  rail.  The  panels  are  also  distinguished  by  the 
same  names.  The  lock  is  let  into  the  door  at  either  e  or/, 
and  does  not  show,  except  from  the  edge.  The  hinges  are 
fixed  near  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  styles,  on  the  side 
opposite  to  the  lock,  but,  of  course,  must  not  be  placed  at 
a  part  where  the  style  is  weakened  by  the  mortice. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


129 


HOUSEHOLD     DECORATIVE     ART. 

IV. — RECREATIONS  FOR  LONG  EVENINGS. 
I^Ianv  useful  and  amusing  occupations  can  be  recom- 
mended for  long  evenings,  and  among  such  occupations  we 
reckon  especially  those  which  result  in  the  production  of 
something  at  once  permanent  and  ornamental.  It  is  our 
intention  to  describe  several  for  the  benefit  of  our  readers. 
Screen-making. — Preparing  scraps  to  cover  a  screen  is 
an  employment  that  fills  up  a  good  deal  of  spare  time, 
entails  no  mental  exertion,  and 
may  be  done  at  small  expense, 
beyond  that  for  the  mere  frame 
of  the  screen,  which,  with  a 
simple  covering  of  black  paper 
will  cost  about  a  pound,  and  if 
the  scraps  are  arranged  upon 
it  with  any  amount  of  taste 
and  judgment,  a  very  attractive 
addition  will  have  been  made 
to  the  furniture  of  the  room, 
and  one  that  at  the  same  time 
may  be  found  exceedingly  use- 
ful, as  a  protection  against 
draughts,  or  the  excessive  heat 
of  a  tire.  The  Avork  admits  of 
endless  variety,  and  will  serve 
at  the  same  time  to  display  the 
skill  and  taste  of  the  worker. 
It  would  be  useless  to  lay 
down  any  very  accurate  rules 


Fig.  2. 


landscapes.  All  the  corners  and  angles  left  uncovered  by 
this  arrangement,  must  be  filled  in  with  portions  of  pic- 
tures, for  which  purpose  torn  and  damaged  ones  will 
come  in  useful.  Another  way  of  covering  a  screen  is  by 
cutting  out  the  outlines  of  prints  and  sticking  them  on. 
Comic  arrangements  may  be  got  in  this  way,  as,  for  in- 
stance, by  putting  into  a  landscape  small  figures  grouped 
in  a  valley  as  a  pic-nic  party,  or  climbing  a  mountain,  or 
walking  about  the  features  of  other  figures  much  larger. 
One  may  cut  out  an  umbrella  and  place  it  as  if  held  by 
a  duck,  or  transfer  a  pair  of 
spectacles  to  the  countenance 
of  a  lion.  Of  course,  these 
arrangements  may  be  varied 
infinitely.  Perhaps  no  screen 
is  handsomer  than  one  made 
of  elegant  coloured  scraps  of 
all  shapes,  hues,  and  sizes. 
Yox  one  of  these  screens,  take- 
the  pictures  from  sheets  of 
music,  garlands  of  flowers 
from  Christmas  cards,  coloured 
prints,  landscapes,  figures, 
heads,  flowers — in  fact,  any- 
thing and  of  any  size  that  can 
be  pressed  into  the  service. 
Coloured  lithographic  prints 
are  now-a-days  so  common 
that  there  will  be  little  dif- 
ficulty in  obtaining  materials 
suitable  for  the  purpose.      It 


Fig.  3. 


,p=^ 


Fig.  4. 


M'here  so  much  must  be  left  to  taste,  but  the  general 
instructions  in  this  paper  will,  with  ordinary  good  taste 
and  a  little  practice,  enable  the  reader  to  become 
quite  proficient.  There  are  different  ways  of  covering  a 
screen.  The  first  and  simplest,  as  regards  preparation, 
is  the  sticking  on  of  prints  from  which  the  margins  have 
been  removed.  Pictures  for  such  purposes  may  be  col- 
lected from  various  friends  and  laid  on  according  to 
taste.  .Sometimes  all  kinds  of  pictures,  of  all  shapes  and 
sizes,  are  arranged  as  it  were  pell-mell  upon  a  screen, 
every  cranny  and  nook  being  filled  up.  At  other  times 
they  are  arranged  in  studied  confusion,  as  in  Fig.  I.  This 
requires  materials  all  of  one  size,  and  is  most  fitted  for 

VOL.    I. 


will  be  found  desirable  rwr  to  choose  too  many  pictures 
representing  the  same  class  of  subjects  ;  there  should  be 
a  judicious  assortment  of  figure  subjects,  landscapes, 
animals,  fruit,  and  flowers.  Cut  these  all  in  outline  with 
a  sharp  pair  of  scissors,  but  avoid  touching  the  finer  por- 
tions at  tirst,  such  as  the  features  of  the  face,  or  the  rigging 
of  a  vessel  ;  and  only  at  the  last  moment  cut  out  the 
minute  details  with  a  penknife.  After  the  last  fine  cutting 
is  done,  you  must  not  handle  them  more  than  is  absolutely 
necessary,  as  they  are  very  liable  to  tear.  First  arrange  the 
coloured  scraps,  according  to  your  taste,  on  a  table,  and 
afterwards  gum  every  one  of  them  slightly  by  one  point, 
and  then  hang  them  temporarily  on  the  screen  to  see  the 

9 


I30 


INMATES  OF  THE  HOUSE.— LEGAL, 


general  effect.  The  arrangement  ought  to  appear  perfectly 
careless  and  hap-hazard,  all  sizes  and  all  shapes  turning 
in  every  possible  way;  but  the  eye  must  be  satisfied 
and  the  colours  contrasted,  so  as  to  give  a  good  general 
effect.  The  black  ground  is  left  distinct  between  these, 
the  pictures  never  touching.  They  are  afterwards  firmly 
pasted  on,  and  finally  the  screen  is  varnished.  The  best 
va;rnish  for  the  purpose  is  the  ordinary  spirit  varnish.  In 
pasting  the  pictures,  one  side  is  done  at  a  time.  After  var- 
nishing, the  screen  must  be  left  where  it  can  remain  undis- 
turbed. It  will  require  two  or  three  coats  of  varnish,  each 
of  which  must  dry  thoroughly  before  another  is  applied. 
When  the  surface  is  quite  smooth  and  even,  the  work  is 
finished.  A  great  deal  of  previous  consideration  is  required 
to  produce  a  felicitous  result.  For  instance,  the  light  and 
shade  of  the  prints  must  be  studied.  If  they  are  laid  on  in 
straight  rows,  alternately  light  and  dark,  as  some  lay  them, 
a  chess-board  effect  is  produced  which  is  most  undesirable  ; 
or  again,  if  they  are  placed  in  stars,  a  light  one  in  the  centre 
of  a  group  of  dark  ones  stands  out  too  prominently. 
Effects  like  these  may  be  observed  in  patchwork  where 
they  are  purposely  done,  such  as  the  box  pattern.  Pic- 
tures that  are  all  square,  or  can  be  cut  in  squares,  may  be 
arranged  in  stars,  as  in  Fig.  2,  but  the  lights  and  shadows 
must  be  carefully  varied.  If  they  are  cut  in  diamond 
shape  they  may  be  arranged  as  in  Fig.  3.  Having  laid 
them  on  the  table  to  try  the  effect  before  pasting  them  on, 
retire  to  a  distance,  so  as  to  be  able  to  judge  of  the  result. 
A  strong  solution  of  gum  mixed  with  a  little  flour,  is  the 
best  cement. 

Albums. — Albums  and  scrap-books  may  be  made  in 
almost  endless  variety.  For  a  gift -book  especially,  nothing 
could  be  be  prettier  or  better,  than  one  devised  on  the 
Chinese  plan.  Get  a  set  of  strong  cards,  of  whatever  size 
you  like  ;  they  may  be  as  much  as  twelve  inches  square. 
Lance  holes  with  a  penknife  at  each  of  the  corners,  and 
run  a  piece  of  coloured  ribbon  through,  after  the  fashion 
of  a  fan,  having  first  bound  the  edges  all  round  with 
ribbon,  put  on  with  a  strong  solution  of  gum.  Fig.  4 
shows  the  manner  of  doing  this.  The  ribbon  is  gummed 
to  each  card  where  it  crosses  it.  Make  your  solution 
ol  gum  very  strong,  but  do  not  use  it  profusely ;  gum 
securely  the  cards  together,  but  merely  so  as  to  attach 
the  ribbon.  After  gumming  down  the  ribbon,  the  cards 
not  being  more  than  the  least  possible  space  apart,  leave 
them  spread  upon  a  table,  covered  with  clean  paper,  and 
press  them  under  a  heavy  weight.  The  next  day  the  gum 
will  be  dry.  One  or  more  pictures  can  be  arranged  on 
each  side  of  every  card,  and  the  covers  may  be  ornamented 
with  silk  or  moire  antique,  sewn  together  at  the  edges,  and 
put  on  after  the  ribbon  joints.  The  merit  of  this  book  is, 
that  it  will  open  like  a  common  book  either  way,  back  and 
front,  or  unfold  like  a  panorama.  It  forms  a  pretty  case 
for  photographic  portraits,  which  maybe  thus  inserted  : — 
Soak  a  portrait  in  cold  water  till  it  comes  off  the  card. 
Let  it  dry,  and  then  attach  it  with  gum  to  your  album. 
Passe-partouts  containing  photographs  may  be  made  to 
form  an  album  of  this  kind.  Beautiful  photograph  albums 
have  been  made,  by  taking  a  number  of  cards  of  one  size 
and  mounting  various  sized  photographs  of  fancy  subjects 
upon  them,  and  then  designing  borders  appropriate  with  a 
pen  and  Indian  ink;  for  example,  round  "  Moses  found  by 
Pharaoh's  daughter,"  a  border  of  bulrushes  ;  around 
heads,  the  outline  of  a  mirror  or  a  frame  of  beads  will 
have  a  pretty  effect.  Round  the  well-known  subject  of 
the  Christian  Martyr,  a  border  of  lilies  would  be  appro- 
priate. In  filling  scrap-books,  if  the  book  is  not  already 
so  prepared,  every  other  leaf  must  be  cut  out,  because  the 
pictures  pasted  in  will  otherwise  swell  the  book  beyond 
the  dimensions  of  the  binding.  To  make  a  book  for  your- 
self, in  a  homely  style,  take  six  sheets  of  paper  folded 
one  inside  the  other.  Stitch  them  through  the  centre, 
putting  in  the  needle  at  c,  taking  it  through  A  and  B,  back 


to  C,  and  there  knotting  the  two  ends  together,  Fig.  5, 
Then  take  another  set  of  six  sheets,  and  so  on  until 
you  have  enough  for  a  book,  stitch  the  whole  of  them 
through  in  three  places,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  first  at  A, 
knotting  it  together  behind,  then  at  B  and  at  c.  The 
book  ought  now  to  be  pressed  in  a  carpenter's  bench,  or 
press,  the  back  upwards.  Next  glue  the  backs  well,  and 
attach  three  strips  of  linen  rags,  also  well  glued,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  7.  Afterwards  glue  the  outside  of  them  and  attach 
the  covers,  in  the  way  shown  in  Fig.  8.  After  the  sides 
have  been  pressed  and  dried  twenty-four  hours,  a  strip  of 
fancy  paper,  or  leather,  or  velvet  is  put  over  the  back,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  line  A,  covering  over  the  sides  and 
corners  of  the  covers,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  R.  These 
are  turned  down  inside  the  covers  and  finished  off  neatly. 
The  paper  or  silk  to  cover  the  sides  is  now  to  be  put 
on.  Albums  may  also  be  made  very  pretty  by  binding 
them  in  embossed  cards,  or  cards  covered  with  silk.  The 
way  to  manage  this  is  to  put  the  back  of  velvet  on  the 
book,  before  you  put  on  the  sides ;  or  velvet  enough  to 
line  the  cover  may  be  carried  across  the  whole  side  of 
the  book.  The  fly-leaf,  or  first  leaf  of  a  book  ought  ta 
be  nicely  gummed  or  pasted  down  to  the  inside  of  the 
cover  as  soon  as  the  binding  is  otherwise  finished,  and 
dried  again.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  fancy  work 
which  is  quite  as  easy,  and  which  will  conveniently  fill 
up  a  long  evening,  and  we  propose  to  give  some  further 
instructions  in  a  future  paper. 


INMATES   OF  THE   HOUSE.— LEGAL. 

V. — RATES     AND     TAXES. 

When  Dr.  Johnson  in  his  Dictionary  defined  excise  as 
a  hateful  impost,  he  did  but  express  towards  one  tax  in 
particular  what  the  majority  of  people  feel  against  taxes 
in  general.  There  seems  at  all  times  to  have  existed  a 
hostility  towards  taxes,  of  whatever  sort,  though  it  is 
obvious  that  without  contributions  from  the  people  the 
business  of  the  country  could  not  be  carried  on.  This  is 
true,  not  only  of  taxes  which  fill  the  imperial  coffers,  but 
of  rates  which  are  levied  for  the  purposes  of  local  govern- 
ment. Perhaps  the  hostility  has  proceeded  rather  from 
the  manner  in  which  the  taxes  have  been  levied  than  from 
hatred  to  the  taxes  themselves.  Down  to  a  comparatively 
recent  period  of  the  world's  history,  the  practice  was 
general  of  farming  the  revenues  of  the  state  to  persons 
who  paid  a  sum  down  to  the  government  in  return  for 
permission  to  collect  the  taxes  on  their  own  account,  a 
practice  which,  from  the  very  nature  of  it,  was  likely  to 
prove  oppressive,  and  which  did,  in  fact,  provoke  many 
a  rebellion.  It  was  the  brutality  of  an  unpopular  tax- 
collector,  it  may  be  remembered,  that  caused  the  outbreak 
of  Wat  Tyler's  rebellion.  It  was  the  tax  upon  salt,  imposed 
in  the  interests  of  the  rapacious  revenue  farmers  of  a  pro- 
fligate government,  that  broke  the  back  of  the  French 
people's  patience  before  the  Revolution.  Something  of 
the  publican  and  the  tax-farmer  still  clings  to  collectors  of 
public  revenue,  or  there  is  a  prevalent  idea  that  it  does, 
working  the  same  result,  and  the  probability  is  that  if 
government,  local  as  well  as  imperial,  collected  its  own 
taxes,  its  income  would  be  more  readily  paid,  and  the  pro- 
cess of  collecting  rendered  less  disagreeable  to  the  taxpayer. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  taxes  which  the  modern  house- 
holder is  liable  to  pay — the  queen's  taxes  and  the  parochial 
rates.     These,  again,  are  subdivided  into  several  heads. 

The  queen's  taxes,  or,  as  they  are  often  called,  the 
assessed  taxes,  include  those  charges  which  are  imposed 
by  parliament  upon  the  country  generally.  Among  them 
are  the  income  tax,  the  property  tax,  the  house  tax,  the 
tax  on  armorial  bearings,  on  servants,  horses,  and  car- 
riages. These  taxes  are  variable,  both  in  amount  and 
in  the  objects  to  which  they  are  applicable.     Parliament 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


131 


at  the  instance  of  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
modifies,  remits,  or  imposes  a  tax.  To  the  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  is  usually  left  the  decision  of  the  tax- 
able articles,  and  the  amount  of  tax  to  be  levied  ;  but 
parliament  reserves  to  itself  the  right — which  it  some- 
times exercises — of  setting  aside  the  chancellor's  pro- 
posals, and  of  changing  his  financial  policy.  But  the 
taxes,  once  agreed  to,  are  laws  of  the  land  until  the  power 
which  created  them  sees  fit  to  annul  or  to  alter  them. 

For  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  queen's  taxes  an 
expensive  and  elaborate  machinery  is  in  existence.  There 
are  collectors  and  surveyors  of  taxes,  and  there  is  a  Board 
of  Inland  Revenue  at  Somerset  House,  to  which  appeal 
is  to  be  made  in  the  event  of  any  complaint  against  the 
acts  of  the  subordinate  agents.  The  way  in  which  most  of 
the  assessed  taxes,  including  income  tax,  are  raised  is  by 
means  of  declarations  to  printed  schedules,  which  are  left 
at  each  house.  A  statement  is  printed,  with  blank  spaces 
to  be  filled  in,  respecting  each  tax  authorised,  and  the 
person  to  whom  it  is  addressed  is  required  to  fill  up  the 
blanks  with  written  answers  as  to  his  liability  or  alleged 
exemption  from  the  taxes  in  question.  To  the  statement 
he  affixes  his  signature  in  full,  the  signature  being  taken 
as  a  guarantee  that  the  declaration  is  a  truthful  one.  A 
note  at  the  foot  of  the  paper  intimates  in  pretty  signi- 
ficant terms  the  pains  and  penalties  to  which  the  false 
declarator  is  liable. 

Taxes  upon  household  servants,  carriages,  horses,  &c., 
are  to  be  calculated  upon  the  largest  number  of  the  tax- 
able objects  in  possession  during  the  past  year ;  so  that 
though  at  the  time  of  signing  the  declaration  a  man  may 
not  have  more  than  one  horse,  yet  if  he  has  had  three 
horses  during  the  past  year,  he  must  pay  upon  three.  If, 
at  the  time  of  making  the  return,  he  has  three  horses,  and 
last  year  had  but  two,  he  will  pay  upon  two  only. 

Dogs  are  no  longer  taxable  under  assessment,  but  by 
means  of  licence,  the  cost  of  which  is  the  same  for  every 
kind  of  dog. 

Income  tax  is  regulated  either  by  the  actual  income  for 
the  past  year,  or,  if  income  is  fluctuating,  as  it  is  in 
business,  or  other  uncertain  sources  of  revenue,  by  an 
average  of  the  income  of  the  last  three  years. 

Property  tax  is  identical  with  income  tax,  and  tenants 
of  houses  or  lands  who  may  be  called  upon  to  pay  land- 
lord's property  tax  upon  the  value  of  their  holdings,  are 
empowered  by  act  of  parliament  to  recoup  themselves 
out  of  the  next  rent  that  may  fall  due  ;  and  the  landlord  is 
bound,  under  a  penalty  of  £^0,  to  allow  the  same  to  the 
tenant. 

House  tax  is  levied,  partly  on  the  statement  of  the 
tenant  as  to  the  rent  he  pays — this  statement  being  verified 
by  production  of  lease  or  agreement — chiefly  on  estimate 
by  the  government  surveyor  of  the  value  of  the  house.  In 
estimating  value,  it  is  the  practice  of  the  government 
surveyor  to  reckon  what  is  called  the  rack  rent,  or  the 
highest  possible  value  of  the  house.  Thus  it  may  happen 
sometimes  that  a  house  of  which  the  rent  is  ^^50  is 
assessed  for  the  house  tax  at  ^60,  the  surveyor  being  of 
opinion  that,  under  certain  circumstances,  the  house 
might  be  expected  to  command  that  rent.  Should  a  house- 
holder be  assessed,  as  he  may  think,  at  too  high  a  rate,  he 
will  do  well,  in  the  first  instance,  to  remonstrate  with  the 
district  surveyor,  and  if  he  refuse  to  abate,  and  the 
tenant  be  still  of  opinion  that  the  assessment  is  too  high, 
he  should  lodge  *a  formal  complaint  with  the  Board  of  In- 
land Revenue,  who  will  grant  him  a  hearing,  and  decide 
finally  uporP  his  case.  Houses  improve  or  diminish  in 
value  according  to  neighbourhood  ;  re-adjustments  of  the 
assessment  may  therefore  be  made  from  time  to  time, 
cither  at  the  instance  of  the  surveyor  or  the  tenant.  It  is, 
of  course,  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  improvements  to  a 
house  increase  its  value,  and  render  it  liable  to  increased 
assessment. 


In  the  next  article  a  description  will  be  given  of  com* 
pounding  for  rates— a  practice  which  affects  tenants  in 
their  political  function. 

Debts  due  to  the  Crown  arc  recoverable  by  summary 
process  before  a  magistrate  ;  they  are  also  the  first  charge 
upon  the  estate  of  a  man,  taking  precedence  of  all  other 
claims. 

Parochial  Ratt'.s  arc  those  taxes  which  are  levied  upon 
parishes  by  and  with  the  consent  of  the  representatives 
of  the  parish,  and  they  vary  in  different  localities,  accord- 
ing to  the  different  expenses  which  have  to  be  defrayed. 
In  London  they  include  poor's  rate,  hghting  rate,  police 
rate,  the  general  rate  for  repairing  and  making  roads, 
cleaning  the  parish,  and  defraying  the  expenses  of  the 
acts  for  the  better  local  management  of  the  metropolis ; 
and  the  metropolis  main-drainage  rate.  In  the  extra- 
metropolitan  districts  the  last-named  rates  are,  of  course, 
omitted. 

The  Poor  Rate. — This  rate,  in  its  present  form,  is  as  old 
as  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  during  the  latter  years  of 
which  it  was  called  into  existence,  in  order  to  supply,  to 
some  extent,  the  want  occasioned  by  the  abolition  of  the 
monasteries.  VVliile  the  monasteries  lasted  they  were 
charged,  or  rather  they  considered  themselves  charged, 
with  the  duty  of  seeing  that  no  one  needed  the  necessaries 
of  life,  or  went  poor,  and  naked,  and  hungry.  They  gave 
indiscriminate  relief  to  all  comers,  and,  while  relieving 
many  doubtless  deserving  and  unfortunate  persons, 
encouraged  also  the  idle  and  the  lazy.  When  these  insti- 
tutions were  abolished  by  Henry  VIII.,  the  grantees  of 
their  lands  were  charged  with  the  duty  of  maintaining 
hospitality,  and  of  relieving  the  poor  hitherto  relieved  by 
the  religious  houses.  As  a  matter  of  fact  they  disregarded 
this  condition  of  their  grant,  and  there  was  not  any  dis- 
position, if  there  was  any  power,  to  make  them  obser\'e  it. 
The  poor  and  aged,  the  infirm  and  the  destitute,  wandered 
about  the  country  till  death  relieved  their  sufferings  ;  the 
more  desperate  of  them,  impelled  by  the  hard  master 
hunger,  being  sometimes  driven  to  acts  of  violence  and 
lawlessness,  filling  the  ways  with  rapine,  and  terrifying 
wayfarers  by  the  imperious  character  of  their  mendicity. 
Various  acts  of  parliament  were  passed  against  ''valiant 
and  sturdy  beggars,"  and  p'unishments  were  provided  for 
those  who  could  not  find  means  of  living  independent 
lives  ;  but  as  these  proved,  of  course,  ineffectual  to  check 
the  stream  of  human  misery,  and  as  the  old  means  of 
relief  were  taken  away,  it  became  necessary  for  the 
legislature  to  do  something  towards  providing  relief  for 
the  poor  of  the  kingdom.  The  first  poor  law  was  passed 
towards  the  end  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  and  has  served  as 
the  basis  of  all  the  poor  laws  since  agreed  to.  Each  parish 
in  the  country  was  bound  to  maintain  its  poor  in  some 
sort  of  decency,  and  to  prevent  the  exhibition  of  the 
squalid  misery  which  was  so  patent  everywhere.  Rates 
were  ordered  to  be  levied  by  those  who  were  constituted 
guardians  of  the  poor,  and  legislative  sanction  was  given 
to  thq  principle  that  the  poor  are  not  to  be  allowed  to 
starve.  The  poor  rate  is  the  basis  on  which  all  other 
rates  are  made,  so  that  if  anything  is  wrong  with  the  poor 
rate  it  behoves  one  to  get  it  rectified  at  once.  Considerable 
difficulty  having  arisen  in  the  matter  of  assessment, 
various  acts  of  parliament  have  been  passed  to  regulate 
the  conduct  of  guardians  in  respect  of  it,  the  general  rule, 
however,  being  that  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent,  off  the 
average  rent  of  a  house  is  the  proper  sum  at  which  the 
house  ought  to  be  assessed.  The  act  under  which  the 
parish  authorities  are  authorised  to  levy  rates  declares 
that  the  assessment  shall  be  made  "  on  an  estimate  of  the 
net  annual  value  of  the  several  hereditaments  "  held  by 
the  parishioner,  and  defines  "  the  net  annual  value  "  to  be 
"  the  rent  at  which  the  same  may  reasonably  be  expected 
to  be  let  from  year  to  year,  free  of  all  usual  tenant  rates  and 
taxes,  and  deducting  therefrom  the  probable  average  annual 


132 


THE  AQUARIUM. 


cost  of  the  repairs,  insurance,  and  other  expenses  necessary 
to  maintain  them  in  a  state  to  command  such  rent." 

Such  being  the  basis  of  calculation  for  rates,  it  follows 
that  if  improvements  be  made  by  the  tenant,  or  other 
person,  so  that  the  house  is  really  worth  more  than 
formerly,  the  assessment  rate  will  be  increased  in  propor- 
tion. In  case  of  dispute  as  to  the  amount  of  the  rate, 
complaint  should  be  made  by  letter  to  the  guardians  of 
the  poor,  their  agent,  the  local  surveyor,  having  originally 
fixed  the  amount. 

On  certain  days,  which  are  appointed  by  the  guardians, 
appeals  are  heard,  and  every  one  having  an  appeal  to  pro- 
secute should  attend  on  the  day  named  for  him,  taking 
with  him  his  lease,  agreement,  or  other  sign  of  his 
tenancy,  to  prove  the  value  set  upon  his  house  by  the 
landlord  and  himself.  Any  other  evidence,  such  as  that 
of  the  surveyor  of  qiieen's  taxes,  in  support  of  his  state- 
ments, should  also  be  adduced.  The  appeal  is  heard  in 
person,  andtf  the  board  arc  not  satisfied,  after  hearing  the 
appellant  and  their  own  surveyor  and  agent,  they  depute  a 
committee  of  their  own  body  to  inspect  the  premises  in 
question,  and  to  report  to  them  in  the  capacity  of  judges 
between  the  parishioner  and  the  parish  officer.  From  the 
decision  of  the  board,  whatever  it  may  be,  an  appeal  lies 
to  the  magistrates  in  petty  and  in  quarter  sessions  ;  but 
the  appeal  must  be  made  within  tw-elve  months  from  the 
time  of  the  rate  being  made,  or  the  appellant  is  remitted 
to  the  next  occasion  of  the  objectionable  assessment  being 
acted  on.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  parishioner  will  not 
pay  his  rates,  he  is  liable  to  be  summoned,  and  the 
amount  due  from  hini  may  be  recovered  on  summary 
process.  Except  where  the  landlord  agrees  or  is  bound 
to  pay  the  rates,  a  person  leaving  his  house  without  paying 
rates,  and  without  leaving  furniture  enough  to  pay  for  them 
on  execution,  is  liable  to  a  fine  of  ^50,  besides  being  still 
bound  to  pay  the  rates  due  from  him. 

The  machinery  provided  for  the  assessment  and  levy  of 
poor  rates  was  thought  to  be  adaptable  for  other  purposes 
of  local  self-government,  and  the  administrative  functions 
of  vestrymen  were  moulded  upon  those  of  guardians  of  the 
poor.  Vestrymen — representatives  chosen  by  the  parishes, 
and  originally  holding  their  meetings  in  the  vestry  of  the 
parish  church — are  persons  charged  with  the  duty  of  local 
government,  apart  from  magisterial  duties.  In  the  metro- 
polis, and  in  all  large  towns,  they  are  the  makers  of  roads, 
of  new  streets,  the  furnishers  of  means  for  cleansing  the 
parish,  for  paying  police,  organising  sanitary  regulations, 
and  generally  discharging  the  functions  of  self-govern- 
ment. They  are  all  accountable  to  the  Poor  Law  Board 
for  their  conduct  as  regards  the  poor,  and  to  the  home 
secretary  as  regards  some  other  duties.  In  London  they 
are  also  responsible  in  some  things  to  the  Metropolitan 
Board  of  Works.  But,  subject  to  these  superior  powers, 
they  have  authority  to  make  and  levy  rates,  which  the 
parishioners  are  bound  to  pay.  Church  rates,  not  being 
compulsory,  are  not  now  really  rates  at  all. 

The  amount  of  the  rates  varies  very  much.  In  some 
parishes,  where  there  arc  many  poor,  and  but  few  persons 
able  to  contribute  towards  their  maintenance,  the  weight 
of  the  taxes  is  very  heavy  ;  in  some  cases  equalling  more 
than  half  the  rent.  In  other  parishes,  as  some  of  the  city 
of  London  parishes,  there  is  only  a  nominal  poor  rate, 
while  the  incidence  of  the  other  rates,  except  perhaps  the 
metropolitan  main-drainage  rate,  is  very  light  also.  There 
is  some  prospect  of  an  equalisation  of  poor  rates  all  over  the 
metropolis,  so  as  to  make  the  parishes  bear  one  another's 
burden,  but  at  present  the  distinctive  system  prevails.  A 
step  in  this  direction  has  been  already  taken  by  an  Act 
passed  in  the  session  1867-8,  to  amend  the  Metropolitan 
Poor  Law  providing  for  the  better  relief  of  sick  persons, 
by  equalising  throughout  the  district  the  local  charges 
incurred  in  their  behalf.  We  subjoin  a  list  of  the  Assessed 
Taxes  as  fixed  by  recent  legislation — 


Armorial  Bearings. — For  any  person  chargeable  with   £     s.    d. 
duty  for  any  carriage 220 

Not  being  so  chargeable    I     i     o 

Carriage^. — For   every   carriage    with    four   wlietls, 

weighing  4  cwt 220 

For  every  carriage  with  less  than  four  wheels,  if  less 

than  4  cwt O   15     O 

Drawn  by  I  horse  or  mule  only  o  15     o 

Drawn  by  I  pony  or  mule  only,  not  exceeding  13 

hands   O  lo    o 

[When  kept  and  used  solely  for  the  purpose  of  being  let  for 

hire   without  horses,    one-half  of  the   above-mentioned   duties 

respectively.  ] 

Carriages  used  by  common  carriers,  principally  for  the 
carriage  of  goods,  but  occasionally  for  the  con- 
veyance of  passengers,  when  such  carriages  have 

4  wheels  268 

When  less  than  four  wheels 168 

Horses. — For  every  horse  or  mule  used  for  riding,  or 

drawing  a  carriage o  10     6 

Horse  Dealers'  Duty 12   10    o 

House  Duty.  —  On  each  inhabited  dwelling-house  of 
the  annual  value  of  ;if20  or  upwards,  occupied  as  a 
farm-house  by  a  tenant  or  farm-servant,  or  in  which 
articles  are  exposed  for  sale,  a  duty  of  6d.  per 
per  pound  ;  all  others    009 

Male  Servants. — Every  Male  servant o  15     o 


THE  AQUARIUM. 
MARINE  AQUARIUM  {continued). 
As  you  proceed  with  your  search  among  the  rocks  and 
turn  over  the  sea-weed,  some  yellow  shells  will  very 
probably  be  found  adhering  to  the  under  surface,  and 
occasionally  a  small  whelk  or  periwinkle.  A  few  of  these 
should  be  gathered  for  the  sake  of  variety.  Upon  the 
rocks  will  be  noticed  round  patches  of  sea  grass,  varying 
in  size  from  a  shilling  to  that  of  a  crown  piece.  Under- 
neath these  will  be  found  the  limpet  {Patella  vulgaris), 
to  the  shell  of  which  the  grass  grows.  There  is  the 
same  difficulty  with  the  dislodgment  of  the  limpet  as 
with  the  anemone.  It  no  sooner  feels  the  touch  than 
it  clings  tightly  to  the  rock,  and  as  the  edge  of  the 
shell  is  embedded  in  the  chalk  it  is  not  an  easy  task  to 
remove  it.  By  selecting  one  the  shell  of  which  is 
slightly  raised,  and  putting  the  blade  of  a  pocket-knife 
beneath  the  edge,  it  may  be  jerked  off  without  injury. 

Some  limpets  are  covered  with  a  shelly  parasite, 
called  the  acorn  barnacle  {Balanus)  ;  one  of  these 
should  be  secured,  care  being  taken  that  none  of  the 
shells  are  broken.  When  these  are  placed  in  a  glass 
of  clear  sea- water,  and  looked  at  through  a  magnify- 
ing-glass,  they  will  be  seen  to  open  a  door  in  the  roof 
of  the  shell,  and  protrude  a  feathery  fan,  by  means  of 
which  food  is  caught  and  conveyed  through  the  aperture. 
Unfortunately,  they  have  a  tendency  to  die  after  a  brief 
confinement ;  they  should  therefore  be  carefully  examined 
in  a  separate  vessel,  before  being  introduced. 

Some  of  the  rock-pools,  on  close  examination,  present 
an  exceedingly  pretty  sight.  Sea-weeds  of  various  colours 
cover  the  bottoms,  and  give  them  the  appearance  of  minia- 
ture forests.  As  a  rule,  imported  sea-weed  does  not  grow 
well  in  an  aquarium,  but  as  it  looks  pretty  for  a  time, 
and  may  easily  be  removed  when  it  begins  to  show  signs 
of  decay,  a  few  pieces  should  be  secured.  The  way  to 
obtain  these  is  to  chip  off  pieces  of  the  rock  upon  which 
it  grows,  for  which  purpose  a  hammer  is  required.  Sea- 
weed is  of  no  use  for  aquarium  purposes  unless  attached 
to  a  stone  or  piece  of  rock.  Vegetable  growth  is  necessary 
to  the  healthy  maintenance  of  the  aquarium,  but  this 
will  soon  develop  itself  from  the  germs  contained  in  the 
water,  and  gradually  cover  the  stones  and  rockwork. 

The  next  curiosity  to  be  sought  after  is  the  hermit 
crab,  which  you  will  certainly  not  find  unless  you  know 
how  to  go  about  it.     This   creature  may  be   described 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


133 


as  half  a  Liliputian  lobster  and  half  a  periwinkle.  The 
fore  part  of  the  body  is  crustacean,  but  at  the  waist  it 
changes  into  a  molluscous  animal,  having  a  soft  tail, 
which  it  inserts  into  an  empty  whelk-shell.  When  all 
is  quiet,  the  shell  containing  the  hermit  may  be  seen 
moving   slowly   along  the  sand  between   the   rocks,  but 


V 


you  mean  farmers — that's  what  wc  call  them."  The  tide 
by  this  time  had  come  up  beyond  the  line  where  the  her- 
mits were  to  be  found,  so  the  boatman  undertook  to  find 
some,  to  put  them  into  a  jar,  and  send  them  to  London. 

There   will  be   no    difficulty   in   finding   two   or   three 
common  edible  crabs   {Cariccr   pagurus)    such  as    that 


SUN  STAR. 


SERPVL-'F. 


the  moment  the  sound  of  a  foot  is  heard  the  cautious 
inhabitant  darts  back  into  the  shell  and  remains  motion- 
less, so  that  it  is  not  easy  to  discover  it. 

On  one  occasion  the  writer  failed  in  his  endeavour 
to  find  a  hermit,  but  knowing  them  to  be  plentiful  at 
Broadstairs,  he  continued  his  search  till  he  met  a  native 
boatman,  with  whom  he  got  into   conversation.      After 


shown  in  our  illustration.  Those  chosen  should  be 
small,  say  from  an  inch  to  an  inch-and-a-half  across. 
If  larger,  they  prove  troublesome  to  the  anemones ;  if 
smaller,  the  anemones  will  devour  them.  The  crab  is  an 
especially  valuable  creature  in  an  aquarium,  for  he  acts 
as  a  scavenger  and  appropriates  odd  morsels  of  food  that 
may  have  been  rejected  by  his  more  dainty  neighbours. 


THE  Ci;/\B. 


ACORN    BARN.\CLES  O.V   \  LIMPCT   SHELU 


listening  to  a  yarn  about  wrecks  and  life-boats,  and  in- 
specting three  medals  which  had  been  worthily  bestowed 
upon  him  for  saving  life,  an  attempt  was  made  to  enlist 
his  services  in  the  search  after  the  coveted  Pagurus  Bern- 
hardiis.  "  I  dare  say,  now,  you  can  tell  me  where  I  shall 
be  likely  to  find  a  hermit  crab."  "  Oh,"  said  he,  "  you'll 
find  plenty  of  little  crabs  about,  but  I  never  heard  them 
called  by  that  name  before."  "  I  mean  those  crabs  that 
carry  whelk-shells  on  their  backs."     "  Oh,  I  know  now, 


Another  recommendation  is,  that  he  will  become  exceed- 
ingly tanie,  and  even  allow  himsalf  to  be  petted.  An 
edible  crab  from  Broadstairs,  not  much  larger  than  a 
man's  thumb-nail,  became  so  tame  that  he  would  take 
food  from  the  fingers,  and  though  at  first  viewed  as  the 
least  valuable  in  the  collection,  soon  grew  to  be  an  especial 
favourite,  rnd  was  rewarded  by  having  a  glass  house 
furnished  exclusively  for  his  accommodation.  After  a 
while,  however,  he  became  shy,  and  fears  were  entertained 


134 


THE    HOUSE. 


that  he  was  pining  for  companionship.  He  forced  him- 
self beneath  a  stone  apparently  heavy  enough  to  crush 
him,  and  shrank  back  whenever  any  attempt  was  made  to 
get  at  him.  In  a  day  or  two  his  anxious  friends  were 
pleased  to  see  him  come  from  his  hiding-place,  but  Jack 
was  no  longer  the  same  hard-skinned  crustacean  that  he 
was  before  his  retirement.  In  the  first  place,  he  had 
grown  considerably  ;  in  the  next,  instead  of  presenting  a 
shelly  coat  to  be  stroked,  his  back  was  as  soft  as  that  of 
a  frog,  and  he  shrank  from  the  touch  as  if  he  were  afraid 
of  being  hurt.  The  fact  was,  that  he  had  undergone  the 
natural  process  of  exuviation,  and  had  shuffled  off  his  shelly 
coil,  which  he  had  left  beneath  the  stone  that  had  lain 
upon  him  during  his  temporary  withdrawal  from  society. 
In  about  a  week  his  skin  began  to  harden,  and  he  became 
more  familiar  than  before.  Each  morning,  at  breakfast 
time,  he  came  to  the  front  of  the  glass  and  tapped  against 
it  till  he  was  fed.  On  his  seeing  any  one  approaching  the 
glass  he  scrambled  out  of  the  water  on  to  the  stones  that 
rose  in  the  centre,  and  held  out  his  claws  for  food,  which 
he  took  from  the  fingers,  and  then  scampered  away  like  a 
monkey  to  eat  it  in  a  corner.  On  another  occasion  the 
crab's  decease  was  reported.  An  inquest  was  immediately 
held,  and  the  body  inspected  in  due  form.  There  could  be 
apparently  no  reasonable  doubt  that  he  was  dead.  The 
post-mortem  examination  was  made  by  means  of  a  com- 
mon magnifying-glass,  through  which  could  be  seen  his 
eyes,  feelers,  &c.,  and  the  unanimous  verdict  was  "  Foujid 
dead."  His  habitation  was  of  itself  a  pretty  window 
ornament,  for  the  miniature  rocks  were  nearly  covered 
with  bright  green  conferva;,  and  around  the  sides  were 
several  tufts  of  sea-weed  in  a  healthy  condition  ;  it  was, 
therefore,  left  undisturbed.  After  the  lapse  of  several 
days,  the  familiar  tapping  sound  in  the  glass  was  again 
heard  ;  several  pairs  of  eyes,  staring  with  wonder,  were 
directed  towards  the  residence  of  the  late  lamented  crab, 
and  behold,  there  he  stood,  in  his  accustomed  attitude  of 
supplication,  awaiting  his  breakfast.  He  had  grown  con- 
siderably, and  was  once  more  in  a  soft  condition.  This 
led  to  the  examination  of  the  supposed  dead  body,  which 
had  been  placed  in  a  box  as  a  relic.  On  further  ex- 
amination, it  proved  to  be  nothing  but  an  empty  shell,  a 
fact  which  was  not  at  first  discovered,  owing  to  its  con- 
taining sand.  No  one  who  has  not  had  an  opportunity  of 
witnessing  the  exuviated  shell  in  a  perfect  condition  can 
believe  the  possibility  of  the  creature  getting  out  of  its 
old  coat  and  appendages,  including  head,  eyes,  antennae, 
and  claws,  and  leaving  it  in  one  complete  piece. 

Very  small  shell-fish,  such  as  young  mussels  and 
cockles,  may  sometimes  be  found  on  the  shore  near  low- 
water  mark.  The  mussels  grow  in  clusters,  and  are 
attached  to  the  rocks  by  threads  called  the  byssus.  Do 
not  pull  them  away,  but  take  your  hammer  and  chip  off  a 
piece  of  the  substance  to  which  they  cling. 

After  a  rough  sea,  the  tide  leaves  numerous  star-fishes 
in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks.  These  are  of  various  kinds, 
the  prettiest  being  the  sun-star,  such  as  is  shown  in  our 
illustration,  which  has  twelve  rays,  and  is  best  adapted 
for  the  aquarium.  The  commoner  kind  has  but  five 
fingers  ;  as  this  creature  is  voracious,  it  is  advisable  to 
select  the  smallest  that  can  be  found. 

The  objects  above  mentioned,  which  afford  sufficient 
variety,  and  are  not  difficult  to  keep  with  an  ordinary 
amount  of  care,  may  all  be  obtained  on  the  shore  at 
Broadstairs,  or  at  any  place  on  the  same  coast  where  the 
rocks  stretch  out  into  the  sea.  There  are,  however,  other 
localities  where  much  more  beautiful  objects  may  be 
found.  The  coast  of  Dorset,  Devonshire,  and  Cornwall 
is  especially  rich  in  zoophytes,  some  of  which  are  as 
beautiful  in  form  and  colour  as  the  choicest  flowers  in  the 
conservatory.  There  are  certain  methods  of  gathering 
that  yield  less  common  specimens  of  marine  animals  than 
those  already  described.     For  obtaining  such  as  are  not 


amphibious,  the  best  plan  is  to  engage  a  fishing  boat  and. 
use  the  dredge.  By  this  means  you  may  obtain  a  greater 
variety  of  crabs  (including  the  curious  and  interesting 
spider)  and  shells  covered  with  tube-worms  {serpulce). 
These  latter  are  well  worth  keeping  in  an  aquarium.  The 
tubes  of  the  serpulee  are  generally  attached  to  oyster- 
shells,  and  overlay  each  other  in  a  serpentine  form.  On 
taking  them  out  of  the  water,  a  blood-red  spot  will  be  seen 
at  the  mouth  of  each  tube  ;  but  after  exposure  it  sinks 
down  out  of  sight.  On  replacing  it  in  water,  the  worm 
will  protrude  a  feathery  coronet,  with  a  kind  of  stopper  in 
the  centre  ;  but  will  instantly  withdraw  it  if  the  hand  be 
passed  across  so  as  to  suddenly  intercept  the  light.  The 
illustration  shows  a  group  of  these  singularly-shaped 
creatures. 


THE     HOUSE. 

LIFE  ASSURANCE. 


We  will  now  assume  that,  after  a  careful  examination 
of  the  various  published  statements  of  the  Assurance 
Companies,  an  office  has  been  selected  by  the  applicant, 
and  that  he  has  been  provided  with  the  form  of  de- 
claration which  is  the  basis  of  the  contract  between 
himself  and  the  company.  In  this  document  he  is 
called  upon  to  set  forth  his  name,  description,  and  age 
next  birthday — evidence  of  which  sliould  be  furnished  by 
the  registrar's  certificate  of  birth,  by  an  extract  from  a 
family  Bible,  or  otherwise,  when  the  age  is  admitted  by 
the  company,  and  no  question  can  thereafter  arise  with 
reference  thereto.  He  is  required,  also,  to  state  whether 
he  has  suffered  from  gout,  spitting  of  blood,  or  from  any 
disorder  tending  to  shorten  life  ;  and  he  has  to  give  the 
names  of  two  persons,  to  be  referred  to  as  to  his  health 
and  habits  of  life,  and  generally  to  reply  to  the  questions 
as  to  his  health  and  family  history  that  may  be  asked 
him  by  the  medical  officer  of  the  company,  before  whom 
he  has  to  appear  for  examination  as  to  his  health.  Per- 
sons in  decidedly  bad  health  are  not  eligible  for  life 
assurance ;  but  for  any  trifling  deviation  from  the  usual 
standard,  an  extra  premium  may,  perhaps,  be  required, 
varying,  with  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  according 
to  the  report  of  the  medical  examiner  of  the  company. 

This  ordeal  having  been  gone  through,  and  the  life 
having  been  "  passed  "  by  the  doctor,  the  risk  is  accepted 
by  the  directors,  the  premium  is  fixed,  and  the  amount 
thereof  announced  to  the  applicant,  which  he  has  to  pay 
in  the  course  of  a  month  from  the  date  of  acceptance.  On 
the  premium  being  paid,  the  policy  is  prepared,  and  in  due 
course  issued.  It  is  a  legal  document,  signed  by  three 
directors  of  the  company,  and  impressed  with  the  neces- 
sary government  stamp,  at  the  expense  of  the  office,  and 
binds  the  company,  in  consideration  of  the  regular  pay- 
ment to  them  of  the  annual  premium,  to  pay  to  the  legal 
representative  of  the  policy-holder  the  sum  contracted  for, 
at  the  expiration  of  three  months  from  the  death  of  the 
person  assured. 

The  policy  recites  the  conditions  as  to  foreign  residence, 
death  by  suicide,  duelling,  or  the  hands  of  justice,  &c.; 
and  declares  the  contract  to  be  void  if  the  declaration 
upon  which  the  policy  is  based  be  untrue.  Too  great 
care,  therefore,  cannot  be  exercised  in  filling  up  the 
necessary  forms,  and  in  replying  fully  and  honestly  to 
the  inquiries  of  the  medical  examiner.  The  policy  must 
be  carefully  preserved  for  production  to  the  office  by  the 
legal  representative  of  the  assured  upon  the  claim  arising. 
Formal  notice  of  the  annual  premiums  becoming  due  is 
regularly  given  by  the  office  in  writing  ;  and  they  must  be 
paid  within  a  month  of  their  becoming  due,  otherwise  the 
policy  becomes  void — or  "lapses,"  as  it  is  termed — and  all 
advantage  from  the  previous  payments  is  lost  to  the  holder. 

After  the  expiration  of  five,  or,  in  some  offices,  seven 
years,  the  policy,  if  effected  on  the  participating  scale  of 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


135 


premiums,  will  become  entitled  to  a  bonus,  or  addition  to 
the  sum  assured,  arising  from  the  profits  of  the  concern, 
and  payable  at  death  with  the  amount  of  the  policy. 

The  bonuses  periodically  allotted  by  life  assurance 
companies  owe  their  origin  to  the  impossibility  of  assess- 
ing in  anticipation  the  exact  amount  of  premium  required 
for  each  particular  risk  undertaken,  and  they  depend  in 
amount  upon  the  success  of  the  company,  and  the  method 
of  allotment,  which  varies  greatly  in  different  societies. 
To  be  on  the  safe  side,  therefore,  it  is  usual  to  charge  a 
larger  premium  than  may  ultimately  be  found  to  be 
necessary,  so  that  due  provision  may  be  made  for  exces- 
sive mortality,  and  for  other  fluctuations  in  the  business. 
A  periodical  return  of  profit  is,  therefore,  made,  which  may 
be  received  as  an  addition  to  the  sum  assured  at  death, 
in  a  present  cash  payment,  or  in  the  shape  of  a  corre- 
sponding annual  reduction  of  the  premium  throughout  life. 
The  profits  of  a  life  assurance  company  depend  upon  the 
careful  selection  of  lives  (all  bad  lives  admitted  to  par- 
ticipation in  the  benefits  of  the  company  naturally  tending 
to  reduce  the  rate  of  profit  by  their  premature  death), 
moderation  in  the  expenditure,  and  particularly  on  the 
careful  investment  of  the  premiums  at  an  adequate  but 
safe  rate  of  interest. 

And  here  we  may  give  an  illustration  of  the  extra- 
ordinary increase  of  money  at  compound  interest,  by  the 
operation  of  which  principle  alone  the  claims  are  pro- 
vided for  as  they  become  due. 

Upon  reference  to  a  table  of  interest,  we  find,  that  at  4 
per  cent. — the  least  rate  likely  to  be  obtained  by  an  as- 
surance office — the  amount  of  ^i  per  annum  in  thirty 
years  is  ^56;  in  forty  years,  £c^^  ;  in  fifty  years,  ^152  ; 
in  sixty  years,  ^238,  and  so  on.  At  5  per  cent,  these 
amounts  are  increased  respectively  to  ^66,  ^120,  ^209, 
and  ^353.  Again,  £\  set  aside  at  compound  interest,  at 
4  per  cent.,  more  than  doubles  itself  in  eighteen  years ;  or, 
in  fifteen  years  at  5  per  cent.,  while  in  one  hundred  years, 
at  4  per  cent  interest,  ^^i  becomes  ^^50,  and  at  5  per 
cent.,  ^131. 

These  plain  figures  will  be  sufficient  to  show  the  way  in 
which  the  comparatively  small  annual  payments  made  by 
the  assured  in  life  assurance  companies,  are  swollen  in 
the  course  of  years  by  the  operation  of  interest  to  the 
large  sums  paid  as  claims  under  the  policies  and  as  bonus 
additions  thereon. 

It  was  explained  above  that  the  proportion  of  profits 
divided,  by  way  of  bonus,  by  the  different  companies,  varies 
considerably.  In  the  mutual  societies,  the  whole  of  the 
profits  belong  to  and  are  divided  among  the  policy- 
holders. In  the  proprietary  companies,  the  proportion 
allotted  may  be  two-thirds,  three-quarters,  or  four-fifths, 
or  in  other  words,  sixty-six,  seventy-five,  or  eighty  per 
cent.  ;  but  it  should  be  remarked,  that  these  proportions 
are  not  sufficient  indications  by  themselves  to  decide  the 
choice  of  an  office,  for  it  may  easily  be  seen  that  two- 
thirds  of  a  large  amount  of  surplus,  may  exceed  three- 
quarters,  four-fifths,  or  even  the  whole  of  a  lesser  amount. 

If  was  explained  above  that  the  bonus  system  originally 
arose  from  the  impossibility,  in  the  early  days  of  assu- 
rance business,  of  assessing  the  exact  amount  of  addition 
to  the  net  premium  for  profit,  bonuses,  expenses  of  man- 
agement, and  to  provide  a  certain  margin  for  safety,  so  as 
to  guard  against  fluctuations  in  the  mortality,  which  often 
differs  greatly  from  year  to  year,  and  in  the  rate  of  interest 
the  company  is  enabled  to  obtain  for  its  investments,  which 
is  also  an  element  that  fluctuates  with  the  ever-changing 
state  of  the  money  market,  «S:c.  &c.  After  some  years' 
experience,  actuaries  were  enabled  to  determine  with  very 
considerable  accuracy  the  amount  of  addition  to  the  net 
premium  that  was  really  necessary^ ;  but,  by  that  time,  the 
assured  public  having  been  led  to  look  for  these  periodical 
additions  to  their  policies,  it  was  not  easy  to  abolish  the 
system  of  charging  a  larger  premium  than  is  commen- 


surate with  the  risk,  for  the  purpose  of  returning  a 
proportion  thereof,  in  the  shape  of  a  bonus  addition  to  the 
policies;  and  the  constantly  increasing  competition amon^' 
rival  companies  has  tended  to  perpetuate  the  practice, 
which  there  is  little  expectation  of  now  being  changed. 
The  bonus  system  has,  at  least,  the  advantage  of  benefiting 
the  families  of  the  assured,  at  the  expense,  it  is  true,  of  the 
larger  outlay  made  by  the  policy-holder  during  his  life. 
Most  companies  have,  however,  anon-participating  scale 
of  premiums,  by  which  an  additional  sum  can  be  assured 
in  the  first  instance,  being  in  fact,  the  sum  that  the  differ- 
ence between  the  participating  and  non-participating  rates 
of  premium  would  assure,  and  thus  an  immediate  rever- 
sionary bonus  payable  with  the  sum  assured  is  provided, 
even  if  the  death  happens  in  the  first  year  ;  while,  upon 
the  bonus  plan,  the  term  of  five  or  seven  years,  as  the  case 
may  be,  is  required  to  be  survived  before  the  j)0licy  comes 
into  participation  at  all.  • 

For  example  : — supposing  the  participating  rate  at  the 
age  of  forty  to  be  £,"})  js.  iid.,  and  the  corresponding  non- 
participating  rate  £2  ijs.  i\d.  for  every  ^loo  assured. 
The  difference  between  these  rates,  viz.  :  los.,  would 
assure  an  additional  ^18.  So  that  an  immediate  rever- 
sionary bonus  of  that  amount  would  be  secured  to  the 
policy-holder,  payable  whenever  death  might  occur.  This 
is  not,  however,  a  favourite  method  of  assurance  with  the 
public,  who  do  not  avail  themselves  of  the  plan  to  any 
great  extent,  and  probably  for  these  two  reasons,  one 
being  the  fact  that  the  non-profit  rates  are  not  generally 
as  low  as  they  should  be,  if  they  were  equitably  adjusted, 
as  compared  with  those  on  the  participating  scale,  and 
the  other  because  the  element  of  uncertainty  and  specula- 
tion is  lost,  which  to  so  many  persons  has  a  great  charm  ; 
and  certainly,  though  in  the  case  of  an  early  death,  the 
interests  of  the  policy-holder  would  be  best  met  by  the 
payment  of  the  minimum  premium,  still,  in  the  event  of 
a  life  assured  attaining  an  advanced  age,  the  bonuses  of 
the  old-established  companies,  which  are  frequently  of 
very  large  amount,  would,  probably,  fully  compensate  for 
the  excess  of  premium  paid.  It  is  far  from  unusual  for 
more  than  ^300  to  be  paid  to  the  family  of  a  deceased 
policy-holder  for  every  £icx>  assured,  the  annual  premium 
having,  in  fact,  been  paid  throughout  the  duration  of  the 
assurance  for  ^100  only. 

So  valuable,  indeed,  have  these  bonuses  on  old  policies 
of  large  amounts  become,  that  a  system  of  assuring  the 
bonus  itself  has  arisen  in  the  practice  of  assurance  compa- 
nies.    In  order  to  participate  in  each  successive  divisio 
of  profits,  it  is  required  that  the  life  assured  should   l> 
living  on  a  certain  fixed  day,  and  the  failure  of  the  li 
before  that  day — at  any  time,  in  fact,  between  two  bom 
periods — would  involve  the  loss  of  the  bonus  to  ihefami 
of  the  policy-holder.     An  assurance  on  his  lite   foi    \. 
amount  of  the  anticipated  bonus  for  the  term  of  years  1 
quired  to  be  survived,  is  accordingly  frequently  efi'ecti 
the  premium  for  which  is  often  very  high,  as  it  is  usuai 
only  in  cases  of  extremely  advanced  age  that  this  systc 
is  had  recourse  to.     The  older  the  life  assured,  the  greatc 
the  risk  of  his  losing  the  bonus,  and  the  greater  also  hi- 
reluctance  to  run  any  risk  in  the  matter.      He  therefore 
makes  a  sacrifice  of  a  portion  of  the  expected  bonus,  to 
secure  the  balance,  as  men  do  in  some  other  precarious 
transactions. 

This  assurance  of  the  prospective  bonus,  is  chiefly 
resorted  to  in  those  companies  whose  practice  it  is  to  allot 
the  reversionary  bonuses  at  each  distribution  of  profit 
from  the  date  of  the  policy,  in  each  case— that  is  to  say,  at 
the  rate  of  so  much  per  cent,  per  annum— from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  assurance.  It  will  be  seen  that  upon 
thi5  system  the  bonuses  increase  very  largely  from  term  to 
term,  and  that  they  may  eventually  become  of  extra- 
ordinary magnitude  upon  large  assurances  of  long  dura- 
tion.    At  such  advanced  ages  the  premium  is,  of  course, 


135 


HOME   GARDENING. 


proportionably  high.  Probably  after  the  age  of  seventy-five 
the  mortality  tables  can  scarcely  be  much  depended  on,  and 
the  correct  premium  for  the  risk  can,  consequently,  only  be 
approximated  to.  In  fact,  it  may  be  said  to  be  an  even 
chance  whether  a  person  of  that  age  will  survive  the  short 
term  prior  to  the  bonus,  or  not,  the  assurance  of  bonuses 
being  generally  deferred  until  the  day  to  be  survived  is 
not  very  far  distant,  say  a  year  or  two.  It  becomes  then  a 
toss-up,  so  to  speak,  whether  the  life  survive  the  necessary 
period,  or  not,  and  a  premium  of  ^^50  per  cent,  has  been 
quoted  and  paid  in  such  cases  for  an  assurance  for  a 
short  term.  An  arrangement  in  some  cases  of  this  sort  is 
occasionally  entered  into  for  a  return  of  a  proportion  of 
this  high  rate,  if  the  life  survives  the  required  term. 
Such  an  assurance  as  this  is  a  perfectly  fair  and  a  wise 


HOME    GARDENING. 

THE  TOOL-HOUSE. 

A  TOOL-HOUSE  of  some  kind  or  other  must  be  provided 
in  every  garden,  or  you  will  invariably  find  your  imple- 
ments out  of  order,  and  a  great  deal  of  time  will  be  wasted 
in  looking  for  them  when  they  are  required  for  use.  Such 
a  structure  need  only  be  of  the  very  simplest  kind ;  all  that 
you  want  is  to  keep  out  the  wet,  and  if  you  have  no  little 
outhouse  convertible  for  the  purpose,  you  may  put  up  at  a 
trifling  expense,  a  small  lean-to  shed  against  the  garden 
wall,  in  any  odd  corner,  which  may  be  covered  with 
thatch  or  tile,  or  even  felt,  which,  if  of  good  quality,  will 
keep  out  the  wet  for  a  considerable  time. 

The  shed  should  be  fitted  up  inside  with  shelves  and 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  9, 


Fig.  II. 


one  on  the  part  of  the  policy-holder,  who  thus  makes 
sure  of  receiving  half  of  his  expected  bonus,  instead  of 
running  the  risk  of  the  whole  being  lost  to  his  family,  but 
on  the  part  of  the  company  such  a  transaction  becomes 
almost  tantamount  to  gambling,  and  seems  to  be  beyond 
the  pale  of  legitimate  assurance  business. 

Many  persons  will  naturally  be  very  curious  to  know 
how  it  comes  to  pass  that  such  heavy  bonuses  as  those 
referred  to  above  can  be  paid  by  any  company.  That 
they  are  paid  is,  however,  matter  of  undoubted  fact,  and 
the  cause  is  not  to  be  found,  as  some  might  imagine,  in 
any  unfair  calculations  as  the  basis  of  individual  pre- 
miums, nor  to  any  great  extent,  in  the  advantages  gained 
by  adopting  only  selected  lives,  or  lives  of  the  better  class. 
What  the  principles  are  which  are  involved  in  the  com- 
putations by  which  profits  are  estimated  and  assessed, 
although  somewhat  complicated,  we  shall  endeavour  to 
explain  in  our  next.  Considering  the  practical  importance 
of  the  whole  subject,  we  trust  that  our  readers  will  not 
shrink  from  a  careful  study  of  the  somewhat  obscure  and 
complicated  topics  which  it  involves. 


drawers  for  stowing  away  mats,  netting,  and  the  like  when 
out  of  use,  as  well  as  for  keeping  together  shreds,  nails, 
flower-sticks,  and  so  forth,  all  ready  for  use  at  a  moment's 
notice.  Then  again,  the  walls  or  sides  should  be  fur- 
nished with  nails,  hooks,  pegs,  brackets,  and  supports, 
upon  which  every  tool  may  be  hung,  or  put  away,  when 
not  in  use.  Each  tool  should  be  carefully  cleaned  and 
returned  to  this  house  as  soon  as  it  is  done  with,  for 
nothing  is  more  destructive  than  to  permit  them  to  lie 
about  wherever  they  were  last  used,  with  dirt  adhering  to 
them,  and  exposed  to  the  destroying  influences  of  the 
weather.  It  is  important  to  keep  the  shed  as  dry  as  pos- 
sible, for  the  damp  soon  rots  the  mats,  and  nets,  and 
covers  iron  and  steel  tools  with  rust,  especially  knives 
and  scissors.  The  larger  implements,  such  as  the  mowing- 
machine,  barrow,  &c.,  might  stand  in  the  centre  of  the 
building. 

Our  illustrations  show  the  best  forms  of  several  of  the 
most  ordinary  garden  tools,  the  uses  of  which  we  proceed 
briefly  to  describe,  employing  in  our  description  only  the 
simplest  terms. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


137 


The  Spade. — This  implement  is  made  of  three  sizes, 
and  it  is  advisable  to  have  two  for  a  moderate  sized 
garden ;  the  largest,  or  second  size,  to  be  used  for  trench- 
ing purposes,  and  the  smallest  for  digging  amongst  the 
flowering  plants  in  crowded  borders.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  handles,  as  shown  in  Figs.  4  and  5,  the  second 
being  preferred  by  many  on  account  of  its  being  more 
easily  wielded.  This  implement  is  one  which  every  amateur 
gardener  should  carefully  select. 

The  Digging  Fork,  Fig.  3,  as  its  name  implies,  is  used 
for  turning  up  the  soil,  and  to  be  really  useful  should  have 
four  prongs.  We  generally  prefer  the  fork  to  the  spade 
where  the  ground  is  hard,  as  the  points  enter  with  greater 
ease,  and  do  the  work  of  pulverising  or  breaking  up  the 
clods  with  better  effect. 

TJie  Small  IVeeding  Fork. — This  is  invaluable  for  weed- 
ing, and  lifting  bulbous  and  fibrous  roots  from  one  spot  to 
another  without  injury.  A  convenient  shape  is  shown  in 
Fig.  10. 

The  Rake,  Fig.  6,  is  used  for  levelling  newly  turned  up 
ground,  removing,  or  rather  collecting    in   a  body  for 


walls,  for  the  purpose  of  pruning  and  training  ;  and  the 
latter.  Fig.  13,  which  is  a  kind  of  double  ladder,  will 
stand  without  any  other  support.  This  will  be  of  great 
use  for  pruning,  or  gathering  fruit  from  standard  trees, 
against  which  it  is  undesirable  to  rear  a  ladder,  for  fear  of 
breaking  the  young  shoots,  and  injuring  the  bark. 

The  Daisy  Rake,  Fig.  2. — This  is  a  very  useful  instru- 
ment on  a  small  lawn.  By  drawing  it  over  lawns 
studded  with  daisies  the  heads  or  flowers  become  fixed 
between  the  teeth,  and  thus  the  lawn  can  be  cleared  in  a 
very  short  time.  It  may  be  used  also  for  clearing  away- 
dead  leaves  from  the  grass. 

The  Hammer  for  the  garden  should  be  furnished  with 
claws,  such  as  we  have  described  in  our  paper  on  the 
Domestic  Tool  Chest  (page  24),  for  the  purpose  of  drawing 
out  old  rusty  nails,  and  training  trees  and  plants  on  walls. 

The  Roller  is,  or  should  be,  called  into  use  for  keeping 
the  surface  of  gravel  walks  smooth,  as  well  as  for  levelling^ 
grass-plots,  both  of  which  operations  should  be  performed 
in  clammy  and  cloudy  weather.  Iron  rollers  have  quite 
superseded  the  stone  rollers  of  former   days  ;   they  are 


Fig.  14. 


Fig.  15. 


removal,  weeds  and  rubbish,  burying  seeds  and  the  like  by 
a  series  of  forward  and  backward  movements.  To  perform 
this  kind  of  work,  lightness  of  hand  is  very  essential,  as, 
if  clumsily  done,  an  even  surface  may  very  soon  be  made 
rough.     This  implement  is  made  of  several  sizes. 

lite  Hoe  is  of  great  service  for  clearing  away  weeds, 
thinning  the  various  crops,  loosening  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
drawing  drills,  earthing  up,«&c.  It  should  be  handled  (when 
weeding  or  loosening  the  soil)  something  like  a  chopper, 
bringing  the  blade  towards  you  in  a  slanting  position  at 
each  blow  ;  of  this  tool  there  are  several  forms  and  sizes. 
That  shown  in  Fig  7  is  useful  for  rough  weeding  and  drill 
drawing  ;  Fig.  8  for  lighter  kinds  of  work,  and  Fig.  9  for 
weedmg  and  thinning  such  small  crops  as  onions,  &c. 

The  Tiirf-cutter,  Fig.  i,  is  a  handy  tool,  and  is  used  for 
cutting  grass  turfs,  paring,  or  rather  regulating,  the  edges 
of  lawns,  and  other  similar  work.  It  should  be  kept  sharp 
all  round. 

The  Pick-axe,  Fig.  11,  although  not  likely  to  be  used  to 
any  great  extent  in  a  small  garden,  is  ncverthekss  useful, 
and  necessary  for  turning  gravel  walks,  and  loosening 
rubbish  that  has  become  too  hard  for  removal  by  any 
other  means. 

The  Ladder  and  Garden  Steps. — The  former.  Fig.  1 2,  will 
be  found  useful  for  getting  up  to  tall  trees,  and  climbers  on 


more  lasting,  easier  to  draw,  and  much  more  effective. 
The  size  of  your  roller  must  be  regulated  by  the  width  of 
your  walks  and  grass-plots.  It  is  well  to  have  one  as 
large  in  circumference  as  you  can  conveniently  manage. 
Clean  it  carefully  after  using,  and  put  it  in  the  shed,  or 
somewhere  under  cover.  The  axle  must  be  kept  well 
oiled,  or  it  will  soon  wear  and  work  loosely. 

The  Watering  Pot,  of  which  there  are  several  sizes, 
is  for  giving  moisture  to  plants  in  dry,  hot  weather,  with- 
out which  th^y  would  certainly  suffer  severely  at  times, 
and  occasionally  perish  altogether.  The  one  which 
wej  figure  above,  Fig.  14,  will  be  found  as  convenient  in 
shape  as  any. 

The  Axe,  for  felling  trees,  pointing  stakes,  and  such 
work,  is  a  necessary  item  among  garden  requirements.  In 
buying  an  axe  take  care  to  select  one  that  you  are  able  to 
use  with  ease,  not  too  heavy,  and  well  balanced.  Nothing 
is  so  fatiguing  as  to  work  with  an  awkwardly-made 
axe,  which  requires  all  voir  strength  to  wield  it.  The 
edge  must  be  well  steeled,  and  the  handle  of  ash. 
It  should  not  be  ground  to  too  fine  an  edge,  and 
should  be  kept  in  order  with  a  smooth,  hard  rubbmg- 
stone. 

The  Hand-Rarrou\  Fig.  1 5.— The  chief  use  of  this  is 
to  remove  potted  plants  from  place  to  place.     The  only 


138 


HOME   GARDENING. 


drawback  to  it  is  that  it  requires  two  to  use  it.     No  other 
implement,  however,  will  do  so  well  for  the  purpose. 

In  our  next  paper  we  will  describe  some  more  of  the 
most  ordinary  garden  tools  ;  at  present  the  following  list 
of  the  prices  of  tools  may  be  found  useful  to  some  of  our 
readers  : — 


Spade     ... 

Shovel    ... 

Spud 

Digging  Fork    ... 

Three-pronged  Fork 

Pitchfork 

"Weeding  Fork  ... 

Draw  Hoe,  6d.,   is. 

and  IS.  6d.     ... 
Drill  Hoe 
Rake,  is.  2d.  and  2s. 

Dibber 

Trowel   ... 
Potato  Dibber  ... 
Shears,  short  handles 

Do.    long  handles 
Basket    ... 
Pruning  Knife  ... 
Budding  Knife ... 
Water  Pots,  is.  3d. 

and  5s.  gd.     ... 


Carried  forward  £2 


£ 

J-, 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

0 

2 

0 

Brought  forwarc 

2 

2 

I 

0 

2 

0 

Billhook 

0 

2 

6 

0 

0 

6 

"^''heelbarrovv    ... 

I 

5 

0 

0 

2 

0 

Handbarrow 

0 

10 

0 

0 

I 

3 

Roller     

5 

0 

0 

0 

I 

6 

Ladder  ... 

I 

0 

0 

0 

I 

3 

Steps      

0 

5 

6 

Garden  Line 

0. 

I 

6 

0 

3 

0 

Pruning  Scissors 

0 

4 

6 

0 

I 

0 

Daisy  Rake 

0 

4 

0 

0 

3 

0 

Scythe 

0 

10 

6 

0 

0 

8 

Mowing  Machine 

3 

10 

0 

0 

0 

9 

Turf  Cutter 

0 

I 

6 

0 

2 

0 

Dock  Spud 

0 

I 

6 

0 

2 

6 

Dutch  Hoe 

0 

I 

2 

0 

5 

0 

Pick-axe 

0 

2 

6 

0 

2 

6 

P'umigator 

0 

9 

6 

0 

I 

6 

Axe        

0 

2 

0 

0 

2 

6 

Syringe  ... 

0 

10 

6 

Water  Barrow  ,., 

2 

0 

0 

0 

7 

0 

Measuring  Tape 

0 

I 

6 

;^i8  5  9 


ROTATION  CROPPING  OF  A  SMALL  GARDEN. 

In  our  last  article  on  Home  Gardening  (page  109),  we 
gave  a  plan  for  laying  out  a  small  villa  garden.  In  the 
present  and  subsequent  papers,  we  propose  to  give 
directions  for  cropping  to  the  best  advantage  the  eight 
beds  into  which  the  kitchen  garden  was  divided.  The 
numbers  refer  to  the  beds  in  the  plan. 

Jamiary. — i.  This  bed  is  planted  with  strawberries 
and  raspberries — the  former  must  be  protected  from  frost, 
and  the  stakes  of  the  latter  attended  to.  2.  Manure  and 
dig  this  compartment  as  soon  as  vacant  ;  half  of  it  may 
be  cropped  with  potatoes,  the  remainder  to  be  left  for 
cauliflowers,  to  be  planted  in  March  or  April.  3.  This 
plot  is  laid  down  with  permanent  crops  of  sea-kale, 
rhubarb,  and  globe  artichokes.  All  that  can  be  done  now 
is  to  cover  the  roots  of  the  artichokes  with  stable  manure. 
4.  Let  this  plot  be  well  manured  and  dug  as  soon  as 
empty,  so  that  it  may  be  ready  for  the  reception  of 
onions  early  in  March.  5.  Early  peas  may  be  sown  to 
succeed  those  sown  in  November,  and  such  greens  and 
other  crops  as  are  of  no  further  use  removed  to  make 
room  for  a  succession  of  peas.  6.  If  celery,  Brussels 
sprouts,  or  other  winter  crops,  have  been  grown  here, 
you  may  clear  them  off  as  soon  as  possible,  and 
manure  and  dig  the  ground  for  the  reception  of 
scarlet  runner  beans.  7.  If  this  plot  is  empty,  as  it 
should  be,  get  it  ready  for  carrots  and  other  roots  by 
trenching  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches 
at  least.  8.  This  is  supposed  to  serve  for  odds  and 
ends.  All  you  can  do  is  to  manure  and  trench  such 
portions  as  become  vacant,  leaving  the  surface  to  be 
penetrated  by  frost. 

February. — i.  Remove  covering  from  strawberries,  and 
fasten  raspberries  to  their  stakes.  2.  If  potatoes  were 
planted  here  last  month,  no  particular  attention  will  be 
required,  save  getting  in  readiness  the' space  left  for  cauli- 
flowers. 3.  Sea-kale  and  rhubarb  for  succession  should 
be  covered  with  leaves  or  dung.  4.  Give  this  a  slight 
forking  over  on  a  frosty  day.  Radishes  may  be  sown 
with  the  onions  in  March.  5.  Another  sowing  of  peas 
may  be  made  for  succession.  Remove  spent  broccoli,  and 
dig  the  ground  at  once.  6.  Continue  to  manure  and  dig 
the  ground  as  it  becomes  vacant,  for  it  will  be  required 


for  dwarf  and  runner  beans.  7.  Expose  the  surface  of 
the  ground  to  frost  as  much  as  possible  by  digging  and 
leaving  it  in  rough  trenches,  and  sow  a  row  or  two  of 
broad  beans.  8.  Take  up  winter  turnips,  and  have  the 
ground  manured  and  trenched  for  the  reception  of  future 
crops. 

March. — i.  If  the  covering  was  not  removed  from 
strawberries  last  month,  remove  it  at  once,  and  stir 
the  soil  between  the  rows.  Prune  raspberries  left  un- 
touched last  month,  and  stir  the  soil  between  them,  but 
not  deep  enough  to  injure  the  roots.  2.  Plant  cauli- 
flowers here.  Potatoes  planted  last  month  will  make 
their  appearance  above  ground,  and  will  require  pro- 
tection from  frost;  any  portion  of  this  plot  that  has 
become  vacant  by  the  removal  of  any  winter  crop, 
should  be  removed  and  dug  up  at  once.  3.  Make  a  fresh 
plantation  of  globe  artichokes,  and  keep  up  a  succession 
of  rhubarb  and  sea-kale.  4.  Sow  onions  here,  either 
broadcast  or  in  rows  ;  if  the  former  method  is  adopted, 
radishes  may  be  sown  with  them.  5.  Sow  peas,  and  get 
any  vacant  ground  cleared,  manured,  and  trenched  for 
the  reception  of  future  crops.  Round-leaved  spinach  may 
be  sown  between  the  rows  of  peas.  6.  Very  little  can  be 
done  with  this  plot  as  yet,  it  being  too  early  for  dwarf  and 
runner  beans,  but  it  must  be  well  weeded,  and  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil  occasionally  stirred.  7.  If  a  few  broad 
beans  were  sown  here  last  month  you  may  get  the  re- 
mainder of  the  plot  ready  for  the  reception  of  a  crop 
of  carrots,  with  parsnips  if  you  wish  them.  8.  This  plot 
being  intended  for  growing  various  things  not  mentioned 
above,  it  may  be  got  into  order  for  whatever  things  the 
cultivator  may  have  occasion  to  grow  hereafter. 

April. — I.  As  this  contains  the  strawberries  and  rasp- 
berries only,  there  will  be  little  to  do  save  forking  over  the 
ground  between  the  rows  of  the  former,  and  pruning  and 
tying  up  the  latter,  if  not  already  done.  2.  A  portion 
of  this  may  be  planted  with  cauliflowers,  if  not  done 
last  month.  Potatoes  may  occupy  another  portion, 
and,  if  desirable,  the  remaining  ground  filled  up  with 
later  cauliflowers.  3.  This  being  laid  down  with  perma- 
nent crops,  will  require,  during  the  present  month, 
little  or  no  care,  save  putting  the  ground  in  order  for 
the  season.  4.  Presuming  that  you  sowed  radishes  and 
onions  here  last  month,  there  will  be  nothing  to  do  but 
to  stir  the  soil  between  the  young  plants  with  a  hoe. 
5.  Two  lots  of  peas  may  be  sown  at  different  periods  this 
month.  Clear  the  ground  of  green  stuff  that  is  done 
with,  and  manure  and  dig  the  vacant  space.  Stick  the 
early  sown  peas  as  they  advance  in  growth.  6.  This  plot, 
which  has  been  kept  vacant  may  be  sown  with  dwarf  and 
runner  beans,  at  the  commencement,  and  against  the 
end  of  the  month.  7.  Early  horn  and  long  Surrey  carrots 
may  be  sown  early  in  the  month,  and  beet  at  the  end  of 
it.  Thin  out  the  parsnips  as  soon  as  they  are  large 
enough  to  handle.  Stir  the  surface  between  advancing 
beans  and  sow  more  for  a  second  crop  towards  the  end  of 
the  month.  8.  Turnips  may  be  sown  on  a  portion  of  this 
plot,  about  the  second  week  in  the  month,  and  any  other 
crop  that  is  likely  to  be  required  may  be  sown  or  planted 
in  the  remaining  space. 

May. — I.  Attention  will  be  required  here,  for  if  the 
season  proves  dry  it  will  be  necessary  to  water  the 
strawberry  plants  liberally.  The  raspberries  will  require 
little  or  no  attention  for  the  present.  2.  Earth  up 
the  potatoes  towards  the  end  of  the  month,  and  keep 
down  weeds.  Stir  the  soil  between  the  first  planted 
cauliflowers,  and  put  out  a  row  or  two  more  in  the  space 
reserved  for  a  second  lot.  3.  Give  the  sea-kale  beds  a  good 
dressing,  and  the  ground  between  the  plants  a  slight 
digging  or  forking  over.  4.  Keep  onions  clear  of  weeds, 
and  draw  radishes  as  soon  as  possible,  to  give  the 
onions  ample  room  to  grow.  5.  Place  stakes  to  the 
different  crops  of  peas  as  they  seem  to  need  it,  and  sow  a 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


139 


row  or  two  of  a  later  sort  for  succession,  and  reserve  a 
portion  of  the  plot  for  another  and  final  sowing  in  June. 

6.  Should  the  crop  of  dwarf  kidney  beans  have  failed, 
as  is  quite  possible,  make  another  sowing  directly,  and 
continue  to  do  so  as  long  as  you  have  room  for  the  same, 
bearing  in  mind  that  they  will  require  protection  when 
first  they  make  their  appearance,  as  they  are  very  tender. 
Scarlet  runners  may  be  sown  the  first  week  in  the  month. 

7.  The  carrots  sown  here  will  require  thinning  as  soon  as 
large  enough  to  handle.  Another  sowing  of  broad  beans 
may  be  made,  and  the  early  sown  ones  earthed  up. 
Stir  the  soil  between  the  growing  rows  of  beet.  8.  The 
first  sowing  of  turnips  may  be  preserved  from  frost  by 
covering  with  a  layer  of  clean  straw  or  mat.  Remove  the 
remnants  of  greens  and  broccoli,  and  manure  and  dig  the 
ground  afterwards.  A  few  lettuces  may  be  planted  or 
perhaps  a  row  of  celery,  and  for  this  purpose  a  spare 
corner  should  be  reserved. 

June. —  I.  Dry  litter  should  be  laid  down  between  the 
strawberry  rows  to  keep  the  fruit  from  the  ground,  and  it 
will  be  necessary  to  water  the  plants  occasionally  in  dry 
weather.  2.  By  the  second  week  in  the  month  this  plot 
will  be  quite  full,  the  second  row  or  two  of  cauliflowers 
having  been  planted  ;  but  as  the  potatoes  will  be  almost 
ready  for  taking  up,  there  will  soon  be  room  for 
something  else.  As  soon  as  the  potatoes  are  removed 
from  the  ground,  add  a  little  dung  if  necessary,  and  turn 
up  the  ground  that  it  may  be  fit  to  receive  the  next  crop. 
3.  Very  little  attention  need  be  paid  to  sea-kale,  except 
to  prevent  the  plants  from  producing  too  much  flower 
and  seed.  4.  Thin  the  onions  in  this  bed  by  means  of 
a  small  hoe,  if  you  want  fine  bulbs  ;  taking  care,  however, 
to  leave  no  footmarks  upon  the  ground.  Celery  plants 
ready  for  planting,  should  be  got  out  at  once  on  a  vacant 
portion  of  this  plot :  a  foot  wide  and  ten  inches  deep  will 
be  sufficient  for  the  drills,  at  the  bottom  of  which  a  little 
well-rotted  manure  should  be  put  previous  to  planting. 
5.  Make  the  final  sowing  of  peas  about  the  middle 
of  the  month,  and  place  sticks  to  such  advancing 
crops  as  may  require  support.  6.  Dwarf  kidney  beans 
may  be  sown  once  or  twice  more  this  month,  and 
any  imperfections  in  the  rows  may  be  made  good  by 
transplanting  from  places  where  they  have  come  up  too 
thick  and  are  choking  each  other.  Stick  scarlet  runners 
as  they  advance  in  growth,  and  keep  weeds  down  by 
frequent  hoeing.  7.  Thin  the  carrots  in  this  compart- 
ment, and  also  the  turnips  as  soon  as  large  enough,  and 
sow  more  for  succession.  Put  in  another  crop  of  broad 
beans,  and  earth  up  the  previous  sowing.  8.  Let  your 
celery  trenches  be  prepared  for  the  reception  of  the 
plants,  and  on  the  top  of  the  ridge  between  the  trenches, 
lettuces  may  be  planted  with  advantage,  as  they  will  come 
up  in  time  to  allow  of  the  crop  being  earthed  up.  The 
portion  of  this  plot  that  has  been  occupied  with  winter 
broccoli  should,  as  soon  as  cleared  of  the  stumps,  be  well 
manured  and  trenched. 

In  our  next  paper  we  propose  to  continue  these  re- 
marks upon  rotation  cropping,  and  when  they  are  con- 
cluded, we  shall  proceed  to  give  detailed  information  on 
the  three  great  departments  of  gardening — the  cultivation 
of  vegetables,  fruits,  and  flowers. 


COOKING. 

MEAT  DISHES  AT  MODERATE  COST  {continued). 
Calfs  Cheek,  'and  the  Soup  from  it. — Get  your  butcher 
to  cut  the  calf's  cheek  in  halves,  jiftt  below  the  cheek- 
bone, so  as  to  leave  the  fleshy  part  of  the  cheek  and  the 
nape  of  the  neck  entire.  The  fresher  slain  it  is,  the  better. 
Remove  the  eye-ball  and  the  cartilage  of  the  nose ;  shorten 
the  jawbones,  so  as  to  get  rid  of  the  teeth,  but  leaving  the 
meat  which  covered  them,  and  throw  them  away.     You 


would  get  no  good  out  of  them,  they  only  take  up  room  in 
the  boiler.  Let  the  cheek  so  prepared,  after  being  well 
washed  and  rubbed  with  the  hand,  steep  an  hour  or  two 
in  a  pail  of  cold  water.  Set  it  on  the  fire  in  plenty  of  cold 
water ;  as  it  is  coming  to  a  boil,  keep  constantly  skimming 
till  no  more  scum  rises.  Peel  onions,  peel  and  slice 
carrots  and  turnips,  cut  leeks  into  two  inch  lengths. 
Throw  these,  till  wanted,  into  a  pail  of  cold  water  to  keep 
them  fresh.  When  the  cheek  has  boiled  three  hours, 
throw  in  the  vegetables,  with  a  little  salt,  half  a  dozen 
pepper-corns,  and  two  or  three  cloves.  Put  in  also  a 
sprig  or  two  of  parsley  and  thyme.  The  cheek  will  take 
about  four  hours  to  cook.  When  done,  take  it  up,  and 
raise  the  flesh  of  the  cheek  and  the  part  containing  the 
glands  of  the  neck  off  the  bones,  keeping  them  entire. 
Trim  this  lump  of  meat  freely  into  shape,  and  set  it  aside 
for  another  day.  The  trimmings,  the  eye,  and  the  fore 
part  of  the  head,  served  with  the  vegetables,  will  make  a 
nice  dish.  The  broth  will  turn  out  excellent  soup,  which 
may  be  eaten  with  toasted  bread  soaked  in  it.  When  the 
liquor  is  cold,  skim  the  fat  off  the  top,  and  put  it  into  your 
frying-pan,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  dripping,  if  the 
quantity  is  scanty.  Slice  onions  into  this,  and  fry  them 
brown ;  add  a  little  of  the  liquor,  and  stir  in  gradually 
a  couple  of  table-spoonfuls  of  flour  and  a  quarter  of  a 
herring,  prepared  as  directed  for  mock  anchovy,  chopped 
fine,  if  you  have  not  the  means  of  pounding  it.  Dust  in 
a  little  pepper,  and  add  more  liquor ;  and  when  all  is 
mixed  well  and  smooth,  stir  it  into  the  broth.  If  any 
of  the  trimmings  of  the  head  or  vegetables  are  left,  cut 
them  in  pieces  and  add  them  also.  When  heated  up, 
the  second  day's  soup  will  be  better  than  the  first,  difterent 
in  flavour,  and  more  substantial.  Ser%'e  toasted  bread  to 
soak  in  it.  Save  a  little  of  it  to  warm  up  the  cold  piece 
of  cheek  meat  in,  to  which  it  will  also  serve  as  gravy. 
You  can  garnish  it  round  with  fresh-boiled  vegetables — 
carrots,  turnips,  onions,  potatoes. 

Sheep's  Heads.— O^icvi  the  heads,  take  out  the  brains 
whole,  and  the  tongues ;  throw  them  into  cold  water 
and  wash  the  latter  well.  Divide  the  heads  into  halves. 
Take  out  the  eyes,  shorten  the  jaw-bones  where  there 
is  no  flesh,  cut  out  the  gristle  inside  the  nose,  and 
wash  the  heads  well  in  two  or  three  waters.  Put  the 
halved  heads  and  the  tongues  into  a  kettle  of  cold  water 
with  a  little  salt  in  it.  Skim  till  it  boils  ;  then  throw  in  the 
brains,  and  let  them  boil  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  At  the 
same  time  with  the  brains,  throw  in  some  large  onions 
and  two  or  three  carrots  halved  lengthwise.  When  the 
flesh  on  the  heads  is  tender,  serve  them  on  a  dish  with 
the  onions  and  carrots  laid  round  them ;  or  you  may 
mash  the  former  into  onion  sauce,  with  pepper  and  salt, 
a  bit  of  butter,  and  a  spoonful  of  milk.  If  you  do  not 
want  the  tongues  immediately,  let  them  boil  a  few 
minutes  longer,  and  even  leave  them  to  cool  in  the 
broth.  When  you  want  them,  warm  them  up  (if  cold) 
in  the  same  ;  cut  them  in  halves  without  separating  them, 
lay  them  open  on  a  dish,  and  pour  over  them  some  sharp 
sauce  made  with  the  broth,  as  directed  for  cods'  heads. 
Warm  the  brains  in  the  broth,  lay  them  on  a  dish,  sprinkle 
them  with  sage  powder,  made  by  drying  sage  leaves  before 
the  fire,  and  then  rubbing  them  between  your  hands,  and 
pour  over  them  a  little  of  the  brown  sauce  already  de- 
scribed. The  addition  of  a  little  rice  or  prepared  oatmeal 
groats  converts  the  broth  into  capital  soup. 

Fried  Fowl. — The  fowl  must  be  young,  a  cockerel  or 
a  pullet.  Cut  it  up  into  joints,  divide  them,  if  large  ;  also 
cut  the  carcase  m  pieces,  use  the  heart,  liver,  and  the 
gizzard  properly  cleansed.  Put  them  all  in  a  fr>ing-pan  ■ 
with  some  bacon  chopped  small,  a  slice  or  two  of  ham,  a 
few  onions  sliced  very  thin,  pepper  and  salt.  Fry  all  to- 
gether ;  when  they  are  done,  arrange  them  on  a  hot  dish. 
Dust  a  little  flour  into  the  gravy  in  your  fr}ing-pan  ;  when 
browned,  stir  in  a  little  vinegar  and  water  ;    when  nicely 


I40 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 


smooth  and  well  mixed  together,  pour  it  over  your  fried 
fowl,  and  serve. 

Boiled  Fowl. — Truss  it  as  before  ;  put  inside  it,  with 
the  liver,  heart,  and  gizzard,  a  slice  of  white  bacon  half 
an  inch  thick  ;  tie  round  it,  outside,  a  broad  slice  of  bacon 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  Take  a  bullock's  bladder,  slit 
open  the  orifice  wide  enough  to  admit  the  fowl.  After 
rinsing  out  the  bladder  with  hot  water  two  or  three  times, 
put  the  fowl  in  it,  and  tie  it  up  in  such  a  way  that  no 
water  can  get  in.  After  patient  and  careful  boiling,  take 
it  out  of  its  envelope,  lay  it  on  the  dish  surrounded 
by  its  gravy  and  sprinkle  over  it  a  teaspoonful  of  salt. 
You  may  serve  it  accompanied  by 

Parsley  Sauce. — Chop  a  little  parsley  very  fine.  Into  a 
saucepan  containing  a  breakfast-cupful  of  cold  water,  put 
a  lump  of  butter  as  big  as  a  large  walnut,  into  which  you 
have  rubbed  a  "dessert-spoonful  of  flour.  Keep  stirring 
one  way  all  the  while  these  are  melting,  and  until  it  boils. 
Then  throw  in  the  chopped  parsley.  Let  it  boil  one 
minute,  still  stirring  ;  then  pour  it  into  your  sauceboat. 
If  any  of  the  fowl  is  left,  the  best  way  will  be  to  cut  it 
up  into  joints,  arrange  them  neatly  in  the  dish  with  the 
gravy  (which  will  jelly  when  cold),  and  pour  the  rest  of 
the  parsley  sauce  over  them.  They  will  thus  be  pre- 
senfeable  at  another  meal.  A  fowl  thus  secured  from  loss 
or  injury  may  be  steamed  with  good  results  ;  but  this  is 
a  very  tedious  operation. 

Foivl  Stewed  iviih  Rice. — When  your  fowl  is  drawn, 
singed,  and  trussed  (tied  with  string),  with  the  legs  cut  off 
at  the  drumstick  joint,  and  the  heart,  liver,  and  gizzard 
either  fastened  to  the  wings,  English  fashion,  or  put  inside 
it,  as  they  do  abroad,  put  it  into  a  saucepan  not  larger  than 
will  hold  it  conveniently,  and  allow  it  to  be  well  covered 
with  cold  water.  Set  it  on  the  fire  ;  as  soon  as  no  more 
scum  rises,  cover  it  down  close  with  the  lid,  and  set  it 
where  it  will  stew  gently  until  quite  tender,  which  you  will 
easily  ascertain  upon  inspection.  You  may  reckon  upon 
its  taking  three  or  four  hours,  perhaps  longer,  to  do. 
At  the  same  time  that  you  set  your  fowl  to  cook,  put 
half  or  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  rice  to  steep  in  cold 
soft  water.  When  the  fowl  is  on  tli^  point  of  turning 
tender,  chop  one  or  two  onions  small,  and  put  them  to 
the  fowl  with  the  steeped  rice,  a  little  salt,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  pepper  and  grated  nutmeg.  Let  them  boil 
with  frequent  stirring,  some  twenty  minutes.  If  the  rice 
is  a  little  mashy,  never  mind  ;  it  will  combine  all  the 
better  with  the  fat  and  gravy  from  the  fowl.  Lay  the 
fowl  in  the  centre  of  a  hot  dish,  and  pour  the  rice  round 
and  under  it. 

Ends  of  the  Ribs,  or  Breast  of  Beef,  Stewed  with  Vege- 
tables.— When  the  ends  of  the  ribs,  or  the  breast,  from  a 
well-fed  beast  are  to  be  had  of  a  respectable  butcher  at  a 
fairly  reduced  price,  they  are  well  worth  purchasing,  to 
be  cooked  as  follows  : — For  convenience,  divide  the  bit 
into  two  or  three  pieces  ;  salt  them  two  or  three  days, 
according  to  the  weather.  Rinse  them  in  cold  water,  to 
clear  them  from  the  salt  sticking  to  them,  and  set  them  on 
the  fire  in  cold  water  (not  quite  so  much  as  if  for  soup)  in 
a  small  boiler.  After  skimming,  season  with  two  or  three 
cloves  and  peppercorns.  Let  the  meat  boil  an  hour;  then 
put  in  as  many  carrots,  whole  onions,  turnips,  potatoes, 
and  hearts  of  cabbage,  as  will  be  fairly  covered  by  the 
broth  ;  then  let  it  srnimer  gently  until  the  vegetables  are 
cooked.  On  serving,  put  the  beef  in  the  middle  of  a  large 
dish,  and  lay  the  vegetables  round  it,  pouring  some  of 
the  broth  over  all.  Or,  if  you  want  to  season  more  highly, 
y(Ju  may  brown  butter,  onions,  and  flour,  in  a  frying-pan, 
season  with  pepper,  salt,  and  catchup,  stir  all  smooth,  and 
pour  that  over  your  beef  and  vegetables. 

THE  CHEAPER   SHELL-FIS-H. 

The  Common  Limpet  {Patella). — The  limpet  is  some- 
times eaten  raw,  though  in  this  state  it  is  said  to  be 


poisonous  to  some  people,  and  it  is  certainly  best  cooked. 
Boiled  in  salt  and  water,  it  makes  a  coarse  but  not 
unwholesome  food. 

Periwinkles. — Wash  them  in  several  waters,  to  get  rid 
of  mud  and  sand.  Leave  them  quite  half  an  hour  iri 
another  water  to  cleanse  ;  shake  them  up  to  make  them 
draw  into  their  shells  ;  put  them  into  a  saucepan  and. 
pour  over  them  boiling  sea-water  that  has  stood  to  settle  ;. 
boil  galloping  twenty  minutes,  and  serve  accompanied  by 
brown  bread  and  butter. 

Whelks  {Buccimim  undatuni). — Put  your  whelks  (alive, 
if  possible)  for  a  few  hours  into  fresh  or  brackish  water 
to  cleanse.  Boil  them  in  salt  and  water,  the  smaller 
ones,  to  be  eaten  as  periwinkles,  three-quarters  of  an 
hour  ;  the  larger  ones,  with  shells  as  big  as  hens'  eggs,  an 
hour  and  a  quarter.  They  take  a  great  deal  of  cooking, 
being  hard  and  leathery  in  substance.  As  large  whelks 
are  hardly  eatable,  even  after  this  preliminary  boiling,  take 
them  out  of  their  shells,  dip  them  in  flour  or  bread 
crumbs,  and  fry  them  in  plenty  of  very  hot  fat.  On  serv- 
ing, pepper  and  vinegar  may  be  sprinkled  over  them. 
Soyer,  in  his  "  Modern  Housewife,"  says,  "  Whelks  have 
become  plentiful  in  London,  and  are  exceedingly  whole- 
some fish.  They  are  eaten,  also,  like  the  oyster."  By 
which  he  probably  means  made  into  soup  like  clams,  or 
cooked  in  the  same  way  as  oysters  are  cooked. 

Mussels  and  Rice  {an  Algerian  Recipe).— V^z.s\i  your 
mussels  well;  set  them  on  the  fire  in  a  saucepan  without 
any  water,  but  with  a  close-fitting  lid.  Shake  them  up 
from  time  to  time,  so  as  to  bring  them  all  in  turn  to  the 
bottom.  They  will  gradually  open  and  give  out  their 
liquor,  in  which,  and  in  the  steam  from  it,  they  will  cook. 
When  they  are  all  well  opened  and  detach  easily  from  the 
shell,  turn  them  out  into  a  large-holed  cullender  placed 
over  a  vessel  to  catch  the  liquor,  which  strain  and  set 
aside  to  settle.  Take  the  mussels  out  of  their  shells, 
rejecting  the  weed  attached  to  their  inside,  and  any 
little  parasitical  crabs  within  them,  and  put  them  aside. 
Boil  rice  as  if  for  a  curry,  so  as  to  be  as  dry  as  possible 
when  done.  To  this  put  a  good  lump  of  butter  and  a  few 
table-spoonfuls  of  the  mussel  liquor  ;  season  with  pepper, 
salt,  and  grated  nutmeg.  Put  in  the  mussels,  heat  up  ali 
together,  mixing  them  without  breaking  them.  Or,  you 
may  heap  the  warmed-up  mussels  in  the  middle  of  your 
dish,  surrounding  them  with  the  seasoned  rice,  as  some 
cooks  serve  a  curry. 

Hustled  Mussels,  Plain. — Cook  the  mussels  as  before. 
When  done,  simply  turn  them  out  into  a  large  open  dish, 
and  serve  them  in  their  shells  as  they  are. 

Pickled  Mussels. — Cook  and  pick  them  clean  as  above. 
Put  them  into  a  preserve  jar,  seasoning  as  you  proceed 
with  salt,  ground  pepper,  whole  pepper,  and  cloves.  When 
the  jar  is  nearly  full,  pour  vinegar  over  them  till  they  are 
quite  covered.  If  the  vinegar  is  very  strong,  dilute  it  with 
a  little  of  the  liquor  that  came  from  the  mussels.  They 
are  ready  for  use  the  day  after  pickling,  and  will  keep 
good  for  sxime  little  time  if  closely  covered. 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 

WINDOWS. 
The  glazed  contrivances  in  houses  which  we  call  windows 
—having  for  their  duty  not  only  the  admission  of  light 
to  the  inmates,  but  also  protection  against  weather,  and 
the  optional  admission  of  air — are  too  well  known  to  need 
any  description  except  just  to  distinguish  between  the 
varieties.  For  instance,  the  one  we  illustrate  in  Fig.  56  is 
known  as  a  suspended  sash  window.  The  sashes  which 
open  outwards  or  inwards,  after  the  same  manner  as 
doors,  are  called  casements,  and  are  variously  contrived 
to  suit  various  requirements.  It  is  not,  therefore,  our 
intention  to    even   enumerate   these   differences,   but  to 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


141 


simply  look  into  the  hidden  part  of  the  most  common  of 
all,  in  order  that  such  a  calamity  as  a  broken  sash-line 
need  not  in  firture  make  a  visit  of  the  carpenter  necessary. 
The  frame  into  which  the  j;lazcd  sashes  fit  is  composed 
of  the  perpendiculars,  or  styles,  H  I,  the  lintel  j,  and  sill 
K,  and  this  frame  may  almost  be  considered  a  part  of 
the  framework  of  the  house,  as  it  is  fixed 
firmly  in  the  brickwork,  and  in  many  cases 
has  to  carry  weight.  Fig.  55  is  an  enlarged 
section  of  one  side  of  the  frame  and  sash,  and 
clearly  shows  the  exact  arrangement  of  the 
guides  which  keep  the  sashes  in  place.  B  is 
the  sash  which  carries  the  glass.  In  the  plan 
a  groove,  D,  is  shown  in  the  edge  of  this  sash, 
the  object  of  which  is  the  receipt  of  the  line 
which  runs  up  to  the  top  of  the  style  and 
then  disappears  over  a  pulley,  P,  into  the 
weight-box,  w.  Now  let  us  suppose  the 
cord  supporting  B,  Fig.  55,  is  broken,  and  we 
will  proceed  to  mend  it.    On  the  inside  of  the 


used,  the  specific  gravity  of  lead  being  so  much  greater 
than  iron. 

Fig.  57  shows  the  plan  of  a  complete  window.     In  old- 
fashioned  window-frames  the  er>trance  to  the  weight-box 
is  often  from  the  front,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  N, 
but  this  plan  is  most   objectionable,  because    the  paint- 
work is  so  much  more  pulled  about  whenever 
a  breakage  occurs  in  the  line. 

Ordinary  rope  is  not  suitable  for  windows, 
because,  being  twisted,  it  is  liable  to  stretch, 
and  to  spin  the  weight  round  every  time  the 
window  is  opened  or  shut,  in  a  noisy  way  ; 
aid  it  is  not  strong  or  durable  enough.  The 
cord  to  be  used  is  known  as  sash  line,  and 
should  be  plaited  of  good  hemp  instead  of 
being  twisted.  Of  course  the  cost  of  it  is 
greater,  but  not  more  than  its  advantages 
would  warrant. 

Shutters  are  often  suspended  exactly  like 
sashes  ;  but  the  modern  windows,  which  go 
down  to  the  ground,  do  not  admit  of  these, 


frame  is  a  beading,  C,  which  runs  all  the  way 

round  the  window.  This  must  be  removed  on  the  side  1  there  being  no  space  into  which  they  can  slide  away. 
Avhere  the  break  is  by  levering  it  from  its  fastening  with  ;  Various  arrangements  of  folding  and  hinged  shutters 
a  screw-driver  or  chisel,  great   care  being   observed   to  '  supply    their    place,    but   these    will    need    detailed    de- 


prevent  damage  to  the  paint.  This 
done,  the  sash  must  be  first  pushed 
upwards  far  enough  to  bring  it  over 
the  bottom  bead,  and  it  will  then  come 
bodily  out  of  its  place.  The  broken 
rope  must  then  be  unnailed  from  the 
^groove  D.  The  -sash  out  of  the  way, 
the  style  A  will  be  exposed,  and  in  the 
lower  part  a  portion  of  this  board,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  is  found  to 
be  movable.  Take  out  the  piece,  A, 
and  the  weight,  w,  can  be  got  at,  and 
the  broken  line  taken  from  it.  Get  a 
small  piece  of  lead,  or  anything  heavy 
but  small,  and  tie  to  the  end  of  a 
thin  piece  of  twine,  and  insert  this 
"mouse,"  as  it  is  called,  over  the 
pulley  at  the  top,  and  let  it  drop  down 
to  the  hole,  A,  and  fasten  to  it  the 
new  sash  line  end,  which  can  then  be 
pulled  back  over  the  pulley.  The 
weight,  w,  is  threaded  by  this  rope  from 
the  top,  and  a  knot  tied  and  pulled 
well  into  the  place  sunk  in  the  weight 
to  receive  it,  so  that  there  shall  be  no 
danger  of  its  getting  wedged  up  in  the 
box.  Replace  the  loose  piece.  A,  and 
fasten  it,  and  cut  off  the  sash-line  to 
the  proper  length.     The  proper  length 


r,,%e. 

1 

® 

i\          rv-           i"i  ■  ■ 

■^si 

® 

y> 

4 

Fig.  57- 


scription,  as  a  careful  examination  of 
a  few  varieties  existing  in  nearly  every 
house  will,  if  conducted  with  a  little 
common  sense,  familiarise  the  inquirer 
much  more  than  a  most  elaborate  de- 
scription, which  could  not  possibly 
meet  every  case. 

The  fastenings  of  windows  are  im- 
portant if  the  outsides  are  accessible 
to  the  incursions  of  burglars,  the  or- 
dinary form,  as  shown  in  Fig.  56,  being 
liable  to  the  objection  that  a  thin  knife 
inserted  up  the  crack  between  the 
sashes  will  force  it  open.  The  best 
remedy  is  a  screw  sent  through  the 
two  frames  ;  but  there  are  many  other 
patent  arrangements  by  which  security 
is  to  be  attained. 

This  being  the  first  time  we  have 
done  such  a  thing  as  to  mend  a  sasli 
line,  it  is  lucky  if  we  have  not  broken 
one  of  the  panes  of  glass.  For  practice 
we  will  suppose  we  have  done  so,  ard 
now  we  must  go  and  mend  it. 

The  channel  which  receives  the 
glass  is  invariably  on  the  outside  of 
the  sash,  t.c,  the  side  exposed  to  wind 
and  weather.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  the  pressure  of  the  wind  may 


•will  be  arrived  at  by  pulling  the  weight  up  to  the  pulley,  [  tend  to  keep  the  glass  the  more  firmly  in  its  place,  there 

P,  and  bringing  down  the  end  of  the  cord  to  the  top  of  j  never  being  pressure  from  the  inside. 

the   sash,  allowing   three  or  four  inches  for  the  nailing  1      With  a  strong-backed  knife,   something  like   Fig.  58, 


mto  the  groove,  D.  Of  course 
the  weight  must  not  come  quite 
up  to  the  pulley,  but  just  within 
.an  inch  or  so.  Secure  the  cord 
into  the  groove  firmly,  with  two 
or  three  clouts  or  round-headed 
nails.  Replace  the  sash,  and  nail 
on  the  beading,  c,  and  the  job 
is  done.     Supposing  the  top  sash, 


Fig.  58. 


<z 


FiK-  59- 


if  we  have  not  a  regular  glazier's 
hacking-knife,  hack  out  the  old, 
dry  putty  which  holds  the  remains 
of  the  glass,  and  clean  out  right 
down  to  the  wood,  using  the  point 
of  the  knife,  and  knocking  it  on 
its  thick  back  with  a  hammer. 
If  we  have  not  a  diamond,  we 
shall    have    to     take     an    exact 


which  slides  down  F,  to  be  the  one   requiring   repair,  it  !  measure  of  the  size,  and  get  the  pane  cut  at  a  glass  shop 


will  be  necessary-  to  remove  the  front,  or  lower  sa5h, 
and  then,  by  taking  out  the  beading,  E,  the  back  sash 
can  be  got  out  also.  Otherwise  the  process  is  the  same 
as  above  described.  The  weights,  w  w.  Fig.  55,  should 
exactly  counterpoise  the  sashes ;  and  two  are  required  for 
each.  They  are  usually  made  of  cast  iron,  as  cheaper ; 
but  for  situations  where  space  is  short,  lead  weights  are 


The  price  varies  with  the  size,  quality,  and  thickness 
of  the  glass,  and  would  be  from  2d.  to  6d.  per  foot. 
Sixteen  ounces  to  the  foct  would  he  the  right  thickness. 
Twenty  ounces  is  the  thickness  for  large  panes,  or  for  sky- 
lights. Of  course  the  above  prices  are  for  crown  or  sheet 
glass  ;  plate  being  very  much  thicker,  and  ground  and 
polished  perfectly  true,  is  verj-  much  more  e-xpensive.   The 


142 


THE   REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF   CHILDREN. 


next  requirement  is  the  putty,  which  we  make  as  follows  : — 
Take  a  lump  of  whitening,  and  cut  or  bruise  it  up  quite 
fine,  and  then  gradually  add,  a  little  at  a  time,  linseed 
oil,  which  must  be  thoroughly  incorporated  and  mixed 
by  beating  it  until  a  stiff  dough-like  material  is  obtained. 
Remember,  the  more  putty  is  mauled  about  the  better  it 
becomes  ;  and  before  using  it  should  be  kneaded  with  the 
hand,  the  warmth  of  which  will  render  it  still  more  pliable. 
If  sticky,  add  more  whitening  ;  if  too  stiff,  more  oil. 

Take  a  lump  of  putty  in  the  left  hand,  and  with  the 
putty-knife.  Fig.  59 — an  ordinary  oyster-knife  answers  the 
purpose-— press  in  a  thin  layer  of  putty  into  the  corner  of 
the  channel  which  is  to  receive  the  glass,  and  all  round, 
drop  in  the  pane  and  press  evenly  all  round,  and 
gradually  force  it  well  down  until  it  will  not  go  farther. 
Now  press  more  putty  into  the  angle  round  the  edge  of  the 
glass,  and  with  the  knife  press  acid  smooth  it  into  a  neat 
bevel,  which  must  thoroughly  adhere  to  both  wood  and 
glass.  If  either  of  these  are  wet  it  will  not  do  so,  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  water  repels  oil.  A  previous  coat 
of  paint  is  necessary  if  the  sash  is  of  new  wood,  to  make 
the  putty  adhere  properly.  Trim  off  the  superfluous  putty 
from  both  sides  of  the  glass,  and  when  thoroughly  hard — 
which  it  will  be  in  a  few  days — paint  it  of  a  dark  colour 
outside,  and  grain  to  match  inside.  Some  use  white  lead 
in  their  putty,  but  this  is  liable  to  the  objection  that  it  is 
very  difficult  to  remove,  in  the  event  of  future  breakage, 
as  it  adheres  to  the  wood,  and  becomes  so  very  hard  that 
in  hacking  out,  the  frame  is  often  injured.  For  use  in 
mahogany  frames  it  is  common  to  colour  putty  by  adding 
red  lead  to  tint  as  required.  This  does  not  set  so  hard  as 
white  lead.  Putty  is  only  about  a  penny  a  pound  ;  but  we 
have  given  the  directions  for  making  it  for  cases  where 
it  is  not  readily  procurable. 


THE    REARING    AND     MANAGEMENT    OF 
CHILDREN. 

V. — SLEEP. 
An  infant  of  sound  health  will  sleep  almost  continually 
during  the  first  four  or  five  weeks  of  its  life.  All  that  is 
necessary  in  the  interval  is  to  guard  against  accidents 
likely  to  create  disturbance.  Of  these,  injudicious  feed- 
ing, deficiency  of  warmth,  want  of  cleanliness,  and  over- 
fatigue, are  the  most  liable  to  occur,  converting  the 
happiest  period  of  development  into  a  restless  state  of 
being,  alike  pernicious  to  parent  and  child. 

As  though  to  indicate  the  necessity  for  this  lengthy 
repose,  the  sense  of  hearing  in  a  new-born  babe  is  very 
dull.  Ordinary  conversation  does  not  disturb  an  infant's 
slumbers,  although  loud  sudden  noises  may  have  that 
effect.  In  most  instances,  a  baby  does  not  appear  to  be 
conscious  of  sounds  until  about  the  fifth  or  sixth  week. 
In  the  meanwhile,  the  necessary  disturbances .  are  con- 
fined to  being  suckled,  washed,  and  changed  ;  for  which 
duties  occasion  should  be  taken  during  the  short  wakeful 
intervals  which  happen  when  hunger  prevails. 

So  valuable  is  the  repose  which  sleep  affords  through- 
out the  whole  period  of  early,  childhood,  that  too  much 
pains  cannot  be  taken  to  cultivate  the  habit  from  the 
earliest  moment ;  for,  be  it  observed,  sleep  is  essentially 
a  habit  of  our  nature,  and  its  recurrence  depends  chiefly 
on  regularity  of  living  and  good  health.  At  appointed 
times,  and  in  certain  places,  infants  should  be  encouraged 
to  submit  to  sleep.  Let  them  understand,  by  constant 
repetition  of  the  necessary  arrangements,  that  after  food 
and  exercise  it  is  time  to  go  to  bed,  and  a  lesson  will  have 
been  learnt  which  will  require  no  undue  force  to  put  into 
practice  during  the  term  of  nursery  life. 

Infants  born  in  the  winter,  and  during  the  cold  months 
of  spring,  may  sometimes  require  to  sleep  at  the  mother's 
side  for  the  first  few  weeks  ;  but  if  a  babe  be  strong,  and 


the  position  in  life  of  its  parents  such  as  to  afford  a  fire 
in  the  bed-room  by  night,  infants  may  at  once  be  accus- 
tomed to  sleep  in  their  own  beds.  Those  that  are  thus 
trained,  thrive  better  than  others  who  sleep  and  suckle 
the  night  through  at  the  mother's  breast.  Nor  does  the 
mischief  of  the  latter  habit  end  with  the  over -taxed 
digestion  of  the  child.  Few  mothers  are  able  to  bear 
the  drain  thus  made  upon  their  strength,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, "nursing"  has  to  be  given  up  much  sooner 
than  would  otherwise  be  necessary. 

The  natural  time  for  slumber,  in  very  early  life,  is 
immediately  after  taking  food.  As  the  young  of  almost 
all  creatures  show  this  disposition,  there  can  be  no  harm 
in  following  the  dictate.  Opportunity,  then,  should  be 
taken  to  lay  the  child  in  its  bed,  whether  awake  or  noty 
after  having  been  fed.  A  little  later  in  life,  when  diges- 
tion is  stronger,  and  better  able  to  dispose  of  a  heavier 
meal,  an  interval  is  necessary  between  taking  nourishment 
and  going  to  sleep. 

The  utmost  vigilance  is  generally  necessary  to  prevent 
the  habit  of  sleeping  in  the  nurse's  arms  from  being  con- 
tracted. Most  monthly  nurses  enjoy  a  doze  in  front  of 
the  fire — a  luxury  well  earned  by,  perchance,  a  broken 
night's  rest ;  but  with  infants  no  such  necessity  is  felt. 
Still,  if  they  are  once  allowed  to  feel  the  soothing  in- 
fluence of  the  fire's  warmth,  combined  with  the  soft  and 
pleasant  mechanical  movement  of  the  nurse's  knees,  they 
speedily  get  rebellious  against  attempts  to  make  them  lie 
alone  in  the  bassinet.  In  engaging  a  monthly  nurse^ 
it  is  advisable  to  have  it  clearly  understood  that  the 
babe  is  not  to  be  nursed  on  the  lap  when  asleep. 

To  the  above  error,  more  than  any  other,  may  be 
traced  the  wretched,  sleepless  nights  which  some  parents 
are  doomed  to  pass  when  the  monthly  nurse  has  gone. 
Suddenly  the  infant  seems  to  have  changed  its  nature  ; 
the  tranquil  repose  by  day  is  naturally  at  an  end,  and 
continuance  of  the  bad  habit  of  sleeping  by  the  fire  in 
the  nurse's  lap  is  contested  for.  To  the  inexperienced 
mother  there  seems  to  be  no  help  for  it,  but  to  get  up  and 
pace  the  room  until  irresistible  slumber  shall  have  fallen 
on  the  eyelids  of  her  wakeful  infant.  For  the  unhappy 
father  the  case  is  worse.  He  has  possibly  to  encounter 
a  hard  day's  work  the  following  morning,  for  which  a 
disturbed  night's  rest  may  bring  positive  incapacity. 
This  constantly  complained  of  grievance  may  be  safely 
prevented  by  a  little  firmness  at  the  outset.  Children 
that  are  accustomed  from  the  commencement  to  be  put 
awake  into  their  beds,  find  no  difference  of  treatment 
when  the  monthly  nurse  has  left.  In  a  short  time  they 
may  be  even  heard  to  crow  with  delight  at  the  fancies 
their  small  imaginations  picture  in  the  dimly-lighted 
chamber. 

The  best  trained  child,  however,  will  not  return 
peacefully  to  its  cot,  if  the  bedding  be  not  perfectly  dry 
and  comfortable.  After  the  child  has  been  lifted  out, 
"  changed,"  and  fed,  the  pillow  and  mattress  should  be 
v/ell  shaken  and,  if  necessary,  wet  blankets  replaced  by 
dry  ones.  Having  put  the  infant  back,  the  light  should 
be  partly  screened  or  extinguished.  These  arrangements 
require  to  be  made  in  a  very  methodical  manner,  and 
will  only  have  to  be  repeated  a  few  times  to  be  fully 
understood  by  the  child.  If,  at  the  outset,  a  cry  of  re- 
sistance should  be  heard  when  it  is  time  to  go  back  to 
bed,  a  wise  mother  will  conceal  herself  from  sight,  and 
turn  a  deaf  ear.  Sooner  or  later  this  breaking  in  will 
have  to  take  place,  and  the  longer  it  is  delayed,  the 
greater  will  be  the  trouble. 

In  families  where  upper  servants  are  kept,  the  nurse 
usually  takes  charge  of  the  infant  by  night,  only  taking 
the  babe  to  its  mother's  room  when  requiring  to  be 
suckled,  and  returning  to  the  nursery  afterwards. 

About  the  age  of  three  months,  an  infant  does  not 
usually  require  night-feeding  more  frequently  than  when 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


143 


the  mother  retires  to  rest,  and  again  towards  five  or  six 
in  the  morning.  At  this  age  the  faculty  of  observation 
begins  generally  to  show  itself,  and  affords  a  golden 
opportunity  for  conveying  right  impressions  to  the  plastic 
infant  mind.  The  first  objects  a  child  takes  notice  of 
are  those  which  are  employed  in  supplying  its  personal 
wants.  Thus  the  sight  of  a  feeding-bottle  will  generally 
set  a  babe  crying  for  food.  In  like  manner  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  appropriate  certain  coverings  to  the  use  of  an 
infant  when  "  sleeping-time  "  is  in  question.  The  writer 
has  known  a  gaily -coloured  knitted  rug  set  the  tiny 
inmates  of  a  nursery  yawning,  from  the  sheer  associa- 
tions the  familiar  wrapper  suggested.  Each  infant  had 
been  in  turn  enveloped  in  that  rug  preparatory  to  going 
to  sleep,  and  they  had  not  a  thought  of  resisting  its  in- 
fluence. 

By  these  and  similar  appeals  to  the  infant  mind,  time 
is  gained  in  imparting  true  principles  of  obedience,  which 
might  be  too  long  delayed,  if  deferred  till  the  age  of  more 
advanced  reason. 

The  habit  of  taking  a  mid-day  nap  may  be  advan- 
tageously observed  till  the  age  of  three  or  four  years. 
Even  if  the  child  be  not  sleepy  it  is  advisable  to  let  it  lie 
in  its  cot  for  a  certain  time  after  having  taken  exercise, 
and  before  dinner.  If  any  inducement  to  lie  down  be 
needed,  there  is  no  reason  that  a  few  toys  or  a  picture- 
book  may  not  be  allowed  in  bed.  Pretending  to  hush  a 
doll  to  sleep,  for  instance,  will  often  send  the  child 
itself  to  sleep,  and  is  as  good  a  ruse  as  can  be  adopted. 

Before  putting  the  inmates  of  a  nursery  to  bed,  the 
room  should  be  darkened,  and  the  nurse  should  betake 
herself,  if  possible,  to  an  adjoining  room  for  any  occupa- 
tion she  may  have  to  fulfil. 

Care  is  needed  not  to  arouse  a  child  suddenly  from  its 
slumbers.  Drawing  up  blinds,  stirring  gently  a  fire,  or 
imprinting  a  gentle  kiss  on  the  lips,  will  generally  cause 
the  sleeper  to  wake  in  a  good  humour. 

A  notion  is  prevalent  that  much  sleeping  by  day  lessens 
the  power  of  sleeping  by  night  ;  but  this  is  an  error.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  more  a  child  sleeps  the  more  it  wants 
to  sleep.  Wakefulness  is  mostly  caused  by  over-fatigue 
and  excitement,  and  is  a  positively  painful  state  to  the 
sensitive  organism  of  a  young  child.  This  description  of 
suffering  admits  of  no  alleviation  but  from  sleep  ;  repri- 
mands and  additional  food  do  but  increase  the  torment. 

It  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  point  out  the  danger  of 
giving  narcotics  to  young  children.  But  so  long  as  such 
remedies  are  recommended  as  "  teething  powders,"  &c., 
we  must  not  be  supposed  to  ignore  that  the  true  nature  of 
such  drugs  is  not  to  facihtate  the  process  of  cutting  teeth, 
but  to  lull  restless  infants  into  an  unnatural  sleep.  Long 
before  any  disturbance  of  a  child's  health  is  likely  to 
occur  from  teething,  these  compounds  are  apt  to  be  ad- 
ministered simply  to  secure  a  quiet  night's  rest.  The 
restlessness  complained  of  arises,  nine  times  out  of  ten, 
from  flatulence  and  indigestion.  The  general  question  of 
teething  will  be  treated  in  our  papers  on  Domestic  Medi- 
cine and  Surgery. 

A  fit  of  sleeplessness  may  often  be  terminated  by 
wrapping  the  infant  in  a  warm  covering,  and  exercising  it 
in  an  apartment  of  lower  temperature  than  the  nursery. 

In  more  advanced  childhood  than  we  have  hitherto 
spoken  of,  the  importance  of  sleep  is  undiminished,  and 
should  be  observed  with  regularity.  No  invariable  rule 
can  be  laid  down  for  general  observance,  but  most  chil- 
dren between  the  ages  of  four  and  seven  years  require,  at 
least,  twelve  hours'  sleep.  Ten  hours  are  supposed  to  be 
needful  for  schoolboys,  and  eight  for  adults.  Few 
children  under  ten  years  of  age  can  be  kept  out  of  their 
beds  after  seven  o'clock  without  injury  to  their  health. 
When  once  awake  in  the  morning  they  should  be  accus- 
tomed to  rise  without  delay. 

Most  parents  go  to  their  children's  rooms  before  re- 


tiring to  rest  themselves.  The  chief  observation  to  make 
on  these  visits  is  whether  the  little  ones  are  sufficiently 
covered,  and  that  no  draughts  arc  felt  from  open  windows 
and  doors.  In  the  winter,  a  few  hours  after  having  been 
in  bed,  most  young  children  require  a  little  additional 
covering,  owing  to  the  body  having  lost  some  of  its 
temperature  during  sleep.  Another  precaution  to  take  is, 
that  the  children's  heads  are  sufficiently  raised  to  prevent 
their  breathing  the  air  emitted  from  their  lungs.  This 
habit,  if  not  necessarily  fatal,  is  certainly  liable  to  lay  the 
seeds  of  a  consumptive  state,  and  to  produce  an  impaired 
constitution. 

A  single  bolster  is  generally  sufficient  for  raising  a 
child's  head.  This  should  be  rolled  over  and  over  in  the 
under  sheet,  and  the  ends  of  the  sheet  should  be  firmly 
tucked  between  the  mattresses  to  prevent  the  bolster 
slipping  out  of  its  place.  One  blanket  should  always  be 
placed  with  the  selvage  ends  across  the  bed,  in  order  to 
allow  plenty  to  turn  in  under  the  mattress.  Children 
generally  sleep  more  comfortably,  and  suffer  less  from 
cold  feet,  if  their  bedding  is  slightly  raised  at  the  foot. 


HINTS  ON  CARVING. 


Ham. — A  ham  is  one  of  those  dishes  which  one  is  con- 
stantly requested  to  dispense,  even  when  not  occupying 
the  important  post  of  carver.  It  is  usual  to  commence 
cutting  beyond  the  knuckle,  but  not  quite  in  the  centre, 
just  where  the  ham  begins  to  grow  thicker,  and  to  cut 
it  across,  leaning  downwards,  so  as  gradually  to  en- 
croach upon  the  fat,  till  the  slice  slopes  very  much  from 
the  fat  to  the  bone.  Slice  after  slice  is  cut  off"  in  this  way 
till  the  ham  is  finished.  The  thinner  the  meat  can  be  cut 
the  better  it  is  considered.  It  may  be  remarked  that  the 
ham  is  brought  to  table  with  that  part  uppermost  which  in 
a  leg  of  mutton  is  called  the  back.  A  trimming  is  always 
to  be  put  on  round  the  knuckle.  In  the  diagram,  Fig.  16, 
the  first  cut  of  the  ham  is  shown  from  A  to  B.  It  is  to  be 
observed  that  the  slices  are  not  cut  through  to  the  bone, 
but  rather  shaved  off  the  ham.  always  bearing  towards 
the  fat. 

There  is  another  method  df  serving  this  joint,  which 
some  people  who  like  the  hock,  prefer.  This  is  man- 
aged by  taking  off"  several  thin  slices  at  A  to  B,  in  Fig.  17, 
and  carving  the  rest  of  the  ham  lengthwise  from  D  to  C, 
also  thin. 

Neck  of  Mutton. — iFirst  divide  the  short  bones  from 
the  long,  by  cutting  quite  through  them,  across  the  joint, 
at  the  dotted  fine  A  to  B,  Fig.  14.  Then  insert  the  knife  at 
C,  plunge  it  down,  feel  the  joint,  press  it  in,  turn  it  over, 
as  you  do  the  leg  of  a  fowl,  to  snap  it,  and  then  cut 
the  chop  off.  Cut  one  of  the  small  bones  and  serve 
with  each  chop.  It  is  usual  to  cut  two  chops,  and  add 
two  small  bones  to  each  helping,  not  previously  severing 
them,  but  removing  them  from  the  joint  together.  If  loin 
and  neck  of  mutton  are  not  very  well  jointed  before  they 
are  cooked,  they  can  never  be  properly  carved  at  table, 
and  there  is  a  great  deal  of  waste  in  consequence. 
Butchers  must  be  instructed  to  separate  the  bones  welL 
The  cook  also  should  further  divide  them,  before 
dressing. 

Loin  of  Mutton  is  generally  cut  through  between 
every  two  chops,  which  are  served  together. 

N'eck  of  Veal. — A  neck  of  veal  cannot  be  treated  like  a 
neck  of  mutton,  for  the  chops  it  yields  are  far  too  large  to 
serve  entire.  Therefore,  first  divide  the  small  bones  by 
cutting  through  (Fig.  15,  from  A  to  n),  as  with  the  neck 
of  mutton,  and  then  take  off  slanting .  slices  from  D  to  C, 
from  the  bones,  cutting  down  to  them. 

Loin  of  Veal. — With  a  loin  of  veal  a  slice  of  toast  is 
sent  to  table,  on  a  small  dish.  Turn  over  the  loin,  and 
cut  out  the  kidney,  with  the  surrounding  fat,  and  place  it 


144 


HINTS   ON   CARVING. 


on  the  dish  upon  the  toast.  Then  turn  back  the  veal  to 
its  former  position,  and  cut  off  shces  from  D  to  C, 
Fig.  15. 

Pheasant.— h  pheasant  and  a  partridge  are  birds  not 
rare  on  any  country  table,  and  partridges  especially  are 
plentiful  enough  in  London  to  be  easily  obtained  by  all 
classes  during  the  season.  The  skewers  must  first  be  taken 
from  the  pheasant.  The  legs  are  to  be  then  removed 
in  the  same  way  as  those  of  a  fowl.     The  wings  are  next 


removing  the  skewers,  as  shown  from  A  to  B  in  Fig.  18. 
Treat  the  other  side  the  same.  The  piece  consisting  of 
a  leg  and  wing  thus  cut  off  is  to  be  served  whole  and  not 
divided.  Separate  the  breast  from  the  back,  as  in  carving 
a  fowl,  by  cutting  through  the  small  side  bones.  The 
breast  makes  one  plate,  and  the  back  is  given  with  either 
of  the  other  three,  but  cannot  be  served  alone.  Another 
way  of  serving  partridge  is  to  split  the  bird  in  two  through 
the  breast  and  back,  Fig.  19,  and  place  the  halves  on  separate 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  14. 


Fig.  16. 


Fig.  17. 


Fig.  18. 


Fig.  19. 


to  be  taken  off,  also  as  in  carving  a  fowl,  observing  ] 
only  that  very  little  of  the  breast  is  served  with  them. 
The  breast  affords  several  delicate  slices,  which  are  con- 
sidered the  best  part.  The  wings  are  preferred  next,  and 
then  the  merry  thought  ;  game  eaters  like  the  legs.  The 
rest  of  the  bird  is  carved  like  a  fowl.  A  pheasant  always 
comes  to  table  with  the  head  on  one  side,  and  a  large 
bunch  of  the  liver  on  the  other  (Fig.  18).  It  is  usual 
to  leave  the  tail  on  when  plucking  it,  or  to  tie  it  up  and 
skewer  it  on  afterwards,  and  send  it  to  table  with  the 
bird. 
Partridges.— Qvit  off  the  leg  and  wing  together,  after 


plates.  Although  the  methods  of  carving  a  partridge  are 
two,  as  we  have  already  described,  it  must  be  observed 
that  special  circumstances  must  decide  in  which  way  a 
particular  bird  shall  be  divided  and  allotted.  There 
are  differences  in  the  size  and  condition  of  birds  brought 
at  one  and  the  same  time  to  table.  There  are  differences 
also  in  the  proportion  of  the  rations,  which  a  judicious 
carver  will  know  under  all  circumstances  how  to  arrange 
for.  But  there  is  one  rule  which  may  be  laid  down  with 
tolerable  propriety,  and  it  is  to  help  a  gentleman  to  half 
a  bird.  When  gentlemen  only  are  at  table,  the  second 
method  of  carving  partridges  is  always  followed 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


145 


ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PROFIT. 

V. — THE   KEARING   AND   FATTENING  OF  CHICKENS. 


material  for  it  is  an  equal  mixture  of  hard-boiled  yolk  of  egg 
and  stale  bread-crumbs,  the  latter  slightly  moistened  with 
milk.     Let  the  hen  be  allowed  to  partake  of  this  also— she 
For  nearly  twenty-four  hours  after  hatching,  chickens    needs  it ;    and  then  give  her  besides  as  much  barley  as 
require  no  food  at  all  ;   and  though  we  do  not  think  it    she  will  eat,  and  offer  her  water,  which  she  will  drink 


best  to  leave  them 
quite  so  long  as  this 
without  it,  we  should 
let  them  remain  for  at 
least  twelve  hours  un- 
disturbed. We  say 
undisturbed,  because 
it  is  a  very  common 
practice  to  take  those 
tirst  hatched  away  from 
tlie  hen,  and  put  them 
in  a  basket  by  the  tire 
till  the  whole  brood  is 
out.  When  the  eggs 
have  varied  much  in 
age,  this  course  must  be  adopted ;  for  some  chickens  will 
be  perhaps  a  whole  day  or  more  behind  the  others,  and 
the  hen,  if  she  felt  the  little  things  moving  beneath  her, 
would  not  stay  long  enough 
to  hatch  the  rest.  But  we 
have  explained  in  the  last 
chapter  that  this  should  not 
be,  and  that  if  the  eggs  arc 
all  fresh,  the  chicks  will  all 
appear  within  a  few  hours  of 
each  other.  In  that  case  they 
are  much  better  left  with 
their  mother:  the  heat  of  her 
body  appears  to  strengthen 
and  nourish  them  in  a  far 
better  manner  than  any  other 
warmth,  and  they  are  happy 
and  contented,  instead  of 
moving  restlessly  about  as 
they  always  do  whilst  away 
from  her. 

Our  own  plan  is  to  set  the 
eggs  in  the  evening,  when 
the  chicks  will  break  the 
shell  in  the  evening  also,  or 
perhaps  the  afternoon.  Then 
at  night  let  the  state  of  the 
brood  be  once  only  examined, 
all  egg-shells  removed  from 
the  nest,  and  the  hen,  if  she  be  tame  enough  to  receive  it, 
given  food  and  water.  Let  her  afterwards  be  so  shut  in 
that  she  cannot  leave  her  nest,  and  all  may  be  left  safely 
till  the  morning.  By 
that  time  the  chicks 
will  be  strong  and 
lively,  quite  ready  for 
their  first  meal  ;  and 
unless  some  of  the  eggs 
are  known  to  be  very 
stale,  any  not  hatched 
then  are  little  likely  to 
hatch  at  alL  If  this 
be  so,  the  chicks  may 
bo  removed  and  put  in 
flannel  by  the  fire,  and 
another  day  patiently 
waited,  to  see   if  any 


Fig.  10. 


greedily.  To  satisfy 
the  hen  at  first  saves 
much  restlessness  and 
trouble  with  her  after- 
wards. 

There  is  a  stupid 
practice  adopted  by 
many,  of  removing 
the  little  korny  sca-Ic 
which  appears  on  all 
chickens'  beaks,  with 
the  idea  of  enabling 
them  to  peck  better, 
and  thcM  put  food  of 
pepper  -  corns  down 
their  throats,  and  dip  their  bills  in  water  to  make  them 
drink.  It  is  a  mistake  to  say  that  if  this  docs  no  good 
it  can  do  no  harm :    the   little  beaks  are  very  soft  and 

tender,  and  are  often  injured 
by  such  barbarous  treatment. 
Leave  them  alone.  If  they 
do  not  eat  or  drink  (and 
chickens  seldom  drink  the 
first  day),  it  only  shows  they 
do  not  wish  it  ;  for  to  fill  an 
empty  stomach  is  the  first 
and  universal  instinct  of  all 
living  things. 

The  brood  having  been  fed, 
the  next  step  will  depend  upon 
circumstances.  If,  as  we  re- 
commend, the  chickens  were 
hatched  the  night  before,  or 
be  well  upon  their  legs,  and 
the  weather  be  fine  and  warm, 
they  may  be  at  once  moved 
out,  and  the  hen  cooped  where 
lier  little  ones  can  get  the 
sun.  If  it  be  winter,  or  settled 
v.et  weather  or  cold,  the  hen 
must,  if  possible,  be  kept  on 
her  nest  this  day  also,  and 
when  removed  be  cooped  in 
a  dry  shed  or  outhouse. 
The  best  arrangement,  where  there  is  convenience  for 
it,  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  9.  A  shed,  six  feet  square,  is  reared 
against  the  wall,  with  a  southern  exposure,  and  the  coop 

placed  under  it.  This 
coop  is  best  made 
on  a  plan  very  com- 
mon in  some  parts  of 
France,  and  consists 
of  two  compartments, 
separated  by  a  parti- 
lion  of  bars  ;  one  com- 
partment being  closed 
in  front,  the  other 
fronted  with  bars  like 
the  partition.  Each 
set  of  bars  should  have 
a  sliding  one  to  ser\e 
as  a    door,    and    the 


Fig.  II. 

more  will  appear.  We  should  not  do  so,  however,  if  a  fair  I  whole  coop  should  be  tight  and  sound.  It  is  best  to  have 
number  had  hatched  well  ;  for  they  never  thrive  so  well  I  no  bottom,  but  to  put  it  on  loose  dry  earth  or  ashes,  an 
away  from  the  hen,  and  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  1  inch  or  two  deep.  Each  half  of  the  coop  must  be  about 
injure  the  healthy  portion  of  the  brood  for  the  sake  of  one  |  two  feet  six  inches  square,  and  may  or  may  not  be  lighted 
or  two  which  very  probably  may  not  live  after  all.  from  the  top  by  a  small  pane  of  glass. 

The  first  meal  should  be  given  on  the  nest,  and  the  best  '     The  advantage  of  such  a  coop  and  shed  is,  that  except  in 


VOL.  L 


10 


146 


ANIMALS    KEPT   FOR   PROFIT. 


very  severe  weather,  no  further  shelter  is  required  even  at 
night.  During  the  day  the  hen  is  kept  in  the  outer  compart- 
ment, the  chickens  having  liberty,  and  the  food  and  water 
being  placed  outside;  whilst  at  night  she  is  put  in  the 
inner  portion  of  the  coop,  and  a  piece  of  canvas  or  sacking 
hung  over  the  bars  of  the  outer  half  If  the  top  be  glazed, 
a  little  food  and  the  water  vessel  may  be  placed  in  the 
outer  compartment  at  night,  and  the  chicks  will  be  able 
to  run  out  and  feed  early  in  the  morning,  being  prevented 
by  the  canvas  from  going  out  into  the  cold  air.  It  will  be 
only  needful  to  remove  the  coop  every  two  days  for  a  few 
minutes,  to  take  away  the  tainted  earth  and  replace  it 
with  fresh.  There  should,  if  possible,  be  a  grass-plot  in 
front  of  the  shed,  the  floor  of  which  should  be  covered 
with  dry  loose  dust  or  earth. 

Under  such  a  shed,  chickens  will  thrive  well  ;  but  if 
such  cannot  bQ  obtained,  sufficient  shelter  during  ordinary 
breeding  seasons  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  well- 
made  board  coop,  with  a  gabled  roof  covered  with  felt. 
This  coop  should  be  open  in  front  only,  and  be  two  feet 
six  or  two  feet  three  inches  square.  At  night  let  a  thick 
canvas  wrapper  be  hung  over  the  front.  The  ordinary 
basket  coop  is  only  fit  to  be  used  in  perfectly  fine 
Aveather,  when  it  is  convenient  to  place  it  on  a  lawn. 
Some  straw,  weighted  by  a  stone,  or  other  covering, 
should,  however,  be  placed  on  the  top,  to  give  shelter 
from  the  mid-day  sun. 

Chickens  should  always,  if  possible,  be  cooped  near 
grass.  No  single  circumstance  is  so  conducive  to  health, 
size,  and  vigour,  supposing  them  to  be  decently  well 
cared  for,  as  even  a  small  grass  run.  Absolute  cleanli- 
ness is  also  essential,  even  more  than  for  grown  fowls ; 
and  the  reason  why  difficulty  is  often  experienced  in 
rearing  large  numbers  is,  that  the  ground  becomes  so 
tainted  with  their  excrement.  The  coop  should  there- 
fore either  be  moved  to  a  fresh  place  every  day,  or  the 
dry  earth  under  be  carefully  removed.  A  very  good  plan, 
and  one  we  have  found  in  a  limited  space  to  answer  re- 
markably well,  is  to  have  a  wooden  gable-roofed  coop 
made  with  a  wooden  bottom,  and  to  cover  this  an  inch 
deep  with  perfectly  dry  earth,  or  fine  sifted  ashes.  The 
ashes  are  renewed  every  evening  in  five  minutes,  and 
form  a  nice  warm  bed  for  the  chicks,  clean  and  sweet, 
and  much  better  than  straw. 

Cats  sometimes  make  sad  inroads  on  the  broods.  '  If 
this  nuisance  is  feared,  it  is  well  to  confine  the  coveted 
prey  while  young  within  a  wire-covered  run.  And  the 
best  way  of  forming  such  a  run,  is  to  stretch  some  inch- 
mesh  wire-netting,  two  feet  wide,  upon  a  light  wooden 
frame,  so  as  to  form  two  wire  hurdles,  two  feet  wide  and 
about  six  feet  long,  with  another  three  feet  long.  These  are 
easily  lashed  together  with  string  to  form  a  run  six  feet 
by  three,  and  may  be  covered  by  a  similar  hurdle  of  two- 
inch  mesh  three  feet  wide,  as  represented  on  the  preceding 
page  (Fig.  10).  In  such  a  run  all  animal  depredations  may 
be  defied,  and  in  any  case  we  should  recommend  its  use 
until  the  chicks  are  a  fortnight  old  ;  it  saves  a  world  of 
trouble  and  anxiety,  and  prevents  the  brood  wandering 
and  getting  over-tired.  By  having  an  assortment  of  such 
hurdles,  portable  runs  can  be  constructed  in  a  few  minutes 
af  any  extent  required,  and  will  be  found  of  great  advan- 
tage until  the  broods  are  strong.  The  hen  may  also  be 
given  her  liberty  within  the  prescribed  bounds. 

With  regard  to  feeding,  if  the  question  be  asked  what 
is  the  best  food  for  chickens,  irrespective  of  price,  the 
answer  must  decidedly  be  oatmeal.  After  the  first  meal 
of  bread-crumbs  and  egg,  no  food  is  equal  to  it,  if  coarsely 
ground,  and  only  moistened  so  much  as  to  remain  crumbly. 
The  price  of  oatmeal  is,  however,  so  high  as  to  forbid 
its  use  in  general,  except  for  valuable  broods  ;  but  we 
should  still  advise  it  for  the  first  week,  in  order  to  lay  a 
good  foundation.  It  may  be  moistened  either  with  water 
or  milk,  but  in  the  latter  case  only  sufficient   must   be 


mixed  for  each  feeding,  as  it  will  turn  sour  within  an  hour 
in  the  sun,  and  in  that  condition  is  very  injurious  to  the 
chickens. 

For  the  first  three  or  four  days  the  yolk  of  an  ^^g 
boiled  hard  should  also  be  chopped  up  small,  and  daily 
given  to  each  dozen  chicks  ;  and  when  this  is  discon- 
tinued, a  little  cooked  meat,  minced  fine,  should  be  given 
once  a  day  till  they  are  about  three  weeks  old.  The  cost 
of  this  will  be  inappreciable,  as  a  piece  the  size  of  a  good 
walnut  is  sufficient  for  a  whole  brood,  and  the  chickens  will 
have  more  constitution  and  fledge  better  than  if  no  animal 
food  is  supplied. 

■  Food  must  be  given  very  often.  For  the  first  week 
every  hour  is  not  too  much,  though  less  will  do  ;  the  next 
three  weeks,  every  two  hours  ;  from  one  to  two  months 
old,  every  three  hours  ;  and  after  that,  three  times  a  day 
will  be  sufficient.  To  feed  very  often,  giving  just  enough 
fresh  food  to  be  entirely  eaten  each  time,  is  the  one  great 
secret  of  getting  fine  birds.  If  the  meals  are  fewer,  and 
food  is  left,  it  gets  sour,  the  chicks  do  not  like  it,  and 
will  not  take  as  much  as  they  ought  to  have. 

After  the  first  week,  the  oatmeal  can  be  changed  for 
cheaper  food.  We  can  well  recommend  any  of  the  follow- 
ing, and  it  is  best  to  change  from  one  to  another,  say 
about  every  fortnight.  An  equal  mixture  of  "  sharps  " 
and  barley-meal,  or  of  "sharps"  and  buckwheat  meal,  or 
bran  and  Indian  meal ;  or  of  bran,  oatmeal,  and  Indian 
meal.  The  last  our  own  chickens-  like  best  of  all,  and 
as  the  cheap  bran  balances  the  oatmeal,  it  is  not  a  dear 
food,  and  the  chicks  will  grow  upon  it  rapidly.  Potatoes 
mashed  with  bran  are  also  most  excellent  food  for  a 
change. 

The  above  will  form  the  staple  food,  but  after  a  day  or 
two  some  grain  should  be  given  in  addition.  Groats 
chopped  up  with  a  knife  are  excellent  ;  so  is  crushed 
wheat  or  bruised  oats.  Chickens  seem  to  prefer  groats  to 
anything,  but  it  is  not  equal  to  meal  as  a  permanent  diet. 
They  are  also  fond  of  buckwheat.  A  little  of  either  the 
one  or  the  other  should,  however,  be  given  once  or  twice  a 
day,  and  in  particular  should  form  the  last  meal  at  night, 
for  the  reasons  already  given. 

Bread  sopped  in  water  is  the  worst  possible  food  for 
chickens,  causing  weakness  and  general  diarrhoea.  With 
milk  it  is  better,  but  not  equal  to  meal. 

Green  food  is  even  more  necessary  to  chickens  than  to 
adult  fowls.  Whilst  very  young,  it  is  best  to  cut  some 
grass  into  very  small  morsels  for  them  with  a  pair  of 
scissors  ;  afterwards  they  will  crop  it  for  themselves,  if 
allowed.  Should  there  be  no  grass  available,  cabbage'or 
lettuce-leaves  must  be  regularly  given — minced  small. 

In  winter  or  very  early  spring  the  chickens  must,  in 
addition  to  the  above  feeding,  have  more  stimulating  diet. 
Some  underdone  meat  or  egg  should  be  continued  regu- 
larly, and  it  is  generally  necessary  to  give  also,  two  or 
three  times  a  day,  some  stale  bread  soaked  in  ale.  They 
should  also  be  fed  about  eight  or  nine  o'clock,  by  candle- 
light, and  early  in  the  morning.  In  no  other  Avay  can 
Dorkings  or  Spanish  be  successfully  reared  in  an  in- 
clement season,  though  the  hardier  breeds  will  often  get 
along  very  well  with  the  ordinary  feeding.  Ale  and  meat, 
with  liberal  feeding  otherwise,  will  rear  chickens  at  the 
coldest  seasons  ;  and  the  extra  cost  is  more  than  met  by 
the  extra  prices  then  obtained  in  the  market.  But  shelter 
they  must  have  ;  and  those  who  have  not  at  command  a 
large  outhouse  or  shed  to  keep  them  in  while  tender, 
should  not  attempt  to  raise  winter  or  early  spring  chickens 
— if  they  do,  the  result  will  only  be  disappointment  and 
loss.  The  ioroods  should  only  be  let  out  on  the  open 
gravel  or  grass  in  bright,  or  at  least  clear  dry  weather. 

At  the  age  of  four  months  the  chickens,  if  of  the  larger 
breeds,  should  be  grown  enough  for  the  table ;  and  if  they 
have  been  well  fed,  and  come  of  good  stock,  they  will  be. 
For  ourselves,  we  say,  let  them  be  eaten  as  they  are — they 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


U7 


will  be  quite  fat  enough  ;  and  fattening  is  a  very  delicate 
process,  success  in  which  it  takes  some  experience  to 
acquire.  For  market,  however,  a  fatted  fowl  is  more 
valuable ;  and  the  birds  should  be  penned  up  for  a  further 
fortnight  or  three  weeks,  which  ought  to  add  at  least  two 
pounds  to  their  weight.  For  a  limited  number  of  chickens 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  provide  a  small  number  of  simply- 
constructed  pens,  such  as  are  represented  in  Fig.  1 1.  Each 
compartment  should  measure  about  nine  by  eighteen 
inches,  by  about  eighteen  inches  high ;  and  the  bottom 
should  not  consist  of  board,  but  be  formed  of  bars  two 
inches  wide,  placed  two  inches  apart,  the  top  comers 
being  rounded  off.  The  partitions,  top  and  back,  are 
board,  as  the  birds  should  not  see  each  other.  These 
pens  ought  to  be  placed  about  two  inches  from  the  ground, 
in  a  darkish  but  not  cold  or  draughty  place,  and  a  shallow 
tray  be  introduced  underneath,  filled  with  fresh  dry  earth 
every  day,  to  catch  the  droppings.  This  is  the  best  and 
least  troublesome  method  of  keeping  the  birds  clean  and 
in  good  health.  As  fast  as  each  occupant  of  a  pen  is 
withdrawn  for  execution,  its  pen  should  be  whitewashed 
all  over  inside,  and  allowed  to  get  perfectly  dry  before 
another  is  introduced.  This  will  usually  prevent  much 
trouble  from  insect  vermin  ;  but  if  a  bird  appears  restless 
from  that  cause,  some  powdered  sulphur,  rubbed  well 
into  the  roots  of  the  feathers,  will  give  immediate  relief. 


INMATES    OF  THE    HOUSE.— DO^IESTIC 

I. — THE  GENERAL  SERVANT. 

The  servant  of  all  work,  as  the  old-fashioned  term  used 
to  be,  is  fast  becoming  extinct.  The  designation  is  now 
generally  applied  to  female  servants  possessing  no  par- 
ticular aptitude  for  any  special  branch. 

"  General  servants  "  have  mostly  had  experience  of  more 
branches  of  service  than  one.  They  know  something  of 
cooking — many  are  very  fair  cooks — they  understand 
housemaids'  work,  and  have  almost  always  begun  by 
being  nursemaids.  Their  wages  vary,  according  to  attain- 
ments and  locality,  number  of  family,  size  of  house,  &c., 
from  seven  or  eight,  to  sixteen  pounds  a  year.  Sometimes 
the  wages  are  modified  by  arrangements  which  require 
them  to  find  their  own  tea  and  sugar,  beer,  &c.,  as  well  as 
by  a  variety  of  special  circumstances  which  cannot  well 
be  enumerated.  The  higher  wages  are  usually  asked 
by  good  plain  cooks,  and  managers  willing  to  assist  in 
housework  if  help  be  given  in  rough  cleaning  such  as 
boots,  knives,  washing,  &c. 

For  all  purposes  of  comfort,  a  good  servant,  even  though 
her  wages  should  be  high,  is  the  cheapest  and  most  likely 
to  settle  in  her  place.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
a  good  servant  consumes  no  more  than  a  bad  one.  She 
destroys  less,  and  is  less  liable  to  throw  herself  out  of 
place,  arguing  rightly  that  twenty  situations  can  be  had  at 
twelve  pounds  a  year,  against  one  of  fifteen  and  upwards. 
Besides,  a  shrewd  servant  is  sensible  enough  to  know,  that 
in  a  single-handed  place  a  number  of  comforts  are  enjoyed 
•\  hich  would  be  denied  where  there  are  several  servants. 
■  I  any  families  are  prevented  from  engaging  one  good 
j,cncral  servant,  because  they  consider  their  position  re- 
quires that  two  domestics  should  be  kept.  We  think, 
however,  that  in  this,  as  in  everything  else  concerning  life, 
the  rule  holds  good,  that  true  happiness  does  not  consist 
in  our  regulating  our  household  according  to  the  supposed 
fancies  of  our  neighbours  ;  but  according  to  what  we 
know  to  be  our  own  tastes  and  requirements. 

The  duties  of  a  general  servant  being  numerous,  it  is 
desirable  that  a  well-considered  plan  embodying  the  prin- 
cipal work  of  the  house,  should  be  provided.  The  rules  of 
the  house  and  order  of  work  should  be  legibly  and  tersely 
written  on  cardboard,  suspended  on  the  kitchen  wall. 

Early  rising  is  an  essential  quality  in  a  servant  who  has 


to  do  any  amount  of  housework  before  breakfast      Six 
o'clock  is  the  latest  hour  at  which  she  should  rise. 

By  getting  her  work  ready  in  the  evening  before  going  to 
bed,  she  is  enabled  to  set  about  it  at  once  on  coming  down 
in  the  morning.  In  order  to  do  so,  she  should  put  every- 
thing in  its  place  overnight,  wash  up  plates  and  dishes, 
hang  up  jugs,  and  tidy  her  kitchen.  If,  after  having  raked 
out  the  fire,  she  lays  it  with  fresh  coals  and  dry  firewood, 
a  great  point  will  be  gained.  All  except  the  front  bars  of 
the  range  can  be  polished  whilst  the  fire  is  drawing  up. 
Twice  a  week  a  thorough  cleaning  of  the  range,  boiler,  and 
oven  will  do  more  to  keep  it  bright  than  the  hasty  brush- 
ing generally  given  when  time  is  short.  If  a  stove  is  in 
use,  the  flues  require  brushing  out  with  the  proper  utensils. 
If  not,  the  soot  from  the  mouth  of  the  chimney  should  be 
cleared  away  with  the  sweep's  brush,  as  far  as  an  arm  can 
reach.  Many  a  good  roast  joint  is  sent  to  table  covered 
with  smuts,  from  neglect  of  this  precaution. 

Whilst  the  fire  is  drawing  up,  the  servant  should  remain 
near  to  give  it  a  timely  stir  before  setting  the  kettle  on,  em- 
ploying her  time  in  the  meanwhile  in  cleaning  boots, 
knives,  or  any  other  occupation  of  the  kind. 

Her  next  proceeding  should  be  to  wash  her  hands  and- 
open  the  window  curtains  of  the  breakfast- room,  if  she  has 
not  already  opened  all  the  shutters  and  drawn  up  the 
blinds  of  the  house,  on  her  way  down-stairs.  She  should 
then  take  a  large  sweeping  cloth,  and  cover  up  any  orna- 
ments or  furniture  likely  to  be  spoilt  by  dust.  The  hearth- 
rug should  be  folded  ap  and  laid  aside  to  be  shaken.  A 
coarse  cloth  should  then  be  laid  in  its  place,  on  which  the 
black-lead  box,  the  cinder  sifter,  and  fire-irons  should  rest 
whilst  in  use.  To  clean  a  parlour  grate,  fire-irons,  and 
bright  fender  thoroughly,  will  take  about  twenty  minutes. 

Sweeping  the  carpet,  or  brushing  up  the  scraps  of  litter 
in  a  dustpan,  is  the  next  proceeding.  A  good  manager  will 
never  commence  this  work  without  having  a  plentiful  supply 
of  tea-leaves  at  hand  to  strew  on  the  floor.  These  collect 
the  dust  which  would  otherwise  settle  on  the  hangings. 
To  sweep  without  tea  leaves,  is  simply  time  wasted  and 
destruction. 

Having  proceeded  so  far  in  the  breakfast-room,  the  hall 
and  entrance  claim  attention..  Even  if  there  be  not  time 
to  whiten  the  doorsteps  before  breakfast,  sweeping  should 
be  done,  and  the  mats  and  rugs  thoroughly  shaken 
outside. 

The  above  portion  of  the  work  being  accomplished,  all 
the  cinders  left  from  the  day  before  should  be  collected 
and  sifted.  These  are  useful  for  burning  in  copper  flues, 
or  they  may  be  used  to  bank  up  a  kitchen  fire  when  a 
steady  heat  is  wanted. 

The  dirty  work  of  the  morning  now  being  at  an  end,  the 
servant  should  change  her  gown  for  a  cleaner  cotton  one, 
put  on  a  tidy  apron  and  clean  cap,  and  dust  the  breakfast- 
room.  She  is  now  ready  to  lay  the  cloth,  bring  in  break- 
fast, and  do  her  up-stairs  work  generally.  If  there  be 
sufficient  time,  this  is  the  best  opportunity  she  will  have 
for  her  own  breakfast.  If  not,  she  should  manage  to  have 
her  meal  as  soon  as  possible  afterwards.  Nothing  tends 
to  good  humour  so  much  as  sound  digestion,  and  servants 
cannot  be  healthy  if  they  snatch  their  food  whilst  running 
about. 

Directly  breakfast  is  finished  and  cleared  away,  the 
first  thing  to  do  is,  to  open  the  windows  of  the  bedrooms, 
if  they  have  been  left  closed,  and  to  strip  the  clothes  off 
the  beds,  piece  by  piece.  The  feather  beds  should  be  well 
shaken  and  turned,  and  the  mattresses  raised  for  a  current 
of  air  to  pass  through.  The  chamber  crockery'  must  be 
emptied,  and  such  articles  as  require  particular  cleansing 
rinsed  out  with  hot  water  and  soda.  Two  old  cloths 
should  be  kept  for  this  purpose — old  chamber  towels  are 
the  best — one  for  the  actual  cleansing,  and  the  other  for 
wiping  dry.  The  wator  bottles  and  tumblers  should  be 
emptied,  and  wiped  with  a  clean  glass  cloth.    At  evening, 


HOME    GARDENING. 


I    when  the  beds  arc  turned  down,  the  bottles  should  be  re- 
filled with  fresh  water. 

In  most  families  where  there  are  daughters,  the  general 
servant  gets  help  in  making  the  beds.  Sometimes  the 
mistress  qf  the  house  assists.  The  rooms  that  are  to  be 
specially  cleaned  should  afterwards  be  made  ready  for  the 
work,  and  the  toilet  appendages  laid  on  the  bed,  together 
with  any  books  or  movables  that  may  require  protecting 
from  the  dust.  A  sweeping-sheet  should  then  be  thrown 
over  the  whole.  The  valances  of  the  bed  should  be 
tucked  up,  and  the  bed  curtains  folded  neatly  across  the 
bolster. 

If  no  special  cleaning  is  to  be  done,  the  bedroom  should 
be  quickly  dusted  and  put  in  order,  the  servant  collecting 
lamps,  candlesticks,  and  other  articles  that  have  to  be 
cleaned  in  the,kitchen.  When  the  up-stairs  work  is  so  far 
done,  a  general  M-ashing  up  in  the  kitchen  should  oegin. 
The  mistress  or  daughters  will  probably  in  the  meanwhile 
dust  the  ornaments  in  the  drawing-room,  and  aid  in  giving 
an  air  of  order  and  refinement  to  the  room. 

Throughout  the  morning  the  tradesmen's  bell  causes 
serious  interruption  to  a  servant.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  let 
certain  tradesmen  call  on  certain  days  only.  The  orders 
should  be  given  carl)'  by  the  mistress  on  those  days,  and 
so  diminish  the  number  of  times  the  servant  has  to  answer 
the  bell.  A  ticket  may  be  placed  in  the  front  window  to 
indicate  the  days  on  which  different  tradesmen  should 
call. 

The  hour  at  which  the  family  dines  determines  whether 
the  servant  shall  do  the  principal  house-cleaning  in  the 
morning  or  afternoon.  If  the  hour  is  late,  the  morning  is 
best ;  if  early,  the  contrary.  In  any  case  a  servant  should 
not  be  allowed  to  leave  the  kitchen  while  a  joint  is  roast- 
ing, as  many  arc  apt  to  do,  thinking  that  the  meat  need 
only  swing  round  and  round  till  dinner-time  to  be  properly 
cooked.  Afternoon  dinners  will  generally  be  found  more 
suitable  to  the  thorough  dispatch  of  house-work,  than  a 
mid-day  meal,  though  of  course,  when  there  are  children 
in  the  family,  this  is  impossible.  Some  forethought  is  re- 
quired to  set  a  servant  free  to  do  special  cleaning  without 
neglecting  the  dinner. 

If  a  general  servant  is  required  to  wait  at  table,  it  is 
unreasonable  to  expect  that  she  can  be  very  tidy  at  mid- 
day. But  if  the  dinner  hour  is  late,  she  may  be  able  to 
dress  herself  before  dishing  up,  having  previously  cleared 
her  kitchen.  No  washing  up  beyond  china  and  glass 
should  be  expected  afterwards.  The  plates  and  dishes 
should  be  cleared  of  scraps,  and  stacked  away  in  an 
orderly  manner  in  the  washhouse  till  the  following  morn- 
ing, when  time  for  washing  them,  together  with  the 
saucepans,  &c.,  should  be  allowed.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  ser\ant  can  wait  upon  the  family  in  the 
evening,  and  employ  the  rest  of  her  time  in  repairing  or 
making  her  clothes. 

before  laying  the  dinner  cloth,  the  servant  should  tidy 
the  room.  The  hearth  may  require  sweeping  up,  and, 
with  the  mistress's  permission,  the  cinders  may  be  carried 
cut  and  burnt  in  the  kitchen  in  the  evening.  A  bright 
tidy  hearth  is  a  comfort  easily  secured  by  this  means 
without  waste. 

At  dusk,  it  is  the  servant's  business  to  ^Iraw  down  the 
blinds  of  the  house,  close  the  shutters,  and  prepare  the 
bedrooms  fbr  the  night. 

If  any  washing  is  done  at  home,  the  work  of  the  house 
should  be  so  arranged  that  Saturday  afternoon  may  be 
reserved  for  looking  up  the  articles  to  be  washed,  and 
putting  them  into  soak.  We  shall  have  occasion  to  speak 
more  particularly  about  washing  hereafter  ;  meanwhile, 
observe  that  there  is  great  saving  of  time  in  washing  on 
Mondays.  In  order  to  begin  early  on  that  day,  the  clothes 
should  be  all  sorted  and  in  soak  (flannels  and  coloured 
things  excepted)  on  Saturday  evening. 

The  closing  of  the  basement  and  turning  off  of  the  gas 


is  generally  left  to  the  general  servant,  but  tne  master  or 
mistress  of  the  house  goes  round  to  see  that  all  is  safe. 

Finally,  before  going  to  bed  the  servant  should  inquire 
if  anything  more  is  wanted.  She  should  also  count  up 
the  plate  in  use,  and,  if  required  to  do  so,  place  the  basket 
in  her  master's  room,  together  with  a  can  of  water. 


SEASONABLE    FOOD. 


J.\NUARV. 

Meat  —  Beef,  veal,  mutton,  pork,  house  lamb,  doe  venison. 

Came  and  Fou//ry.—Ha.res,  rabbits,  pheasants,  par- 
triages,  woodcocks,  snipes,  fowls,  chickens,  capons,  pullets, 
turkeys,  tame  pigeons. 

/st'j,-/i!.— Turbot,  soles,  flounders,  plaice,  skate,  whitings, 
cod,  haddocks,  herrings,  smelts,  lampreys,  oysters,  lob- 
sters, crabs,  prawns,  eels,  carp,  tench,  perch. 

Vegetables. — Cabbages,  broccoli,  savoys,  sprouts,  endive, 
Scotch  kale,  sea-kale,  spinach,  lettuces,  celery,  cardoons, 
carrots,  parsnips,  beetroot,  salsify,  turnips,  potatoes,  Jeru- 
salem artichokes,  onions,  leeks,  garlic,  shalots,  mustard 
and  cress,  cucumloers,  asparagus,  mushrooms.  Garden 
herbs,  both  dry  and  green,  being  'chiefly  used  in  stuffing 
and  soups,  and  for  flavouring  and  garnishing  certain 
dishes,  are  always  in  season.  Such  are  tarragon,  chervil, 
savory,  mint,  sage,  thyme,  and  parsley,  which  can  be 
procured  all  the  year  round. 

Fruits. — Apples,  pears,  medlars,  figs,  raisins,  currants, 
prunes,  grapes,  walnuts,  nuts,  filberts,  almonds,  oranges, 
lemons.  Preserved  and  dried  fruits  of  all  kinds  may  be 
used  throughout  the  winter,  as  also  jams,  marmalade,  and 
fruit  jeUies. 

HOME   GARDENING. 
THE   TOOL    HOUSE    {coutimied). 

p7-7cning  Scissors  will  be  found  handier  than  the  knife 
at  times,  and  for  this  reason  we  would  include  them  in  our 
catalogue  of  garden  requisites.  They  are  especially  use- 
ful for  trimming  small  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes. 

The  Hand-saw  and  Tenon-saw  v/e  have  already 
described  (p.  43);  the  former  will  be  found  useful  in  the 
garden  for  the  removal  of  such  branches  as  are  too  thick 
for  the  knife  to  separate  ;  the  latter  is  frequently  needed 
in  grafting  where  the  stock  is  of  too  tough  a  nature,  or  of 
too  large  a  size  to  admit  of  the  use  of  the  pruning-knife. 

The  Scythe-stone,  or  Rubber.  —  This  is  essential  for 
keeping  up  a  good  edge  to  the  blade  of  the  scythe,  which 
necessarily  gets  dulled  by  use,  or  injured  by  coming  in 
contact  with  stones,  &c.,  and  requires  sharpening.  Most 
people  know  the  old  kind  of  stone  or  rubber  used  by 
mowers,  which  is  of  a  very  rough  texture  ;  but  there  is  now 
a  better  kind  for  garden  purposes,  that  puts  on  a  smoother 
edge,  and  consequently  enables  the  mower  to  do  his  work 
cleaner  and  quicker.  The  above  is  usually  carried  in  a 
kind  of  leather  satchel  or  sling,  supported  by  a  strap  over 
the  shoulder.  The  rubber  must  never  be  used  when  wet, 
and  must  be  handled  gently,  as  it  is  very  brittle.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  wash  it  carefully  when  you  have  done  with 
it,  but  you  must  remember  to  dry  it  before  using. 

Shears  (Fig.  8),  which  are  neither  more  nor  less  than  a 
large  pair  of  scissors  with  long  wooden  handles  in  place  of 
loops  for  the  fingers,  will  be  found  of  great  service  for 
clipping  the  borders  of  grass,  box  edgings,  quick,  and 
other  hedges. 

The  Dutch  Hoe  (Fig.  i)  is  very  useful  for  cutting  up,  or 
rather  under-cutting  weeds,  and  at  the  same  time  loosen- 
ing the  surface  of  the  soil.  This  implement  should, 
however,  be  pushed  before  you  at  the  depth  of  from  one 
to  two  inches,  so  that  it  may  cut  up  any  weeds.  Fig.  2 
shows  a  drill  hoe  used  for  making  shallow  trenches  for 
small  seeds. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


149 


The  rritning  Knife,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  used 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  fruit  and  other  trees  and 
shrubs  in  order  by  cutting  back  the  shoots  at  the  proper 
time.     A  good  form  of  pruning-knife  is  shown  in  Fig.  10. 

The  Dibbler  or  Dibble,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds 
(Figs.  5  and  6),  is  used  for  various  things  ;  the  small  one  for 
planting  stocks,  cabbages,  lettuces ;  and  the  large  one,  with 
a  projecting  piece  of  iron  for  the  foot  to  rest  on,  for  dibbling 
in  potatoes.  Either  of  these  may,  if  necessary,  be  made 
out  of  an  old  spade-handle,  with  a  little  contrivance, 
although  it  is  better  that  you  have  such  things  properly 
shod  with  iron,  as  they 
do  the  work  cleaner  and 
with  greater  expedition. 

The  Pitchfork  (Fig.  3) 
is  an  exceedingly  handy 
implement  in  a  garden, 
as  it  is  often  required 
for  turning  over  manure, 
making  up  hot  -  beds, 
shaking  out  dry  litter, 
and  distributing  such 
dressing  or  manure  as  is 
spread  over  the  ground 
previous  to  its  being  dug. 

The  Budding  Knife  is 
of  small  dimensions,  and 
is  used  in  preparing  the 
bud  and  stock  for  bud- 
ding. It  has  a  bone 
or  ivory  handle  tapering 
towards  the  end,  which  is 
used  for  raising  the  bark 
so  that  the  bud  may  be 
inserted  easily.  There  are 
blades  of  several  shapes, 
but  the  one  represented 
in  Fig.  9  is  the  best  for 
ordinary  work. 

The  Trowel  (Fig.  4)  is 
a  tool  no  gardener  should 
be  without,  as  it  is  most 
useful  for  the  remo\al  of 
plants  from  one  spot  to 
another,  where  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  retain  a  ball 
of  earth  to  their  roots, 
and  whenever  the  spade 
could  not  conveniently  be 
used. 

Baskets  (Fig.  7). — These 
will  be  found  useful  for  col- 
lecting weeds,  vegetable 
refuse,  roots,  &c.,  in  small 
quantities,  for  removal 
from  one  place  to  another 

in  lieu  of  the  barrow.      The  size  and  number  of  these 
entirely  depend  upon  circumstances. 

ROTATION  CROPPING  OF  A  SMALL  GARDEN. 

(Continued  from  p.  138.) 

fuly. — I.  As  raspberries  and  strawberries  are  the  only 
occupants  of  this  department,  little  care  will  be  needed, 
with  the  exception  of  removing  suckers  of  the  former  and 
runners  of  the  latter,  in  the  event  of  their  not  being 
required — and  they  will  not  be  unless  the  family  is 
particularly  partial  to  them,  at  the  expense  of  other  things. 
U,  however,  a  few  plants  are  wanted,  some  of  the  strongest 
runners  may  be  permitted  to  ramble  at  will  over  the 
ground,  on  the  outside  row,  and  these  should  be  either 
pegged  down  into  pots,  or  into  the  ground.  2.  As  soon  as 
the  potatoes  in  this  quarter  have  been  taken  up,  the  ground 


(6) 


rather  than  wait  till  the  entire  spot  becomes  vacant.  As  it 
is  almost  too  late  to  plant  cauliflowers,  a  portion  of  the 
ground  may  be  reserved  for  early  or  autumn  broccoli. 
3.  Liquid  manure  supplied  to  sea-kale  now  will  prove  far 
more  beneficial  than  dung  heaped  upon  their  crowns  in 
winter  time.  Rhubarb  will  require  no  further  care  than 
cutting  away  all  but  one  of  the  flower  stems,  and  this  one 
may  be  considerably  reduced.  If,  however,  no  seed  is 
required,  it  may  be  cut  down  close  towards  the  end  of  the 
month.  Use  the  hoe  continually  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing weeds  under,  and  the  soil  in   a   healthy   condition. 

4.  The  hoe  may  be  used 
between  onions,  provided 
you  can  use  it  without 
injuring  the  leaves,  but 
not  otherwise,  as  this 
crop  will  or  should  have 
had  a  final  thinning  last 
month.  If  perchance  a 
row  or  two  of  celery  was 
planted  in  this  depart- 
ment last  month,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  earth  up 
the  same  ;  but  a  dry  day 
lljaa  must  be  chosen  for  the 
work.  Any  vacant  ground 
should  have  a  slight  rak- 
ing over,  just  to  make  it 
look  neat  until  such  time 
as  you  can  plant  it.  5. 
Place  sticks  to  such  peas 
r\  as   require   support,  ard 

see  to  the  immediate  re- 
moval of  those  past  bear- 
ing, taking  care  not  to 
injure  broccoli  and  other 
things  planted  between 
them.  6.  Very  little  at- 
tention will  be  required 
here,  with  the  exception 
of  keeping  the  kidney- 
beans  clear  of  weeds,  and 
seeing  that  high  winds 
do  not  injure  either  the 
dwarf  or  runner  varieties, 
for  it  is  alike  detrimental 
to  both.  7.  There  is 
just  a  chance  that  carrots 
may  prove  a  failure,  and 
if  so,  as  it  will  be  too  late 
to  sow  again,  the  best 
plan  will  be  to  fill  up  the 
gaps  in  the  beds  with 
lettuces ;  or  a  sowing  of 
turnips  may  be  made  to 
come  m  in  the  autumn : 


but  do  not  fill  the  ground  with  anything  that  is  likely  to 
occupy  it  in  the  winter,  as  such  an  arrangement  would 
interfere  with  your  future  plans.  Such  broad  beans  as  are 
making  rapid  progress  must  have  their  tops  nipped  off, 
and  the  soil  should  be  afterwards  stirred  between  them, and, 
indeed,  between  every  other  crop.  8.  This  compartment 
being  principally  intended  for  the  growth  of  celerj-,  and 
the  time  having  arrived  for  planting  the  general  or  main 
crop,  a  few  words  on  its  management  will  doubtless  be 
acceptable.  Here  we  will  only  say  that,  to  ensure  good 
and  fine  sticks,  abundance  of  room  will  be  necessar>'. 
Single  and  shallow  trenches  suit  best  for  a  small  supply, 
but  for  a  larger  quantity  broad  ones  should  be  made. 
Fuller  directions  on  the  growth  of  celery  will  be  given  as 
our  work  proceeds.  As  endive  and  other  odds  and  ends 
should  be  dug  over,  and  some  early  turnips  sown  for  a  [  will  partly  occupy  this  plot,  the  requisite  attention  must 
winter  supply.    We  prefer  sowing  a  small  quantity  often, '  be  paid  to  each  at  the  right  time. 


CHRISTMAS    FARE. 


CHRISTMAS   FARE. 

Christmas  time  has  always  been  associated  in  this 
country  with  feasting  and  merry-making.  As  far  back 
as  we  have  any  records  of  the  social  life  of  our  ancestors, 
we  find  accounts  of  the  feasts  they  were  wont  to  make  at 
tjiis  season ;  and  the  family  archives  of  many  of  our  oldest 
families  contain  the  particulars  and  the  bills  of  fare  of  the 
good  eating  and  drinking  provided  for  the  entertainment 
of  themselves  and  their  retainers  at  Christmas.  It  is  also 
worthy  of  note,  that  many  of  the  dishes  with  which  we  are 
accustomed  to  supply  our  tables  at  the  present  time  are 
the  same  as  those  which  pleased  the  palates  of  our  fore- 
fathers ;  while  many  other  items  of  their  Christmas  dinners, 
which  figure  no  longer  in  our  bills  of  fare,  are  still  found 
in  some  places  where  Christmas  is  kept  after  the  good  old 
fashion,  in  some  old  country  houses,  and  in  the  colleges 
of  our  universities.  It  is  our  intention  in  this  paper  to 
give  a  short  account  of  Christmas  fare  in  the  olden  time, 
which  will  no  doubt  prove  as  interesting  to  the  general 
reader  as  to  the  antiquary  ;  while  our  next  paper  on 
Cookery  will  be  devoted  to  a  series  of  recipes  for  the 
making  and  preparation  of  the  dishes  which  still  form  the 
staple  of  our  Christmas  dinners. 

Curious  particulars  have  come  down  to  us  of  the  great 
feasts  with  which  our  sovereigns  in  early  times  kept  their 
Christmases ;  and  in  some  cases  we  find  even  their 
favourite  dishes  at  these  royal  celebrations.  Thus,  cranes 
were  the  favourite  dish  with  Henry  II.  ;  and  on  one 
occasion  we  are  informed  that  Henry  III,  directed  the 
Sheriff  of  Gloucester  to  buy  twenty  salmon,  to  be  put 
into  pies  for  his  Christmas. 

"The  sammon,  king  of  fish, 
Fills  with  good  cheer  the  Christmas  dish  j " 

and  the  Sheriff  of  Sussex  had  to  provide  ten  brawns,  with 
the  heads,  and  ten  peacocks,  for  the  same  feast,  in  West- 
minster Hall.  Richard  II.  kept  his  Christmas  at  Lich- 
field, in  1398,  where  two  hundred  tuns  of  wine  and  two 
thousand  oxen  were  consumed !  Edward  III.  was  a  right 
royal  provider  of,  Christmas  cheer.  In  his  time  the  art  of 
cookery  was  well  understood,  and  the  making  of  blanc- 
manges, tarts,  and  pies,  and  the  preparing  of  rich  soups 
of  the  brawn  of  capons,  was  among  the  cook's  duties  at 
this  period.  French  cooks  were  employed  by  the  nobility ; 
and  in  the  merchants'  feasts  we  find  jellies  of  all  colours, 
and  in  all  figures — flowers,  trees,  beasts,  fish,  fowl,  and 
fruit.  The  wines  were  spiced  ;  and  cinnamon,  grains  of 
paradise,  and  ginger  were  in  the  dessert  confections. 
Richard  II.  feasted  10,000  persons  at  his  house-warming 
of  Westminster  Hall.  This  king  is  stated  to  have  kept 
2,000  cooks,  and  there  is  a  "  Roll  of  English  Cookery," 
by  the  master  cook-  of  Richard  II.  In  the  Salters' 
Company's  books  is  the  following  receipt  to  make  a  game 
pie  for  Christmas,  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  : — Take  a 
pheasant,-  a  hare,  a  capon,  two  partridges,  two  pigeons, 
and  two  rabbits  ;  bone  them,  and  put  them  into  paste  the 
shape  of  a  Ijird,  with  the  livers  and  hearts,  two  mutton 
kidneys,  forcemeats,  sage  balls,  seasoning,  spice,  catchup, 
and  pickled  mushrooms,  filled  up  with  gravy  made  from 
the  various  bones.  A  pie  was  so  made  by  the  Salters' 
Company's  cook,  a  few  years  ago,  and  was  found  to  be 
excellent.  Richard  III.  kept  Christmas  most  splendidly, 
and  paid  "two  hundred  marks  for  certain  new  year's 
gifts,  against  the  feast  of  Christmas."  By  ancient  custom 
the  city  of  Gloucester,  as  a  token  of  their  loyalty,  pre- 
sent a  lamprey  pie  annually  at  Christmas  to  the  sovereign. 
This  is  sometimes  a  costly  gift,  as  it  often  happens  that 
lampreys  at  that  season  can  scarcely  be  procured  at  a 
guinea  apiece. 

At  Oxford  the  celebration  of  Christmas  was,  before  the 
Reformation,  performed  with  a  pageant.  At  Merton 
College  he  bore  the  title  of  King  of  Christmas  ;  at  St. 
John's  he  was  styled  lord  ;  and  at  Trinity  he  was  emperor. 
At  Jesus  College  is  a  huge  silver-gilt  wassail-bowl,  which 


will  hold  at  least  ten  gallons,  and  the  ladle  half  a  pint. 
This  huge  vessel  was  formerly  used  in  Christmas  cele- 
brations. 

Of  Christmas  dishes  the  first  was  the  boar's  head,  "  the 
rarest  dish  in  all  the  lande."  It  was  pickled,  boiled,  01 
roasted,  laid  in  a  great  charger,  covered  with  a  garland  o{ 
bay,  and  served  with  a  lemon  in  its  mouth,  and  mustard. 
Sometimes  the  boar's  head  was  given  as  a  wrestling-prize. 
At  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  bringing  up  a  boar's  head  in 
great  state  to  the  table  is  an  interesting  sight  to  this  day. 
It  is  carried  on  the  head  in  a  large  dish,  and  the  scholars 
sing  an  ancient  carol. 

Brawn  is,  probably,  as  old  a  Christmas  dish  as  boar's 
head.  We  read  of  larawn  and  mustard  at  the  coronation 
feasts  of  Katherine,  queen  of  Henry  V.,  and  of  Henry 
VII.  At  the  latter  was  "brawne  royal"  for  the  king's 
table.  At  the  royal  palace,  and  at  the  revels  of  the  Inns 
of  Court,  it  was  a  constant  dish  at  a  Christmas  breakfast. 
Kent  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  brawn  ;  and  Canter- 
bury brawn  is  to  this  day  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  kingdom 
for  Christmas  presents. 

The  peacock  was  the  next  Christmas  dish.  To  prepare 
it  for  the  table  the  skin  was  first  carefully  stripped  off,  with 
the  plumage  adhering  ;  the  bird  was  then  roasted,  and 
when  done  it  was  sewed  up  again  in  its  feathers,  its  beak 
gilt,  and  so  sent  to  table.  Sometimes  the  whole  body  was 
covered  with  gold  leaf,  and  a  piece  of  cotton,  saturated 
with  spirits,  placed  in  its  beak,  and  lighted  before  it 
was  carved.  It  was  stuffed  with  spices  and  sweet-herbs, 
basted  with  yolk  of  egg,  and  served  with  gravy.  It  is 
related  that  a  peacock  dressed  in  this  fashion  was  served 
in  a  dinner  given  to  William  IV.,  when  Duke  of  Clarence, 
by  the  Governor  of  Grenada. 

Frumenty  at  Christmas  was  another  noted  dish.  It 
consisted  of  boiled  wheat,  broth,  almonds,  milk,  and  yolks 
of  eggs,  and  was  sweetened  with  sugar. 

The  turkey  has  graced  the  Christmas  table  from  the 
date  of  its  introduction  into  England,  about  1524,  and 
we  find  it  forming  part  of  the  farmer's  Christmas  dinner 
in  1578. 

Swans  were  standard  dishes  formerly  at  great  houses 
at  Christmas.     Chaucer's  monk,  no  doubt  a  good  judge — 

"A  fat  swan  loved  he  best  of  any  rost." 

In  the  Household  Book  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland 
five  swans  are  dished  for  Christmas-day,  three  for  New 
Year's-day,  and  four  for  Twelfth-day.  Except  in  the  state 
of  a  cygnet,  and  that  rarely,  the  bird  is  not  met  with  at 
table. 

The  bustard  has  almost  disappeared,  but  within 
memory  it  might  be  seen  in  Christmas  larders  of  large 
inns ;  now  six  or  seven  guineas  are  sometimes  paid  for  a 
foreign  bustard. 

The  fat  capon,  from  seven  to  ten  pounds,  is  another 
luxury  of  the  season  ;  and  in  some  places  a  couple  of  fat 
capons  .is  a  corporation  present. 

The  goose  is  a  favourite  Christmas  dish  with  the 
people  here,  as  well  as  in  various  parts  of  the  Continent. 

Roast  beef  has  been  for  ages  the  great  Christmas  fare. 
The  sirloin  of  beef  is  said  to  have  been  named  from  a  loin 
of  beef  being  knighted  by  King  Charles  II.,  and  at  Friday 
Hill,  in  Essex,  is  shown  a  table  as  that  upon  which  the 
ceremony  was  performed  ;  but  it  is  also  related,  by  a  great 
historical  authority,  that  at  the  Abbey  of  Reading  "  a 
sirloin  of  beef  wsa  set  before  Henry  VIII.,  so  knighted." 
[The  real  meaning  of  this  word,  however,  is  "  that  which 
is  upon  the  loin,"  and  the  truest  spelling  would  be  S2ir- 
loin,  just  as  Ave  now  write  surname  and  not  sirname. 
— Ed.  H.  G.]  Still,  the  great  Christmas  roast  is  the 
baron  of  beef,  i.e.,  two  sirloins,  not  cut  asunder,  but  joined 
together  by  the  end  of  the  backbone.  Such  a  joint  is 
roasted  for  Her  Majesty's  table  on  every  Christmas-day 
dinner  ;  and  a  baron  of  beef  is  one  of  the  boasts  ot  the 
Lord  Mayor's  dinner  in  the  Guildhall. 


CASSELL'S  HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


151 


Plum-pudding  is  first  mentioned  in  a  cookery  book  of 
the  year  1675  ;  but  it  is  thought  to  have  originated  from 
plum-broth,  boiled  in  a  basin,  whence  it  became  solid. 
This  plum-broth,  or  porridge,  also  called  hackin,  until  the 
time  of  Charles  1 1.,  was  made  by  boiling  beef  and  veal  with 
sack,  old  hock,  and  sherry,  lemon  and  orange-juice,  double 
refined  sugar,  raisins,  currants  and  prunes,  cochineal, 
nutmeg,  cinnamon,  and  cloves  ;  the  whole  thickened  with 
brown  bread,  and  served  at  table  in  a  tureen.  It  was 
eaten  at  Christmas,  at  St.  James's  Palace,  during  the  reign 
of  George  III.,  and  portions  of  it  were  sent  to  different 
officers  of  the  royal  household.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Brand 
tells  us  that  when  he  dined  at  the  chaplain's  table,  at  St. 
James's  Palace,  on  Christmas-day,  1806,  the  first  dish 
served  was  a  tureen  of  this  rich,  luscious  plum-porridge. 

Minced  or  shred  pies  are  said  to  be  in  imitation  of  the 
paste  images  and  sweetmeats  given  away  at  Rome  on 
Christmas-eve.  Two  centuries  ago  a  traveller  in  England 
described  ever}-  family  making  a  Christmas  pie,  "the  com- 
position of  the  pastry  being  a  most  learned  mixture  of 
meats,  tongues,  chicken,  eggs,  sugar,  currants,  lemon  and 
orange-peel,  with  various  spices."  The  paste  case  should 
be  oblong,  in  imitation  of  the  manger  wherein  our  Saviour 
was  laid,  the  ingredients  themselves  having  been  said  to 
refer,  especially  the  spices,  to  the  offerings  of  the  Wise 
Men.  By  some  the  paste-case  was  called  "  the  coffin." 
There  is  a  superstition  that  as  many  houses  as  you  eat 
mince-pies  in  during  Christmas,  so  many  happy  months 
will  you  have  in  the  ensuing  year.  Mince  pies  are 
served  at  the  lord  mayor's  dinner,  at  Guildhall^  on  the  9th 
of  November.  In  various  parts  of  the  country  a  substitute 
is  made  of  the  lights,  &c.,  of  a  pig,  chopped  fine,  with 
apples,  currants,  sugar,  and  spice.  It  is  often  sent  by 
farmers  as  a  present,  with  a  pork-pie,  on  killing  a  pig. 

The  bakers  at  this  season  used  to  present  their 
customers  with  the  yule  dough,  paste  images,  as  the 
chandlers  gave  Christmas  candles  in  our  time. 

A  very  humble  observance  of  Christmas  was  formerly 
made  on  the  Paddington  Charity  Estates,  which  had  been 
bequeathed  by  two  maiden  gentlewomen,  for  the  purpose 
of  their  supplying  the  poor  with  bread  and  cheese ;  and 
the  gift  is  a  very  ancient  one.  With  the  rents  of  these 
lands  were  purchased  the  bread  and  cheese,  which,  on  the 
Sunday  before  Christmas-day,  was  thrown  down  from  the 
tower  of  St.  Mary's  Church  among  the  people  assembled 
in  the  churchyard  ;  but  the  scramble  grew  uproarious, 
and  bread  and  coals  are  now  given  instead  to  poor 
families  inhabiting  the  parish. 

The  Christmas-tree  is  commonly  thought  to  be  an 
iddition  of  late  years  to  our  celebration  of  the  season  ; 
but  it  was  seen  in  our  metropolis  more  than  four  centuries 
since,  when  holm,  holly,  ivy,  and  bay  were  made  into 
a  standard  tree  in  Cornhill  ;  and  in  a  pageant  before 
Henry  VIII.,  at  Richmond,  was  "a  tree  of  gold,  with 
branches  and  boughs  fringed  with  gold,  spreading  on  every 
side,  with  roses  and  pomegranates  ;  when  it  was  drawn 
back  the  wassail,  or  bauket,  was  brought  in,  and  so  brake 
up  Christmas."  However,  these  ancient  sights  have  been 
comparatively  little  read  of,  and  our  present  Christmas- 
trees  are  traceable  to  a  German  in  the  household  of 
Caroline,  queen  of  George  IV.,  having  made  a  Christmas- 
tree  for  a  juvenile  party  in  London.  This  tree  was  a 
branch  of  evergreen,  fastened  on  a  board,  and  hung  with 
gilt  oranges,  almonds,  &c.  ;  and  beneath  it  were  a  model 
of  a  farmhouse,  figures  of  animals,  &c.  The  making  of 
Christmas-trees  was  then  described  as  a  common  custom 
in  Germany,  and  as  a  relic  of  the  pageants  got  up  in 
mcient  days.  In  the  Berlin  market  there  are  provided  for 
Christmas  monster  boxes  of  toys,  tons  of  gingerbread, 
.md  acres  of  marchpane — a  sort  of  sweet  biscuit  of  sugar 
and  almonds  baked  together.  It  is  curious  to  find  that 
in  Prussia,  where  the  Christmas-tree  is  common,  liolly  is 
only  known  in  the  gardens  of  scientific  horticulturists. 


Christmas-boxes  is  a  term  now  applied  to  gifts  of  money 
at  Christmas,  whereas  anciently  it  signified  the  boxes  in 
which  such  gifts  were  deposited.  The  Romans  used  these 
boxes  to  collect  contributions  at  rural  festivals,  the  money 
being  slipped  through  an  aperture  in  the  box.  One  has 
been  found  filled  with  Roman  coins.  Their  general  name 
was  "thrift  boxes  ;"  but  being  much  employed  at  Christ- 
mas, they  were  called  "  Christmas-boxes,"  and  thus  gave 
name  to  the  money  itself  A  gilt  nutmeg  was  formerly  a 
common  gift  at  Christmas. 

In  the  songs  of  various  periods  the  custom  of  keeping 
Christmas  is  best  preserved.  A  ballad  of  the  time  of  the 
Restoration — about  two  centuries  ago — gives  this  pic- 
ture : — 

"  All  you  that  to  feasting  and  mirth  are  inclin'd 
Come,  here  is  Rood  news  for  to  pleasure  your  mind  ; 
Old  Christmas  is  come  for  to  keep  open  house  ; 
He  scorns  to  be  guilty  of  starving  a  mouse  : 
Then  come,  boys,  and  welcome,  for  diet  the  chief. 
Plum-pudding,  goose,  capon,  minc'd  pies,  and  roast  bce£ 

"  A  long  time  together  he  hath  been  forgot  ; 
They  scarce  could  afford  to  hang  on  the  pot : 
Such  miserly  sneaking  in  England  hath  been, 
As,  by  our  forefathers,  ne'er  was  to  be  seen  : 
But  now  he's  returned  you  shall  have,  in  brief. 
Plum-pudding,  goose,  capon,  minc'd  pics,  and  roast  beef." 

Long  before  the  date  of  this  ballad  a  fuller  catalogue  had 
been  sung  : — 

"  Brawn,  pudding,  and  sauces,  and  good  mustard  withal. 
Beef,  mutton,  and  pork,  shred  pies  of  the  best, 
Pig,  veal,  goose,  and  capon,  and  turkey  well  dressed ; 
Cheese,  apples,  and  nuts,  jolly  carols  to  hear. 
As  then  in  the  country  is  counted  good  cheer." 

The  following,  from  a  carol  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
shows  that  unrestrained  indulgence  in  drinking  at  Christ- 
mas was  unfortunately  a  bad  habit  with  our  forefathers  ; — 

"  Lordlings,  Christmas  loves  good  drinking. 

Wines  of  Gascoigne,  France,  Anjou, 
English  ale,  that  drives  out  thinking. 

Prince  of  liquors,  old  and  new. 
Every  neighbour  shares  the  bowl. 

Drinks  of  the  spicy  liquor  deep  ; 
Drinks  his  fill  without  control, 

Till  he  drowns  his  care  in  sleep." 

As    might    be    expected,    "  Christmas    broached    the 
mightiest  ale,"  and  a  very  old  wassailing  cry  was — 

"  Br>-ng  us  in  good  ale,  and  brj-ng  us  in  good  ale  ; 
For  our  blyssd  lady,  bryng  us  in  good  ale." 

The  singers  always  expected  a  black-jack  of  ale  and  a 
Christmas-pie.  A  favourite  draught,  also,  w^as  spiced  with 
a  toast,  stirred  up  with  a  sprig  of  rosemary  : — "  A  pot  of 
ale  consists  of  four  parts — imprimis,  the  ale  ;  the  toast ; 
the  ginger  ;  and  the  nutmeg."  Mead,  or  metheglin,  was 
another  Christmas  drink. 

About  three  centuries  ago  a  dinner  of  the  Christmas 
season — a  moderate  dinner,  too — consisted  of  this  pro- 
fusion : — The  first  course  of  "  sixteen  full  dishes  ;  that  is, 
dishes  of  meat  that  are  of  substance,  and  not  empty,  or  for 
show ;  as  thus,  for  example  :  first,  a  shield  of  brawn,  with 
mustard  ;  secondly,  a  boyl'd  capon  ;  thirdly,  a  boyl'd  piece 
of  beef ;  fourthly,  a  chine  of  beef,  rosted  ;  fifthly,  a  neat's 
tongue,  rosted ;  sixthly,  a  pig,  rosted ;  seventhly, 
chewets,  baked ;  eighthly,  a  goose,  rosted  ;  ninthly,  a 
swan,  rosted  ;  tenthly,  a  turkey,  rosted  ;  the  eleventh,  a 
haunch  of  venison,  rosted  :  the  twelfth,  a  pasty  of 
venison  ;  the  thirteenth,  a  kid,  with  a  pudding  in  the 
belly  ;  the  fourteenth,  an  olive-pye  ;  the  fifteenth,  a  couple 
of  capons  ;  the  sixteenth,  a  custard,  or  dowset.  Now,  to 
these  full  dishes  may  be  added  sallets,  fricassees,  quelques 
chases,  and  devised  paste,  as  many  dishes  more,  which 
make  the  full  service  no  less  than  two-and-thirty  dishes, 
which  is  as  much  as  conveniently  can  stand  on  cme  table, 
and  in  one  mess.  And  after  this  manner  you  may  propor- 
tion both  your  second  and  third  courses,  holding  fulness 
on  one  half  of  the  dishes,  and  show  in  the  other,  which  will 
be  both  frugal  in  the  splendour,  contentment  to  the  guest, 
and  much  pleasure  and  dehght  to  the  beholder." 


152 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 


i'lg. 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 

II.— MANURING   OF  GRASS   LANDS  {continued). 
The  Liquid  Manure  Cart  has  recently  undergone  some 

important  improvements.      The  old  plan  on  the  principle 

of  a  shower  of  rain  was,  in  the  application  of  pond  or 

river  water  to  grass,    comparatively 

free  froia  objection,   if   a    sufficient 

dose  was  applied  at   one  operation. 

But  the  distribution  of  liquid  manure 

on  this  plan  over  meadows  is  highly 

objectionable,  as  the  showering  pro- 
cess wastes   the  fertilising  elements 

from  the  manner  in  which  they  come 

in  contact  with  the  atmosphere. 
By  the  recent    improvements    the 

perforated  distributor  is  removed,  and 

a  simple  hose,  the   mouth  of  which 

is  allowed  to  trail  over  the  surface, 

applies  the  liquid  manure 

i>n  a  body,  with  very  little 

contact  with  the  atmo- 
sphere and  loss  of  ferti- 
lising matters.    The  use 

of  the  jet  is  very  detri- 
mental to  the  successful 

working  of  this  plan,  of 

applying  liquid  manure 

of  any  kind,  for  the  rea- 
son already  given — viz., 

waste  of  fertilising  ele- 
ments from  contact  with 

the   atmosphere.     Even 

for  pond  or  river  water 

the     objection     is    not 

wholly  removed,  al- 
though it  is  less. 

To  imitate  practically 

a   shower    of    rain,  the 

water  must  be  as  pure 

and   free  from    organic 

and  inorganic  matter  as 

rain-water.       The    jet, 

however,  is  a  superfluous 

adjunct   to  the  system, 

analogous  to  the  per- 
forated distributor  of  the 

old  liquid  manure  cart  ; 

so  that  the  system  itself 

can    be    simplified   and 

improved,  as  the  liquid 

manure    cart   has   been 

improved,    by      simply 

using  the  hydrants  and 

hose. 

Thus,    if    Fig.    I    be 

taken    to    represent    a 

small  farm  of  about  ten 

acres  of  meadow  land, 
the  whole  may  be 
watered  or  irrigated,  with 
sewage  or  river  water, 
by  twenty-two  chains  of 

piping  and  six  hydrants,  with  a  hose  over  two  chains  in  j 
length.      The  pipe  at  a   communicates  with  the  cistern  j 
into  which  the  liquid  has  been  pumped,  or  into  which  | 
it  flows  by  gravitation.     The  distribution  of  the  liquid 
to  the  hydrants  is    not   new   in   principle,  having  been 
successfully  in  use  under  the  old  practice,  so  that  the  only 
thing  which  modern    improvement  can   lay  claim  to  as 
novelty  is  the  use  of  the  hose  in  the  place  of  the  old 
wooden  water-runs  and  furrows,  for  distributing  the  water 
from  the  hydrants.    The  diameter  of  the  pipes  weed  not  be 


over  three  inches  in  favourable  situations,  and  four  inches 
in  less  favourable,  for  a  farm  of  ten  acres,  assuming  that  it 
has  a  full  command  of  town  sewage  or  river  water  for  irriga- 
tion. The  pipes  should  be  enamelled  inside,  the  better 
to  obviate  friction,  and  rusting  when  not  in  use.  Angular 
bends  are  to  be  avoided,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  and 
provision  requires  to  be  made  foe 
washing  out  the  pipes  when  the  work 
of  irrigation  is  flnishcd  for  a  time. 
The  hose  should  lie  on  the  ground  as 
the  old  wooden  water-runs,  purposely 
to  discharge  the  liquid  with  as  little 
force  and  agitation  as  possible.  This 
is  an  essential  to  success,  and  there- 
fore it  must  be  attended  to.  For  a 
similar  reason,  no  more  head  pressure 
should  be  applied  than  what  is  ne- 
cessary to  overcome  friction  and  pro- 
duce the  proper  discharge.  In  uneven 
ground  another  old  plan 
will  be  requisite  to  at- 
tain these  results — viz., 
a  wooden  box  or  tub-, 
into  which  the  liquid 
from  the  hose  is  dis- 
charged, and  out  of 
which  it  flows  gently  in 
shallow  wooden  runs. 
^/\  ^^^   ^^Kl         These   were    made    by 

■\jr^  ^ml.  F^  nailing  two   boards  an 

inch  or  two  in  depth  to 
a  bottom  board  three 
inches  in  breadth,  and 
about  twelve  feet  in 
length,  and  so  shaped 
at  the  ends  that  the 
water  flowed  out  of  one 
pipe  into  another,  when 
more  than  one  length 
was  required  on 
either  side  of  the  box 
or  tub. 

By  March  or  April  at 
the  farthest,  in  southern 
provinces,  a  portion  of 
the  meadow  should  be 
forced  forward  so  as  to 
be  fit  for  mowing,  and 
on  to  November  milch 
cows  should  have  a 
daily  supply  of  green 
food.  At  first  the  young 
grass  should  be  mixed 
with  old  hay  and  cut 
into  chaff,  adding  less 
and  less  hay  as  the 
cows  take  to  the  suc- 
culent grass,  which  is 
very  strong  in  spring. 

For  cutting  this  daily 
supply  of  fodder  the 
scythe  is  to  be  used,  but 
for  the  general  hay  har- 
vest, of  which  afterwards  we  shall  treat  fully,  we  strongly 
advise  the  mowing  machine.  In  the  first  place,  there 
is  an  economy  of  labour ;  in  the  second,  the  crop  can 
be  stacked  sooner,  and  so  run  fewer  risks  of  change  in 
the  weather. 

Having  thus  described  the  principal  operations  neces- 
sary, for  the  general  management  of  grass  land,  we  will 
now  proceed  to  consider  in  detail  what  scrts  of  grass 
it  is  most  desirable  and  profitable  to  cultivate  on  the 
cottage  farm. 


Fig.  7- 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


155 


ON  'IT?!-   GRASSES   BEST  ADAPTED   FOR    MF.ADOW  AND 
PASTURAGE. 

The  next  question  for  consideration  after  the  permanent 
improvement  of  the  land  under  grass  farming,  is  the 
mixture  of  grasses  best  suited  for  the  soil,  climate,  and 
system  of  husbandry  to  be  practised.  For  sewage 
manuring,  the  question  is  easily  answered,  as  Italian  rye- 
grass is  the  only  kind  adapted  for  it.  But  although  a 
groSs  feeder,  it  is,  under  the  forcing  system,  a  short-lived 
plant,  and  therefore  better  adapted  for  forage  over  arable 
or  mixed  husbandrj^,  than  for  permanent  meadow  and 
pasture.  For  such,  other  kinds  are  to  be  preferred,  and 
these  we  shall  proceed  to  notice.  In  almost  every  locahty 
there  are  meadows  and  pastures  naturally  rich,  and  the 
grasses  to  be  found  on  them  are  generally  considered 
the  safest  guide  as  to  what  suits  soil  and  climate.  The 
following  selection  of  grasses,  clovers,  &c.,  with  the  soil 
and  climate  natural  to  each,  and  eight  illustrations,  will 
enable  the  cottager  to  examine  the  meadows  and  pastures 
of  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  judge 
for  himself  as  to 
what  best  suits  his 
own  peculiar  soil 
and  climate.  The 
illustrations  are 
only  intended  for 
practical  guid- 
ance. 

Sweet  -  scented 
Vernal  Grass  {A  n- 
thoxanthum  odor- 
atuin),  Fig.  5.  — 
This  is  one  of  the 
earliest  grasses:  it 
flowers  in  May, 
and  grows  freely 
on  most  soils.  It 
is  permanent  in 
most  meadows  and 
pastures.     Its  rich 

aromatic  scent,  as  its  botanical  name  implies,  gives  that 
peculiarly  delicious  fragrance  which  so  frequently  strikes 
us  in  newly-made  hay,  as  well  as  in  the  newly-mown 
grass  before  it  has  undergone  the  process  of  being  made 
into  hay. 

Cocksfoot  {Dactylus  gionierata),  Fig.  4,  is  one  of  our 
best  meadow  and  pasture  grasses.  It  is  well  adapted  for 
deep,  retentive,  loamy  soils,  but  does  not  grow  so  freely  on 
sandy  land,  or  thin  soils  with  a  hard  bottom.  In  America 
it  is  termed  orchard  grass,  as  it  grows  well  under  the 
shade  of  fruit  trees. 

Golden  or  Yellow  Oat  Grass  {Avena Jlavescens),  Fig.  7, 
is  a  late  grass,  growing  freely  on  calcareous  soils, 
especially  in  pastures  and  meadows  of  considerable 
altitude.  When  kept  down  and  fresh  in  pastures,  milch 
cows  are  fond  of  it ;  but  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  to 
seed. 

Crested  Do^stail  {Cynosuriis  crlstatus),  Fig.  9,  is 
another  upland  hay  and  pasture  grass.  It  is  a  hard  grass 
good  for  pasture  on  loams,  but  should  not  be  allowed  to 
run  to  seed,  as  "  the  bents  so  brown"  are  not  browsed  by 
cows,  or  eaten  by  cattle  of  any  kind.  One  of  the  spikelets 
magnified,  is  shown  at  a.  Its  time  of  flowering  is  between 
the  middle  and  end  of  July,  so  that  if  not  cropped  short 
before  this  period  by  cattle,  it  should  be  mown  close  with 
the  scythe. 

Meadow  Foxtail  {Alopecurus  pratensis),  Fig.  6,  is 
an  early  grass,  which  flowers  in  May,  and  is  commonly 
met  with  in  hay  meadows  and  pastures,  for  both  of 
which  it  is  well  adapted  on  medium  loamy  soils.  Like 
Fig.  9,  it   should   be   prevented  from   running  to   seed 


in  pasture.     It  grows   rapidly  after  being  cropped,  and 
is  much  relished  by  cattle. 

Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass  {Poa  trivialis),  Fig.  2, 
and  Smooth-stalked  Meadow  Grass  {Poa  pratense),  are 
two  of  our  best  hay  and  pasture  grasses.  In  their  outward 
appearance  they  closely  resemble  each  other,  but  their 
culms  differ,  as  their  names  imply.  Thus,  the  ligule  or 
small  tongue  of  the  leaf  of  the  rough-stalked  grass,  «,  is 
pointed,  whereas,  in  the  smooth-stalked  grass,  b,  it  is 
round  and  blunt.  They  both  flower  in  June,  and  prefer 
a  deep,  moist,  and  rich  soil,  to  a  dry,  poor  one,  and  shel- 
tered rather  than  exposed  situations.  And  when  growing 
in  their  natural  habitat,  they  are  greedily  eaten  by  milch 
cows. 

Perennial  Rye-grass  {Foliinn  perenne),  Fig.  3,  is  valu- 
able both  for  hay  and  permanent  pasturage.  There  are 
several  varieties  besides  the  one  in  Fig.  3,  and  Italian 
j  rye-grass  already  alluded  to,  as  one  of  our  best  grasses  for 
I  sewage  manuring,  because  a  gross  feeder  and  rapid  grower. 
1  The  Devon  heaver,  or  evergreen  variety,  is,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, a  rich  pasture 
grass  throughout 
the  year.  The 
annual,  which  is 
more  truly  a  bi- 
ennial kind,  yields 
a  heavy  crop  of 
hay,  but  it  is  only 
fit  for  alternate 
arable  husbandry. 
The  American 
"Rocky  Mountain 
Brome  Grass^^ 
{Bromns  Schra- 
derii).  Fig.  8» 
sometimes  termed 
"  prairie  grass," 
has  of  late  found 
much  favour 
amongst  the  cot- 
tage farmers  of 
France.  Of  course 
this  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  ornamental  "prairie 
grass"  so  frequent  in  gardens.  The  "  Rocky  Mountain 
grass"  is,  however,  only  a  sub-perennial,  and  therefore 
requires  special  management  when  it  is  employed  for 
exclusive  grass  farming.  It  grows  .  best  on  rich  dry- 
soils  ;  but  will  bear  high  manuring,  and  produce  heavy 
crops,  on  poor  soils  if  dry  ;  but  it  dislikes  wet  soils,  and 
the  chilling  frosts  of  winter  to  which  they  arc  subject.  The 
yield  is  large  and  coarse,  but  relished  by  cows,  botli 
as  green  forage  and  hay.  "  M.  Lavelle  reports  that  at 
the  end  of  some  days,  every  one  of  his  family  was 
astonished  at  the  improvement  which  had  taken  place  in 
the  milk,  and  still  more  in  the  butter."  Its  natural 
habitat  is  said  to  be  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  central 
North  America,  but  it  has  been  found  in  other  places. 
It  promises  well  in  Australia,  where  it  has  been  intro- 
duced, and  may  suit  a  French  climate  better,  perhaps, 
than  an  English  one  generally  ;  but  for  some  small  farms 
in  our  southern  provinces,  it  merits  attention,  as  half  an 
acre  or  so  of  it  would  yield  abundance  of  rich  green 
meadow  forage  for  milch  cows. 

All  our  large  agricultural  seedsmen  supply  mixtures  of 
seeds  for  laying  down  land  to  permanent  meadow  or 
pasture,  and  for  renovating  the  same,  adapted  for  different 
climates  and  geological  formations  ;  but  the  difficulty  ex- 
perienced in  practice  in  ordering  seeds  arises  from  the  fact 
that  the  staple  soil  consists  of  drifted  and  warp  materials 
of  several  formations,  so  that  the  farm  of  the  cottager,  small 
as  it  is,  may  consist  of  two  or  more  different  kinds  of  soil. 
His  safest  course,  therefore,  when  he  examines  the  grasses 
actually  growing  in  his  meadows  or  pastures,  is  to  com- 


Fig. 


154 


DOMESTIC    SURGERY, 


pare  them  with  others  on  similar  soils  in  his  neighbour- 
hood. To  assist  him  further  in  doing  so,  a  few  more 
grasses  adapted  for  different  soils  may.  be  enumerated 
without  illustrations.  Staple  soils  will  be  discussed  under 
Arable  Husbandry. 

In  addition  to  the  two  poa  grasses  above,  Fig.  2,  the 
narrow-leaved  meadow  {Poa  angiistifolia)  is  an  excel- 
lent hay  and  pasture  grass,  and  found  in  most  brown, 
friable,  sandy  clay  soils.  The  fertile  meadow  grass  {Poa 
fertilis)  is  rather  early  and  fine,  but  not  so  productive  for 
hay  and  pasture  as  the  last.  It  grows  in  light  and  sandy 
clays.  Water  meadow  grass  {Poa  aquatica)  thrives  on 
moist  clays  and  embankments  where  it  gets  water,  and 
produces  coarse  but  heavy  crops.  The  Alpine  meadow 
grass  {Poa  aipina)  is  best  suited  for  elevated  pastures. 
It  is  relished  by  cattle,  and  grows  freely  at  considerable 
elevations.  Wood  meadow  grass  {Poa  nemoralis)  forms 
rich  pasture  under  trees.  All  these  meadow  grasses  have 
a  kindred  resemblance  to  Fig.  2,  and  may  be  easily 
recognised  in  the  meadows  and  pastures. 


DOMESTIC  SURGERY. 

Frost-Bitc. — The  effects  of  cold,  if  severe,  are  scarcely 
less  dangerous  than  those  of  heat,  though  not  so  frequently 
met  with,  in  this  country,  at  least.  Probably  the  com- 
monest form  of  frost-bite  is  the  ordinary  chilblain,  and  its 
close  resemblance  to  a  burn  is  shown  by  the  fact  of  a 
vesicle  forming  and  leaving  a  sore  behind  it  just  as  if  the 
part  had  been  burnt.  As  the  worst  thing  for  a  burn  is  to 
apply  cold,  so  the  worst  thing  for  a  frost-bite  is  to  apply 
heat,  and  this  is  frequently  seen  in  the  case  of  people  who 
put  their  cold  feet  to  the  fire,  and  so  produce  the  chilblains 
of  which  mention  has  been  made.  A  frost-bitten  part 
loses  its  natural  colour,  becomes  of  a  tallowy  white, 
feels  numbed  and  insensible,  and,  if  not  judiciously 
treated,  may  mortify  and  drop  off.  The  proper  treatment 
is  to  restore  the  circulation  in  the  part,  t/^ry  slowly  and 
gradually,  and  for  this  purpose,  friction  should  be  used 
with  the  hand,  containing  snow  or  dipped  in  ice-water. 
The  patient  should  be  kept  from  the  fire,  and  in  an  airy 
room,  until  the  sensation  in  the  limb  and  its  colour  are 
fully  restored.  When  a  limb  is  really  severely  frost-bitten, 
immediate  recourse  should  be  had  to  medical  advice,  as 
the  patient  may  lose  a  part  of  it,  or  hardly  escape  with  his 
life.  A  person  who  has  been  long  exposed  to  a  low  tem- 
perature, particularly  if  either  very  young  or  very  aged, 
or  in  feeble  health,  may  be  so  completely  overcome  as  to 
be  in  very  considerable  danger.  The  first  evidence  of 
thi§  is  a  drowsiness,  which  becomes  after  a  time  perfectly 
irresistible,  but  which,  if  indulged,  is  equally  fatal.  Every 
effort  should  be  made  to  rouse  the  patient,  and  to  keep 
him  awake  until  shelter  is  reached,  when,  if  already  passed 
into  an  insensible  condition,  medical  aid  should  be  at  once 
summoned.  In  the  meantime,  the  patient  should  be 
stripped  and  wrapped  in  a  blanket,  and  friction  of  the 
limbs  with  the  hands  should  be  [carefully  and  steadily 
carried  on.  A  little  warm  milk  may  be  cautiously  ad- 
ministered with  a  spoon  pushed  well  back  into  the  throat, 
and,  if  an  enema  is  at  hand,  some  warm  water  or  milk 
may  be  thrown  up  into  the  bowels.  Recourse  should  be 
had  to  artificial  respiration,  if  the  patient  does  not  breathe 
even  slightly  ;  but  for  instructions  how  to  carry  out  this 
recommendation,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chapter  on 
the  treatment  of  drowning,  a  much  more  common  casualty 
than  severe  frost-bite. 

Gunpowder  Accidents^  though  similarly  treated  to 
burns  and  scalds,  must  be  confided  to  professional 
hands,  if  possible.  The  effect  of  the  explosion  of 
gunpowder  upon  the  patient  differs  according  to  the 
proximity  and  the  force  of  the  explosion.  Loose  or 
slightly  compressed  gunpowder,  as  in  a  "  squib,"  scorches 
the  patient   by  its   explosion,  and   is  apt   to   carry  un- 


burnt  grains  of  the  powder  into  the  skin.  These  leave 
an  ugly  and  almost  indelible  mark  ;  for  though  it  is  true 
that  the  grains  of  powder  may  be  picked  out  with  a 
needle,  few  sufferers  will  endure  the  operation,  which  is 
necessarily  painful.  The  explosion  of  tightly-compressed 
powder,  as  when  contained  in  a  powder-fiask,  is  of  a  most 
violent  character,  and  is  sure  to  lead  to  such  injury  of  the 
hand  which  holds  it  as  to  require  immediate  surgical 
attention.  This  accident  is,  in  fact,  only  mentioned  here 
in  the  hope  that  a  hand  may  be  saved  by  calling  attention 
to  the  fool-hardy  feat  which  so  often  occurs  with  the 
same  disastrous  result — the  pouring  powder  from  a  flask 
into  an  open  fire.  Of  course  a  complete  train  is  thus 
established  from  the  fire  to  the  flask,  with  the  most 
dreadful  results  to  the  foolish  performer  of  the  experiment. 

GuJt-shot  Injuries,  and  particularly  those  occurring  in 
civil  practice  from  the  incautious  use  of  fowling-pieces, 
are  always  most  serious  in  their  nature,  and  require  most 
skilful  professional  treatment.  As  some  time  must  ordi- 
narily elapse  between  the  occurrence  of  the  accident  and 
the  arrival  of  the  surgeon,  it  may  be  well,  however,  to 
indicate  the  treatment  to  be  pursued.  In  the  first  place, 
the  bleeding  should  be  arrested  by  binding  up  the  wound 
in  the  manner  already  described.  Secondly,  as  the  patient 
will  be  certain  to  be  suffering  severely  from  "  shock,"  it 
will  be  advisable  to  keep  him  in  the  recumbent  position, 
to  apply  warmth  to  the  extremities,  and— if  the  bleeding 
has  been  controlled — to  give  stimulants  cautiously.  We 
take  this  opportunity  of  calling  attention  to  the  folly — we 
may  almost  say  wickedness — of  pointing  any  weapon, 
whether  believed  to  be  loaded  or  otherwise,  at  another 
person  in  jest.  Such  jests  have  so  frequently  turned  out 
to  be  miserable  and  irremediable  mistakes,  from  the  gun 
being  unexpectedly  loaded,  that  we  very  strongly  maintain 
that  from  earliest  childhood  every  boy  should  be  forbidden 
to  point  even  a  pop-gun  at  a  living  person. 

Injuries  from  Chei}iicals  are  comparatively  rare  acci- 
dents, though  they  may  prove  most  serious  in  their  results. 
The  applicatioH  of  any  of  the  strong  mineral  acids — 
nitric,  sulphuric,  or  hydrochloric — to  the  surface  of  the 
body  will  char  the  cuticle,  and,  if  not  immediately  washed 
off,  or  neutralised  with  an  alkali — soda,  potash,  or  limC' — 
will  eat  into  the  part,  giving  rise  to  excruciating  pain  and 
destruction  of  the  tissue.  In  the  same  way  the  application 
of  the  caustic  alkalies  will  destroy  the  surface,  and  require 
to  be  neutralised  with  some  diluted  acid,  of  which  vinegar 
is  a  convenient  form.  The  most  serious  form  of  accident 
from  chemical  substances  is  when  they  are  swallowed  by 
mistake,  and  these  cases  require  immediate  and  active 
medical  treatment.  Pending  the  arrival  of  a  medical  man, 
no  harm  can  be  done  in  any  case  by  administering  olive 
oil  or  uncooked  eggs  ;  but  the  surgeon  will  of  course  use 
his  discretion  as  to  the  means  to  be  subsequently  adopted. 

Particles  oi  quick-litne  are  occasionally  blown  into  the 
eye,  and  produce  very  serious  mischief  if  not  immediately 
attended  to.  Since  it  is  the  contact  with  the  tears  which 
produces  the  caustic  effect,  it  is  of  no  use  to  merely  bathe 
the  eye  with  water,  and  fortunately  an  antidote  is  at  hand 
in  vinegar,  which,  when  mixed  with  water  and  applied  to 
the  eye,  produces  an  insoluble  salt  of  lime,  and  arrests  the 
mischief  When  all  pain  has  been  allayed  by  the  use  of 
the  vinegar  and  water,  a  drop  of  castor-oil,  placed  between 
the  lids,  will  give  great  comfort  to  the  patient  ;  but 
medical  advice  should  be  sought  if  there  are,  as  will 
frequently  be  the  case,  white  marks  left  upon  the  surface 
of  the  eye-ball. 

Foreign  Bodies  introduced  into  various  parts  of  the 
body  cause  more  or  less  mischief  ;  and,  as  a  rule,  the 
earlier  they  are  removed  the  better  for  the  patient. 

Dust  in  the  Eye  is  a  familiar  example,  and  is  very 
distressing  from  the  irritation  in  that  sensitive  organ 
which  it  immediately  excites.  \Vhen  the  foreign  body 
is   merely    lying    beneath    the    eye-lid  it   can   often   be 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


»55 


immediately  removed  1)y  drawing  the  upper  lid  well  down 
over  the  lower,  and  then  allowing  the  eye  to  be  slowly 
opened,  when  very  generally  tlie  intruder  will  be  en- 
tangled in  the  lower  lashes  and  thus  removed.  If  this 
little  manoeuvre,  repeated  once  or  twice,  does  not  prove 
successful,  it  will  be  necessary  to  turn  the  upper  lid  up,  so 
as  to  expose  its  under  surface.  This  can  be  accomplished 
by  a  non-professional  person  with  a  little  care,  and  with- 
out any  risk  of  injuring  the  eye,  as  follows  : — The  patient 
being  seated,  and  leaning  his  head  back  against  the 
operator's  breast,  the  latter,  holding  an  ordinary  bodkin 
in  one  hand,  presses  it  gently  on  the  outside  of  the  lid, 
-  and  about  half-way  down.  With  the  fingers  of  the  other 
hand  he  then  seizes  the  eye-lashes,  and,  drawing  the  lid 
a  little  forward,  turns  it  up  over  the  bodkin.  This  will  be 
accomplished  readily  enough  if  the  operator  is  steady  and 
the  patient  willing,  and  the  whole  surface  of  the  eye  will 
then  be  exposed,  when  the  foreign  body  can  be  seen  and 
removed.  If,  however,  the  particle  is  of  a  pointed 
character — e.g.,  a  piece  of  steel — and  is  embedded  in  the 
cornea,  or  transparent  covering  of  the  eye-ball,  the  assist- 
ance of  a  surgeon  should  be  at  once  obtained  to  ensure 
its  safe  and  early  removal.  In  any  case  of  injury  to  the 
surface  of  the  eye  the  application  of  a  drop  of  castor  or 
other  oil,  as  recommended  in  the  previous  section,  will  be 
found  of  great  service. 

Foreign  bodies  are  often  introduced  by  children  into  the 
nose  or  ear,  in  sport,  and  are  generally  of  a  more  or  less 
globular  form,  such  as  beads,  pebbles,  cherry-stones,  or 
beans.  These,  if  near  the  orifice,  may  be  readily  hooked 
out  with  one  of  the  common  ear-picks  found  in  ladies' 
dressing-cases,  or  with  the  loop  of  a  common  hair-pin  ; 
but  if  more  deeply  placed,  injudicious  poking  with  instru- 
ments may  do  harm,  especially  in  the  ear,  and  it  is  better 
to  have  recourse  to  the  injection  of  a  stream  of  warm 
water  with  a  good-sized  syringe,  by  which  the  inter- 
loper may  be  washed  out.  In  the  case  of  the  nostril,  a 
violent  sneeze,  induced  by  the  inhalation  of  a  pinch  of 
snuff  or  pepper,  will  often  dislodge  the  obstacle,  but  if 
recourse  is  had  to  syringing,  the  best  method  is  to  inject 
the  water  through  the  opposite  nostril,  when,  if  the  patient 
leans  forward,  and  keeps  the  mouth  open,  the  water  will 
run  round  the  back  of  the  nose  and  out  at  the  affected 
nostril,  bringing  the  foreign  body  with  it.  The  vulgar 
notion  that  '"  earwigs"  have  a  tendency  to  find  their  way 
into  the  ear,  is  a  popular  delusion,  but  as  it  occasionally 
happens  that  an  ant  or  other  small  insect  enters  the  ear, 
and  gives  rise  to  pain  and  irritation,  it  may  be  well  to 
mention  that  the  simplest  way  of  relieving  the  sufferer  is 
to  place  the  head  horizontally  and  to  fill  the  ear  with  water, 
■when  the  insect  will  be  at  once  floated  out  of  the  cavity. 

Foreign  bodies  in  any  part  of  the  luind-pipe  are  always 
serious,  and  may  be  immediately  fatal.  The  accident 
commonly  happens  from  a  child  having  some  plaything, 
such  as  a  bean,  small,  marble,  bead,  or  nut-shell,  in  its' 
mouth  and  being  desired  to  take  it  out,  when,  either  in 
the  hurry  to  obey,  or  possibly  from  its  disinclination  to  do 
so  being  quickened'  by  a  cuff,  the  foreign  body  slips  into 
the  wind-pipe,  and  produces  serious  mischief.  In  the 
well-known  case  of  the  late  Mr.  Brunei,  the  eminent 
engineer,  whose  life  was  endangered  by  an  accident  of 
this  kind,  it  arose  from  his  performing  a  conjuring-trick 
with  a  half-sovereign  in  his  mouth,  and  the  coin  slipping 
into  his  wind-pipe.  When  the  foreign  body  becomes 
fixed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  wind-pipe  or  larynx,  so  as 
to  obstruct  the  breathing,  the  patient  becomes  black  in 
the  face,  and  falls  back  apparently  dead.  This  sometimes 
happens  during  a  meal,  from  a  child  or  grown-up  person 
happening  to  cough  while  eating,  and  thus  drawing  a 
piece  of  food  into  the  air-passages.  Whatever  the  cause, 
a  by-stander  should,  without  hesitation,  thrust  his  fore- 
finger to  the  back  of  the  throat,  and  endeavour  to  hook 
up  with  it  the  offending  body,  and  this  can  often  be  done, 


when  the  patient  will  at  once  breathe  again.  If  this 
method  is  not  successful,  the  patient,  if  a  child,  should  be 
held  up  by  the  legs  and  be  smartly  thmnpcd  betwucn  the 
shoulders,  when  not  improbably  the  foreign  body  will 
drop  on  to  the  floor,  and  the  child  will  then  begin  to 
respire  and  cry  ;  but  if  respiration  is  still  suspended,  cold 
water  dashed  on  the  chest  will  probably  rouse  it,  or,  if  i)ot, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  artificial  respiration,  as  described 
under  the  head  of  Suspended  Animation  (page  iii).  Of 
course,  medical  aid  will  be  summoned  at  once  in  any  case 
of  serious  choking,  if  possible,  but  the  majority  of  these 
cases  do  well  without  it.  If,  however,  the  foreign  body  is 
not  dislodged  by  the  efforts  of  by-standers,  an  operation 
will  be  necessary  to  save  life,  and  every  moment  will  be 
of  importance.  Even  if  the  urgent  symptoms  have  passed 
off,  and  the  child  appears  to  be  restored  to  health,  yet,  if 
the  foreign  body  has  not  been  fotmd,  the  advice  of  a 
surgeon  should,  nevertheless,  be  sought  at  once,  as  it  may 
still  be  lodged  in  the  deeper  air-passages,  where  it  may 
cause  fatal  mischief  if  not  dislodged  at  an  early  period. 

Foreign  bodies  seldom  lodge  in  the  gullet,  and  such 
obstacles  as  fish-bones  can  generally  be  got  down  safely 
into  the  stomach  by  swallowing  a  large  mouthful  of  well- 
masticated  bread.  In  cases  where  this  does  not  succeed 
in  removing  the  bone,  a  medical  man  should  be  sent  for, 
who  can,  by  a  very  simple  treatment,  get  rid  of  the 
obstruction.  The  most  serious  obstruction  is  a  set 
of  false  teeth,  since  the  plate  upon  which  they  are  fixed  is 
apt  to  become  entangled  in  the  mucous  membrane,  and 
necessitate  a  serious  surgical  operation.  The  best  way  to 
avoid  such  an  accident  is  for  the  wearers  of  artificial  teeth 
on  no  account  to  go  to  bed  with  them  in  their  mouths, 
since  it  is  usually  during  sleep  that  the  accident  happens. 

Foreign  bodies,  such  as  coins,  often  pass  into  the 
stomachs  of  children,  and  give  unnecessary  alarm  to  their 
friends.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  such  articles 
would  pass  through  the  intestines  Avithout  any  treatment, 
but  certainly  the  worst  treatment  possible  is  to  give  the 
child  purgative  medicine,  as  is  so  often  done.  Either  an 
emetic  of  mustard  and  water  should  be  administered  at 
once,  so  as  to  bring  up  the  foreign  body,  or,  if  the  case  is 
seen  too  late  for  this,  every  effort  should  be  made  to  cover 
it  over  with  more  or  less  adhesive  food,  so  that  it  may  pass 
readily  through  the  bowels.  Pins  or  needles,  when  swal- 
lowed, should  always  be  treated  in  this  latter  way.  The 
best  regimen  for  a  child,  under  these  circumstances,  is 
plenty  of  bread  and  milk,  with  common  hard  dumplings 
and  bread  and  cheese  for  his  dinner,  and  a  careful  avoid- 
ance of  fruit,  &c.,  until  the  indigestible  body  has  come 
awa)'. 


FURNITURE. 

III.  —  BEDROOM     FURNITURE. 

The  furnishing  of  bedrooms  affords  scope  for  great 
taste  in  selecting  expensive  articles,  or  for  much  ingenuity 
in  fitting  and  adapting  materials  to  the  limits  of  small 
means,  yet  such  as  shall  not  be  devoid  of  beauty  or 
elegance.  Mahogany  now  takes  the  place  of  the  dark 
well-polished  oak  of  former  days.  The  silver  fir  and 
enamelled  furniture  are  specialities  of  different  makers, 
the  one  being  polished  or  varnished  deal,  white  or  stained, 
and  the  other  painted  in  delicate  colours,  and  varnished, 
or  japanned,  as  it-  is  termed  by  the  trade.  Of  the  two, 
the  deal  is  the  most  useful,  and  is  not  inelegant.  The 
only  drawback  to  the  beauty  of  enamelled  wood  is  that  it 
shows  every  spot  and  finger-mark,  and  cannot  be  cleaned 
without  some  tarnish.  A  carefully-trained  housemaid  will 
not  soil  it  with  uncleanly  touch ;  but  splashings  will  show 
on.  the  washstand.  Mahogany  is  certainly  the  best  wood 
for  bedroom  furniture,  and  is  not  expensive.  Hirchwood 
is  excellent  also,  and  when  of  good  grain  in  tint  resembles 
satin-wood,  formerly  so  much  prized.     Chairs,  tables,  and 


156 


FURNITURE. 


washstands  are  made  of  it.  It  never  stains  nor  spots, 
nor  do  water  drops  show  on  it  so  much  as  on  mahogany. 
There  is  little,  if  any  difference  in  the  price  of  these 
woods.  Full-sized  Arabian  bedsteads  may  be  had  of 
either  from  £1.  17s.  6d.  to  twelve  guineas.  A  bedroom 
may  be  furnished  for  ^120,  and  yet  not  have  anything  in 
it  excessively  costly,  or  for  £-^"6,  or  for  £zo,  and  less  ; 
all  depends  upon  material,  workmanship,  and  design. 
There  is  little  difficulty  in  selecting  furniture  when  ex- 
pense is  no  object,  but  when  means  are  limited  it  is 
another  affair.  It  may  be  asked  what  kind  of  bedsteads 
will  best  repel  insects.  Experience  has  shown  that  wood 
and  iron  are  invaded  without  distinction,  and  that  no 
wood  is  known  to  be  safe  from  them  except  one,  and  this 
is  quassia,  or  the  bitter-wood  of  commerce. 

As  a  wood  for  bedroom  furniture  which  shall  look  well 
to  the  eye,  and-be  really  useful,  mahogany,  even  for  limited 
means,  is  in  the  end  the  cheapest,  because  it  never  wears 
shabby,  and  it  can  be  cleaned  and  polished.  Beechwood 
bedsteads,  when  painted  in  imitation  of  oak,  and  var- 
nished, look  clean  and  even  handsome,  but  in  three  years 
they  require  cleaning  and  fresh  japanning,  as  it  is  termed. 
Japanned  imitations  of  maple  look  as  if  spotted  by  flies 
or  other  insects.  There  is  very  little  difference  in  the 
price  between  a  plain  mahogany  and  a  painted  Arabian, 
or  half-tester  bedstead ";  but  a  very  handsome  mahogany 
would,  of  course,  be  considerably  dearer  ;  still,  a  good- 
looking  bedstead  of  mahogany  is  attainable  for  a  moderate 
price. 

In  cheap  bedsteads  there  are  generally  some  defects. 
They  are  as  showy  as  others  more  expensive,  but  the 
blemishes  have  to  be  discovered.  If  a  bedstead  is  dis- 
played in  an  upholsterer's  shop,  and  it  be  chosen,  probably 
the  intending  purchaser  will  be  told  that  -  one  equally 
good,  if  not  better,  can  be  sent.  The  one  shown  is  only 
a  specimen,  and  cannot  readily  be  taken  down.  How- 
ever, examine  well  the  uprights  which  support  the  head, 
see  that  there  are  no  cracks  or  warp  of  wood,  also  observe 
the  places  where  the  casters  are  screwed  on ;  see  that  the 
mid-rib — if  it  may  be  so  called,  the  piece  of  wood  which 
underneath  the  laths  extends  from  head  to  foot  of  the 
bedstead — is  strong  and  unwarped,  and  that  the  laths  fit 
in  easily.  It  would  be  a  most  desirable  thing  if  makers 
of  bedsteads  would  introduce  narrow  laths  of  some 
flexible  material,  instead  of  the  miserable  deal  laths  now 
prevalent,  and  which  necessitate  a  straw  palliasse,  a 
wool  mattress,  and  a  bed  ;  better  have  the  entire  space 
between  the  sides  filled  with  plain  wood,  not  laths,  for 
then  the  palliasse  can  be  dispensed  with. 

Spring  mattresses  are  excellent  so  far  as  they  go,  but 
these,  too,  have  their  discomforts.  In  some  the  springs 
are  set  on  strong  strips  of  wood,  and  are  entirely  open 
to  inspection,  so  that  if  one  spring  gets  out  of  order,  it 
can  be  replaced  without  trouble,  and  at  little  expense  ;  but 
the  failing  is  that  the  surface  material  being  drawn  over 
the  springs  at  the  head  and  foot,  the  mattress  is  sunk 
when  it  should  be  higher  at  the  head,  or  at  least  level 
with  the  centre.  v,To  obviate  this  defect  a  bolster  stuffed 
with  cotton  flock  should  be  placed  at  the  head  and  foot. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  spring  mattresses  are  the  best 
for  comfort  and  cleanliness,  but  should  have  an  addi- 
tional mattress  on  the  top,  to  prevent  unequal  pressure 
on  the  springs.  The  mattress  may  be  of  horsehair,  of  wool, 
or  of  three  or  four  coarse  blankets,  quilted  not  too  closely 
together.  The  last  contrivance  has  great  advantages, 
inasmuch  as  blankets  are  easily  detached  from  each  other, 
washed,  and  put  together  again.  A  wool  mattress  must 
be  understood  as  one  not  of  cotton  flocks — which  lump 
quickly  in  hard  masses — but  of  sheep's  wool.  The  variety 
in  the  prices  of  this  kind  arises  from  the  quality  and 
length  of  wool.  The  best  are  of  pure  wool,  and  will 
cost  at  least  ^4  los.  For  the  same  price  an  excellent 
hair  mattress  can  be  purchased ;  an  inferior  one,  which, 


in  appearance,  thickness,  and  softness  of  wool,  is  equaJ 
to  the  first,  will  cost  about  £\  7s.  The  one  will  be  made 
of  long  wool,  either  pure  from  the  sheep,  or  the  combings 
from  blankets  in  one  process  of  their  manufacture,  and 
in  their  wear  will  not  readily  "  felt,"  or  the  fibres  separate 
into  lumps.  The  inferior  kind  are  made  of  wool  picked 
from  old  carpets,  worn  blankets,  &c.,  which  is  generally 
short,  and  of  various  colours,  or  brown  only,  and  "  felts," 
or  masses,  readily  into  lumps.  In  France  wool  mat- 
tresses are  opened  once  a  year.  The  wool  is  picked 
loose  with  the  hand,  the  dust  is  beaten  out  with  sticks, 
and  when  thus  cleansed  the  mattress  is  re-made.  In 
England  it  is  the  fashion  to  have  what  is  termed  a  bor- 
dered style  of  mattress,  and  which  only  an  upholsterer 
can  re-make.  In  France  the  envelope  of  the  wool  is 
cotton,  and  in  shape  like  a  sheet,  but  with  a  line  or  mark 
down  the  centre.  The  women  who  re-make  them  lay  the 
beaten  wool  in  even  layers  on  the  half  of  the  covering, 
then  turn  the  remaining  half  over,  sew  the  sides  securely, 
and  with  a  mattress-needle  fasten  the  wool  in  its  place  at 
regular  intervals,  as  is  done  in  English  mattresses. 

Feather  beds  are  not  now  in  such  general  use  as  for- 
merly. After  they  have  been  in  use  for  some  time,  they 
should  be  purified  by  steam.  There  are  several  qualities 
of  feathers,  and  of  course  a  difference  in  the  price  ;  as 
also  of  the  ticking  and  the  shape  of  the  bed.  A  bordered 
bed  is  more  expensive  than  a  plain  one,  because  there  is 
more  labour  in  making  the  casing.  Excellent  bed,  bolster, 
and  pillows,  may  be  had  for  six  pounds  five  shillings,  and 
the  very  best  for  ten  pounds. 

There  are  various  qualities  of  goose  feathers,  distia- 
guished  by  different  names,  though  to  the  uninitiated  they 
appear  very  nearly  alike  in  everything  but  colour.  The 
best  feathers  are  fluffy,  with  down  on  the  stems,  and  are 
curved,  or  curled  as  it  is  termed — the  fluffier  the  better — 
and  the  best  white  feathers  have  this  fluffiness  in  perfec- 
tion: they  are  also  cleaned  and  bleached.  The  diflerence 
of  quality  mainly  consists  in  the  feathers  having  a  more 
or  less  degree  of  down  on  them.  A  good  bed  may  easily 
be  recognised  if,  on  pressing  it,  the  feathers' rise  quickly, 
forcing  the  ticking  up  with  them.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  do  not  rise,  the  feathers  are  old  or  of  very  inferior 
quality,  more  likely  old  because,  if  feathers  are  subjected, 
to  a  steam  process,  they  are  thereby  cleaner  and  their 
down  and  other  filaments  rendered  light  and  elastic. 

Much  difference  of  opinion  has  arisen  about  the  whole- 
someness  of  sleeping  upon  feather  beds.  There  is  no- 
doubt  that  spring  mattresses  will,  when  they  can  be  cheaply 
made,  supersede  in  a  great  measure  feather  beds,  as  being 
less  liable  to  take  infection,  and  more  easy  to  arrange,  and 
occasion  less  dust  than  feather  beds.  The  dust  which 
often  arises  in  shaking  feather  beds,  is  due  to  a  process 
used  to  prevent  the  feathers  from  coming  through  the 
ticking  ;  a  cheating  process,  which  respectable  upholsterers 
ought  not  to  adopt.  It  was  formerly,  and  ought  to  be  so 
now,  the  universal  practice  to  rub  the  inside  of  the  ticking 
with  beeswax,  which  was  wholesome  and  answered  the  de- 
sired end.  Now,  even  the  ticking  of  a  good  bed  is  painted 
over  on  the  inside  with  whitening  and  size,  or  some  equi- 
valent; the  result  is,  that  when  it  is  quite  dry,  the  dust 
comes  through.  In  purchasing  a  bed,  have  a  portion  of  it 
ripped  open,  that  no  mistake  may  be  made  in  the  matter. 

In  reference  to  wardrobes  or  their  equivalents,  the 
weight  of  the  purse  must  determine  which,  some  few 
hints  may  be  given.  Wardrobes  may  be  had  at  any 
price,  from  five  pounds  to  one  hundred  guineas,  with  a 
looking-glass  in  the  centre  door,  or  without.  The  straight 
glass  is  an  excellent  arrangement.  A  well-made  winged 
wardrobe  is  a  splendid  piece  of  furniture,  always  provided 
that  the  ornamentations  be  not  too  elaborate  and  minute. 
In  these  dust  soon  gathers  and  makes  the  whole  thing  look 
shabby  and  worn.  A  winged  wardrobe,  means  a  centre 
door,  with  or  without  plate  glass  in  it ;  this  opens  and 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


157 


reveals  four  or  five  drawers,  and  above  these  is  generally 
a  small  recess  with  two  doors  on  each  side.  On  each  side 
this  centre  arrangement  is  a  door  which  on  opening  pre- 
sents a  hanging  closet  ;  also  at  the  bottom,  generally  a 
deep  drawer :  sometimes  the  drawers  here  are  omitted.  A 
japanned  wardrobe  of  this  description  can  be  purchased 
without  the  glass  for  nine  guineas,  w^ith  it,  for  eleven 
guineas.  A  smaller  wardrobe  of  japanned  wood,  with  a 
hanging  recess  only,  enclosed  by  a  door  and  with  two  deep 
drawers,  will  cost  about  fi\-e  guineas.  Mahogany  and 
walnut  wardrobes  can  be  had  at  any  intermediate  price 
from  eight  guineas  to  eighty  and  upwards.  Walnut-wood 
is  a  trirte  more  expensive  than  mahogany.  Very  good 
substitutes  for  hanging  closets  may  be  made  by  utilising 
the  recesses  which  are  to  be  found  in  every  modern  house, 
instead  of  the  capacious  cupboards  and  closets  with  which 
an  old  one  abounds.  A  deal  shelf  should  be  placed  six 
feet  from  the  ground  in  one  of  the  recesses,  and  a 
foot  or  two  above  this  a  second  shelf  Underneath  the 
lowest  shelf  should  be  inserted  wooden  pegs,  or  a  bronzed 
iron  rod,  with  five  bronzed  hooks  which  slide  along  the 
rod,  or  one  of  the  portable  mahogany  "hanging  wardrobes," 
as  they  are  termed,  supported  by  two  strong  brass-headed 
nails ;  this  arrangement  covered  by  ample  dimity  or  chintz 
curtains,  or  lace  over  pink  cambric,  at  once  improvises  a 
hanging  closet.  There  should  be  double  curtains,  one 
short  one,  or  two  meeting  in  the  centre,  arranged  with 
curtain-rings,  on  an  iron  rod,  the  two  ends  slipped  into  two 
iron  staples.  The  lower  curtains  are  managed  in  the  same 
way,  but  so  that  they  may  be  drawn  or  undrawn,  without 
materially  interfering  with  the  upper  one.  White  dimity 
curtains,  which  may  be  made  ornamental  by  bordering 
them  with  dimity  of  coloured  stripes,  are  the  best  kind 
and  the  least  trouble  in  "getting  up." 

Two  very  useful  articles  in  a  room,  are  a  tray-press  for 
dresses,  and  a  boot  and  shoe  press  with  a  tray.  That  for 
dresses  should  be  a  box  as  long  as  the  bedstead  is  wide  ; 
any  packing-box  will  do,  covered  both  on  the  outside  and  in- 
side. When  the  cover  is  lifted,  the  front  should  unhook 
and  fall  down  on  hinges,  and  reveal  inside  three  trays, 
made  to  slide  in  and  out ;  the  trays  are  of  course  taped  in 
the  usual  manner,  so  that  when  any  dress  deposited  upon 
them  is  wanted,  it  can  be  removed  without  disturbing 
the  others.  The  lid  should  have  strong  hinges  and  a  lock, 
and  a  cushion  made  square  at  the  edges  (like  a  bordered 
bed),  stuffed  with  worsted  wool,  and  nailed  on  at  the  edges 
with  tin  tacks.  The  inside  paper  should  be  blue.  The 
outside  may  be  covered  with  black  leather-cloth  glued  on, 
so  that,  if  needed,  the  box  will  bear  a  journey  or  a  voyage. 
To  make  it  look  handsome  in  the  room,  it  must  have  a 
chintz  covering  lined  with  unbleached  calico,  or  any  other 
strong  and  cheap  material,  and  this  slipped  over  the  box, 
so  that  it  is  readily  removable  for  access  to  its  contents. 

Bedroom  chairs  are  to  be  bought  at  all  prices,  and  of 
all  descriptions,  but  mahogany,  rosewood,  and  walnut  are 
rarely,  and  excepting  by  desire,  sold  as  bedroom  chairs. 
Birch,  sycamore,  and  bamboo  are  used.  The  old-fashioned 
rush-seated  chair  has  given  place  to  interlaced  cane, 
which  is  to  be  preferred  for  appearance  and  cleanliness, 
as  rush  seats  hold  the  dust.  Chairs  painted  in  blue,  or 
pink  and  white,  match  similarly  painted  furniture  ;  all 
others  vary  in  price  from  3s.  6d.  to  8s. 

A  sofa,  or  an  easy-chair,  is  desirable  in  a  bedroom 
(though  a  very  serviceable  reclining  couch  may  be  impro- 
vised from  the  garde-robe  box  above  described,  with  the 
addition  of  a  pillow).  An  excellent  sofa,  convertible  into 
a  bed,  if  needed,  and  soft  enough,  is  attainable  for  65s., 
and  even  a  less  sum.  Bedroom  sofas  and  easy-chairs 
sliould  not  exhibit  much  of  wood,  and  should  be  well 
stu;Ved  with  worsted  wool.  Some  of  them  are  miserable 
a:T.iirs,  and  to  be  avoided. 

It  is  common  to  have  mahogany  wash-stands  with 
m.irbic  tops,  ^<^{  when  the  other  furniture  is  of  polished 


deal,  certainly  the  wash-stand  should  be  the  same ;  but  as 
marble  would  be  out  of  place  on  deal,  the  top  should  be 
painted  a  plain  white,  not  marbled.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
renew  this.  A  good  way  to  keep  the  top  of  a  wash-stand 
always  fresh-looking,  is  to  cover  it  with  a  fringed  cloth  of 
white  damask  or  thin  towelling.  A  portion  of  the  centre 
should  be  cut  out,  if  needed,  to  admit  the  basin.  Marble 
tops  are  liable  to  get  very  discoloured  and  spotted.  Many 
recipes  have  been  published  for  cleaning  marble  ;  but 
stains  made  by  chemicals  are  usually  indelible.  A  mis- 
tress will  need  to  be  very  particular  in  observing  that  a 
marble  top  is  kept  clean  by  being  wiped  every  day,  and  at 
least  twice  a  week  it  should  be  scrubbed  with  hot  water 
and  soda,  without  soap.     Acids  destroy  the  polish. 

There  arc  points  about  chests  of  drawers  which,  if  fur- 
niture be  desired  to  last,  should  be  looked  to.  One  set 
will  appear  outwardly  as  good  as  another,  though  at  a 
much  lower  price,  and,  of  course,  much  inferior  in  quality. 
Inferior  chests  of  drawers  are  made  of  common  white 
deal,  the  drawers  are  roughly  dove-tailed  together,  and 
the  backs  of  the  chests,  not  of  the  drawers,  so  thin  and 
rough  that  they  will,  after  a  time,  scarcely  bear  removal 
from  one  room  to  another  ;  the  locks  are  badly  put  in, 
and  are  of  the  commonest  description  ;  moreover,  the 
drawers  are  with  difficulty  pulled  out  or  pushed  in,  from 
the  wood  being  green  and  unseasoned,  old,  or  otherwise 
of  inferior  equality. 


THE    TOILETTE. 


I. — MAN.-VGEMENT    OF    THE    SKIN   {cotlimued). 

The  Shingles. — Every  mother  ought  to  be  able  to 
recognise  this  form  of  eruption.  The  shingles  attacks 
one  side  only — it  may  be  the  face,  the  trunk,  or  the 
limbs,  generally  it  is  the  side  of  the  chest.  The  disease 
is  often  preceded  by  sharp  neuralgic  pain — it  may  be 
severe— followed  by  an  eruption  of  little  bladders,  the  size 
of  millet-seeds  or  small  peas,  in  clusters  of  some  ten, 
twenty,  or  more,  on  a  red  base.  The  pain  is  relieved  by 
the  eruption.  Fresh  crops  appear,  so  that  the  eruption, 
after  a  few  days,  is  observed  to  extend  in  a  band- 
like form  from  the  spine  behind  round  the  side  to  the 
middle  line  of  the  chest  before— that  is,  encircling  half 
the  chest.  The  band  of  eruption  is  not  continuous,  but 
made  up  of  several  patches.  After  a  few  days,  the  little 
bladders  dry,  and  scabs  succeed.  In  ten  or  fourteen 
days  all  trace  is  gone,  save  a  little  pitting  and  redness. 
!  The  disease  must  not  be  meddled  with.  We  should  take 
care  not  to  let  it  be  irritated  by  the  clothes,  or  by  any 
rubbing  ;  but  apply  at  first  a  little  starch  powder,  and 
after  a  day  or  so  a  little  zinc  ointment  spread  on  linen. 
If  there  be  much  pain  after  the  rash  has  come  out,  special 
remedies  will  be  needed,  which  the  medical  man  must 
prescribe  ;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  treatment  is 
to  be  a  let-alone  one.  When  shingles  occurs  in  the  face, ' 
it  attacks  one  side  ;  and  when  in  the  arms  oc  legs,  it  docs 
not  encircle  them,  but  runs  down  the  limb  parallel  to  its 
long  axis.  On  the  trunk,  the  eruption  fe,  so  to  speak, 
horizontally  disposed. 

Sore  N//>/>/es.— These  chiefly  result,  first,  from  the  suck- 
ling of  the  child  at  nipples  that  have  been  flattened,  so  to 
speak,  or  pressed  upon  by  tight  dresses  ;.  and,  secondly, 
by  the  want  of  cleanliness.  Mothers  should,  therefore, 
always  take  care  to  prevent  any  pressure  by  the  dress. 
The  'nipple,  after  nursing,  where  there  is  a  tendency  to 
soreness,  should  be  sponged  with  warm  water  and  washed 
with  a  little  weak  rum  and  water,  or  borax  and  glycerine, 
and  this  should  be  removed  before  the  child  is  put  to  the 
breast.  On  no  account  should  milk  be  permitted  to  remain 
about  the  nipple,  for  when  it  gets  sour  it  causes  irrita- 
tion. Another  good  plan  is  to  get  very  thin  leaden 
shields,  to  wear  when  the   child  is    not  at   the   breast. 


158 


THE    TOILETTE. 


If  the  nipples  are  actually  sore,  nothing  is  better  than  the 
application  of  a  little  glyceral  tannin,  applied  night  and 
morning  with  a  camel's  hair  pencil.  It  must  be  removed 
with  a  sponge  and  warm  water  when  the  child  sucks.  If 
the  child's  mouth  is  hot,  it  should  be  washed  each  time  after 
being  put  to  the  breast  with  a  little  borax  and  honey. 

Nettle-rash. — This  is  a  very  troublesome  affair,  some- 
times, in  children.  It  is  known  by  the  sudden  appearance 
of  little  places,  like  those  produced  by  the  sting  of  the 
nettle,  after  itching  in  a  part ;  and  the  special  feature 
of  the  spots  is,  that  they  rapidly  vanish— in  a  few  minutes, 
oftentimes.  They  are  excited  by  scratching,  and  appear 
specially  at  night,  when  the  child  gets  warm.  Mothers 
should  be  careful  to  examine  in  these  cases  for  bugs 
about  the  room  and  bed  in  which  the  child  sleeps,  for 
they  very  often  produce  the  disease  in  irritable  skins. 
Flannel  should-  not  be  worn  next  the  skin.  The  child 
should  take  a  little  aperient,  and  be  placed  each  night  in 
a  tepid  bath  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  in  which  is  dissolved 
three  ounces  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  two  pounds  of  size  ; . 
after  which  it  should  be  dried  by  gentle  "  dabbing,"  and 
should  have  "whitening"  applied  to  the  irritable  parts, 
with  a  brush.  Several  lumps  of  whitening  maybe  softened 
up  with  water  into  a  semi-liquid  paste.  The  powder  is 
allowed  to  dry  on  at  night,  and  it  is  sponged  off  in  the 
morning.  This  plan  is  good  for  simple  cases  of  nettle-rash. 
The  Itch. — This  unpleasant  disease  is  very  common, 
and  often  occurs  in  the  most  cleanly  person.  It  is  caused 
by  the  burrowing  under  the  skin  of  a  little  insect  called 
'(k&Acanis  scabiei.  These  acari  prefer  to  attack  the  thin 
skin  between  the  fingers,  and  hence  itch  most  commonly 
— in  fact,  practically  always  in  adults — begins  between  the 
fingers.  It  then  spreads  to  the  wrists  and  the  front  of 
the  arm.  The  irritation  set  up  by  the  acari,  together  with 
the  scratching,  induces  a  pimply  rash  pretty  generally 
over  the  front  of  the  body.  The  pimples  are  always 
separate.  Between  the  fingers,  they  look  like  little  pointed 
watery  bladders,  the  size  of  a  pin's  head,  and  the  most 
characteristic  appearance  is  the  presence  of  a  little  black 
line  the  breadth  of  a  human  hair,  and  in  length  about  two 
or  three  lines,  running  away  from  the  little  vesicle,  as  the 
bladdery  pimple  is  called.  This  is  the  burrow  of  the 
insect.  Those  who  are  accustomed  to  the  disease  can 
at  once  pick  out  the  insect  from  the  end  of  the  burrow, 
which  looks  like  a  minute  white  speck  but  just  discernible 
to  the  naked  eye.  In  many  cases  it  has  been  scratched 
out,  and  its  burrow  opened  by  the  finger-nails.  The 
itching  is  bad  at  night  when  the  patient  gets  warm  in 
bed,  or  at  any  time  when  the  sufferer  remains  too  near 
the  fire,  because  the  itch  insects  then  become  active  and 
lively.  The  annexed  is  the  representation  of  the  itch 
insect.  But  how  are  mothers  and 
others  to  know  when  the  itch  is 
amongst  members  of  the  family? — 
whenever  a  minute  rash  occurs  be- 
tween the  fingers  in  the  form  of  small 
watery  pimples,  spreading  on  to  the 
front  part  of  the  arms,  and  is  accom- 
panied by  itching,  especially  at  night. 
When  the  rash  spreads  to  the  front 
part  of  the  body,  and  more  than  one 
member  of  the  family  is  attacked, 
the  suspicion  of  itch  should  at  once 
be  entertained.  The  rash  of  itch 
does  not  occur  on  the  outside  of  the 
arms,  or  on  the  back,  except  in  very 
severe  cases,  and  these  should  at 
once  be  taken  to  a  doctor.  Now 
the  itch  commences  chiefly  about  the  hands  in  adults  ; 
in  young  children  it  may  be  absent  from  these  parts, 
and  may  commence  about  "  the  seat,  whilst  it  also 
attacks  the  feet.  It  leads  in  children  to  places  like 
little  boils,  besides  a  pimply  rash.     When,  therefore,  a 


child  comes  out  with  an  itchy  rash  about  the  seat, 
and  this  is  followed  by  little  boil-like  scabbed  spots 
on  the  same  place  and  about  the  feet,  it  probably  is 
troubled  with  the  itch ;  and  this  is  all  the  more  likely  to 
be  the  case  if  the  nurse  has  a  pimply  rash  about  the 
hands  or  on  the  arms.  There  are  many  pimply  rashes 
which  occur  about  the  child's  back,  but  then  these  are, 
in  every  case,  uniform,  whereas  in  itch  the  rash  is 
multiform.  There  are  red  pimples,  vesicles,  and  boil-like 
eruptions,  together  with  great  itching ;  and  sometimes  the 
irritation  is  sufficient  to  induce  spots  like  those  produced 
by  the  sting  of  the  nettle.  Now  the  itch  if  it  be  recog- 
nised at  an  early  date,  is  very  easily  cured,  and  the  remedy 
is  sulphur,  which  kills  the  acari.  The  general  mistake 
which  is  made  is  in  the  too  long- continued  and  too 
extensive  use  of  a  much  too  strong  sulphur  ointment. 
The  acari,  or  itch  insects,  are  found  chiefly  about  the 
hands,  and  it  is  to  this  part  that  the  sulphur  should  be 
applied.  Once  kill  the  acari  here,  and  the  general  irritation 
and  rash  subside.  It  is  quite  sufficient  to  use  the  sulphur 
for  about  three  days,  and  to  rub  in  an  ointment,  composed 
of  thirty  grains  of  sulphur,  five  drops  of  oil  of  camomile, 
five  grains  of  white  precipitate,  and  five  of  carbonate  of 
potash,  with  an  ounce  of  lard,  to  the  parts  between  the 
fingers,  and  about  the  wrists,  if  there  are  any  pimples, 
night  and  morning  freely.  Smear  the  ointment  very 
gently  over  other  pimply  places  for  three  days.  At  the 
end  of  that  time,  the  whole  body  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  with  soap  and  water,  and  the  disease,  if  it  is  of 
recent  origin,  will  be  well.  If  the  itching  do  not  then 
cease,  it  may  be  advisable  to  continue  the  ointment  for  a 
couple  of  days,  using  it  gently,  and  rubbing  it  in  only  to  any 
little  bladdery  pimples  that  appear  about  the  hands.  An 
eminent  authority  recommends  this  simple  treatment ;  he 
condemns  sulphur  baths,  or  the  ordinary  sulphur  ointment 
of  the  shops,  and  he  says  that  he  is  often  consulted  about 
cases  in  which  the  too  free  use  of  sulphur  has  cured  the 
itch,  but  has  set  up  an  artificial  irritation  and  inflamma- 
tion of  the  skin,  which  is  even  more  tormenting  than  the 
original  disease,  and  is  sometimes  troublesome  to  cure. 
The  clothes  worn  by  persons  attacked  with  itch  should  be 
thoroughly  well  baked,  or  scalded  in  the  hottest  water. 

Ringworm  of  the  Body. — This  is  a  very  common  and 
often  a  troublesome  complaint.  It  generally  occurs  in 
little  circular  red  scurfy  itching  patches  ;  indeed,  we  may 
say  that  any  patch  which  is  quite  round,  of  the  size  of 
from  a  sixpence  to  a  five-shilling  piece,  which  does  not 
discharge  or  weep,  which  is  covered,  not  by  crusts,  but 
thin  scales,  and  which  "clears"  in  the  centime, is  ringworm. 
If  it  occur  in  one  member  of  a  family  in  connection  with 
ringworm  of  the  head  in  other  members,  we  have  no  doubt 
of  its  nature.  There  is  a  circular  form  of  eruption,  in  which 
there  are  red  hard  elevations  of  a  dull  red  tint,  much  like 
ringworm  ;  but  true  ringworm  is  never  elevated — never 
much  raised  above  the  level  of  the  skin.  The  disease 
mostly  occurs  about  the  back  of  the  neck,  the  forehead,  or 
the  arms.  It  is  caused  by  a  vegetable  fungus  with  roots 
between  the  cells  of  the  scarf-skin,  and  sets  up  the 
irritation  we  notice.  The  cure  is  easy  in  the  early 
stage.  Ink,  repeatedly  applied,  is  a  favourite  and  useful 
remedy.  If  severe,  the  application  of  acetic  acid  is  of 
service ;  it  will  blister,  and  must  not,  therefore,  be  rubbed 
in  too  strongly.  The  following  ointment  may  be  recom- 
mended for  general  use :— White  precipitate,  3  grains  ; 
creasote,  3  drops  ;  citrine  ointment,  i  drachm  ;  adeps,  or 
cerate,  i  ounce.  Rub  in  night  and  morning  pretty  freely, 
till  all  itching  or  scaliness  disappears.  The  other  forms 
of  ringworm  will  be  described  in  speaking  of  the  hair. 

Lice,  or  Pcdiculi. — These  unpleasant  visitors  sometimes 
make  their  appearance  in  the  heads  of  those  children  who 
are  either  uncleanly,  or  who  are  debilitated  by  severe 
disease.  If  they  are  numerous,  it  is  best  to  cut  the  hair 
short,  to  wash  the  head  verj^  thoroughly  with  soap  and 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


159 


water,  and  to  apply,  under  a  cap,  a  little  benzine,  so  as  to 
confine  the  vapour.  This  will  destroy  all  the  live  creatures. 
Ordinary  stavesacre  ointment  may  be  used,  or  an  ointment 
smeared  over  the  scalp  for  a  day  or  two — not  rubbed  in — 
of  ten  grains  of  white  precipitate,  to  an  ounce  and  a  half 
of  lard,  scented  strongly ;  for  pediculi  hate  scents  as  much 
as  they  do  soap  and  water.  Tonics  must  be  given  to  the 
weak,  and  pomade  scented  with  oil  of  lavender  should  be 
constantly  used  to  prevent  their  reappearance.  In  those 
who  are  uncleanly,  the  remedy  is  obvious. 


HOUSEHOLD   AMUSEMENTS.— H. 

Prussian  Exercises.  —  The  players  are  drawn  up  in 
line  along  one  side  of  the  apartment,  and  are  supposed  to 
represent  a  regiment.  On  the  extreme  right  of  the  party 
a  corporal  is  stationed,  and  the  captain,  selected  for  his 
knowledge  of  the  game,  takes  his  place  in  front.  It  is 
his  duty  to  give  the  word  of  command  for  the  movements  of 
the  line,  and  he  must  do  this  with  mock  solemnity,  how- 
ever absurd  the  antics  which  he  orders  to  be  performed. 
Thus,  he  commences  with  the  ordinary  "  Attention  ! 
Eyes  right  !"  at  which  all  are  bound  to  look  straight  at 
the  commander  ;  and  he  then  gives  such  orders  as  his 
own  will  and  experience  may  dictate.  "  Fold  arms  ;" 
"Extend  arms!"  "Slap  cheeks!"  "Tweak  noses!" 
"Ground  knees!"  and  similar  evolutions,  are  all  to  be 
performed  at  the  same  instant  by  the  whole  company, 
under  penalty  of  a  forfeit ;  and  the  corporal  on  the  right, 
who  has  had  a  previous  consultation  with  the  captain,  sets 
the  example  for  the  guidance  of  the  rest,  where  the  mean- 
ing of  the  order  is  not  clear.  At  the  word  "March!" 
the  party  must  move  one  foot  after  the  other,  as  in  walk- 
ing, but  without  changing  position  ;  at  "  Right  march  !" 
they  move  the  right  leg  only,  backwards  and  forwards  ; 
"  Left  March  !"  they  do  the  same  with  the  left.  "  Ground 
knees!"  may  be  varied  by  "Ground  right  knee!"  or 
"  left,"  and  in  this  case  the  regiment  sinks  with  that  knee 
to  the  ground.  This  is  a  favourable  position  for  bringing 
the  amusement  to  a  climax,  as  follows  : — When  the  party 
are  on  one  or  both  knees,  the  order  is  given,  "  Present 
arms  !"  which  they  do  by  stretching  them  straight  out  in 
front.  The  next  command  is  "  Fire  ! "  and  the  corporal 
who  is  in  the  secret,  then  gives .  his  next  neighbour  a 
nudge  with  the  shoulder.  This  causes  him,  as  he  is  already 
kneeling,  to  loose  his  equilibrium  ;  and  falling  sidewise, 
he  brings  down  the  next  person  to  him,  and  so  on  along 
the  whole  line,  which  is  thus  "  floored "  in  a  moment. 
When  young  ladies  and  gentlemen  are  playing  together, 
and  it  is  thought  desirable  to  wind  up  the  exercises  in 
more  polite  fashion,  the  word  may  be  given  to  "  Salute  !" 
The  players  having  been  stationed  alternately  according  to 
sex,  each  gentleman  then  salutes  his  neighbour  to  the  right, 
to  the  left,  or  on  both  sides,  as  the  captain  may  order. 

The  Courtiers. — One  of  the  company  is  selected  to  be 
king  or  queen,  and  occupies  a  chair  in  the  centre  of  the 
room,  the  rest  being  seated  round  the  sides  of  the 
apartment.  Whatever  movement  may  be  made  by  the 
uonarch  must  be  imitated  by  the  courtiers  ;  and  it  is  the 
-;ist  of  the  game  that  this  should  be  done  without  any  one 
losing  that  assumption  of  decorous  gravity  which  becomes 
the  scene.  The  monarch  may  yawn,  sneeze,  blow  his 
nose,  or  wipe  his  eye,  and  the  courtiers  must  all  do  the 
same  ;  but  if  any  one  of  them  is  so  deficient  in  self-control 
or  so  presumptive  as  to  grin  or  to  laugh,  he  or  she  must 
pay  the  penalty  of  a  forfeit.  It  is  rarely,  however,  that 
penalties  are  few  or  far  between. 

The  Dumb  Orator. — This  is  a  very  amusing  perform- 
ance, enacted  by  two  persons  for  the  benefit  of  the  rest  of 
the  company.  One  of  the  two  recites  a  speech,  or  any 
popular  piece  of  declamation — "  My  name  is  Norval,"  or 
the  like — keeping  all  the  while  perfectly  motionless,  and 


without  a  quiver  upon  his  countenance,  while  the  other, 
standing  silent  by  his  side,  gesticulates  furiously,  accord- 
ing to  the  emotions  called  up  by  the  passage  recited.  Of 
course,  the  more  closely  he  follows  and  burlesques  the 
action  natural  to  the  words  throughout,  the  greater  the 
amusement  created.  There  is  another  way  of  performing 
the  same  oratorical  show,  namely,  by  the  two  players 
enveloping  themselves  in  the  same  cloak  or  wrapper,  and 
the  arms  of  the  one— which  are  all  the  company  are 
allowed  to  see  of  him — keeping  up  an  action  suited  to  the 
narrative  of  the  other  ;  but  this  is  more  awkward  in  the 
performance,  and  less  effective  than  the  method  first 
described. 

Speaking  Buff.— At  this  game,  the  eyes  of  one  of  the 
players  are  bandaged,  as  in  "  blind  man,"  and  he  is  seated 
in  the  centre  of  the  room,  the  party  then  taking  their 
places.  "Buff"  holds  a  wand  or  stick  in  one  hand,  and, 
when  all  are  seated,  he  points  with  this  to  one  side  of  the 
room,  or  touches  one  of  the  players,  at  the  same  time 
uttering  three  words  according  to  his  fancy.  The  person 
towards  whom  he  points  must  then  repeat  these  words; 
and  if  "  Buff"  can  discover  his  or  her  identity  by  the  tones 
of  the  voice,  he  is  released  from  his  position,  and  the 
person  detected  takes  his  place. 

The  Shopkeepers. — This  is  a  good  game  to  exercise  a 
knowledge  of  the  various  productions  of  nature.  Each 
person  in  the  company  represents  a  shopkeeper  or  mer- 
chant, who  has  some  goods  on  hand  which  he  wishes  to 
dispose  of ;  but  no  two  persons  may  choose  the  same 
trade.  Any  one  may  start  the  game — say,  for  instance, 
the  draper — and  he  commences,  we  will  suppose,  by  ob- 
serving to  his  next  neighbour,  "  I  have  some  silk  for  sale  ; 
is  it  animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral  .-*"  To  this  the  reply 
would  be,  "  Animal,  for  it  is  the  production  of  the  silk- 
worm." The  correct  answer  having  been  given — we  will 
assume  by  the  chemist — the  latter  turns  to  the  person 
next  him,  with  an  inquiry  suited  to  his  trade  ;  say,  "I 
have  some  glycerine  for  sale ;  is  it  animal,  vegetable,  or 
mineral  ?"  The  rejoinder  would  be,  "  Either  animal  or 
vegetable,  for  it  may  be  obtained  from  either  vegetable  or 
animal  fat."  The  merchant,  in  his  turn,  may  say,  "  I  have 
some  shell-lac  iox  %?i\Q.;  is  itanimal,  vegetable,  or  mineral?" 
and  should  receive  the  reply, '"  Animal,  for  it  is  obtained 
from  an  insect."  So  the  game  goes  on,  the  ingenuity  of 
each,  as  it  proceeds,  being  taxed  to  mention  some  article 
of  his  stock,  the  origin  of  which  may  not  be  within  the 
knowledge  of  the  person  addressed.  A  round  or  two  of 
the  game  will  rarely  proceed  without  some  of  the  company 
finding  that  they  have  added  to  their  store  of  general 
knowledge,  as  well  as  derived  amusement.  Any  such  in- 
formation as  that  contamed  in  the  series  of  papers  on  , 
The  Natural  History  of  Commerce,  which  appears  in  the 
"  Popular  Educator,"  may  be  turned  to  account  in  sport, 
as  well  as  in  matters  of  graver  moment.  The  game  may 
be  played,  either  with  forfeits  as  the  penalty  of  an  incorrect 
reply,  or  by  simply  restricting  the  person  who  does  not  an- 
swer correctly  from  disposing  of  any  of  his  own  articles — 
that  is,  from  putting  any  question  in  his  turn — during 
that  round. 

Twirling  the  Trencher. — This  is  a  brisk  game,  requiring 
activity  wkhout  ingenuity.  A  circle  is  formed  in  the 
room,  and  a  good  space  is  left  clear  in  the  midst.  A 
trencher  or  round  wooden  platter  is  obtained,  or,  if  such  a 
thing  is  not  available,  a  small  round  tray  or  waiter  will 
best  answer  the  purpose.  When  all  the  party  are  seated, 
one  of  the  company  stands  up  in  the  centre  and  twirls  the 
tray  round  upon  the  floor,  at  the  same  time  calling  out 
the  name  of  any  other  person  present,  who  must  rise  and 
pick  up  the  trencher  before  it  falls  to  the  ground,  other- 
wise he  or  she  pays  a  forfeit.  The  person  who  twirls  the 
trencher  returns  to  his  own  scat  immediately,  and  the  one 
who  picks  it  up,  or  has  been  called  upon  to  do  so,  has  the 
privilege  of  making  a  call  afterwards. 


i-So 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES. 


Provcris  is  a  game  of  a  more  intellectual  character. 
In  this,  one  person  volunteers,  or  is  chosen  by  the  com- 
pany, to  leave  the  room,  and  in  his  or  her  absence  a  pro- 
verb is  fixed  upon  by  the  remaining  party.  The  person 
outside  is  then  called  in,  and  the  first  person  whom  he 
addresses  with  any  remark  or  inquiry,  is  bound  to  reply 
to  liim  with  an  answer  in  which  the  first  word  of  the  pro- 
verb is  introduced.  The  second  person  to  whom  he  goes 
must  reply  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  in  the  second  word  ; 
and  so  on,  until  the  proverb  has  been  repeated.  He  is 
then  informed  that  he  need  not  proceed  further,  and  is 
left  to  guess  the  proverb  chosen.  If  he  fails  in  three 
attempts,  he  must  again  retire,  and  his  ingenuity  is  tried 
by  the  selection  and  repetition  of  another  proverb.  Any 
one  making  an  answer  in  which  the  right  word  in  turn  is 
not  introduced,  pays  the  penalty  of  a  forfeit,  and  the 
company  are,  therefore,  on  the  watch  to  see  that  each 
person  addressed  duly  performs,  the  part.  The  great 
art  of  the  game  is  in  so  wrapping  up  the  word  in  the 
course  of  the  reply  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  the  guesser  to 
•discover  the  proverb  which  was  chosen.  Some  proverbs 
are  far  more  easy  of  detection  than  others,  from  the 
forcible  or  peculiar  words  comprised  in  them,  or  the  diffi- 
culty which  the  answerers  find  in  concealing  the  words 
which  fall  to  them  in  rotation.  "  Still  waters  run  deep" 
may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the  class  difficult  of  con- 
cealment, for  "waters"  and  "deep"  are  awkward  words 
to  introduce,  and  will  easily  connect  themselves  in  the 
mind  of  the  guesser,  who  is  on  the  watch  for  his  clue. 
"  Where  tl>cre's  a  will  there's  a  way"  is  more  capable  of 
disguise,  but  "will"  and  "way"  will  reveal  themselves  to 
a  person  quick  of  apprehension.  None  of  the  proverbs 
chosen  should  consist  of  very  many  words,  or  the  guess- 
ing may  become  tedious.  When  the  proverb  is  detected, 
the  guesser  is  entitled  to  claim  that  some  one  else  shall 
take  his  place,  and  may,  if  he  pleases,  select  for  that  pur- 
pose the  person  whose  insufficient  disguise  of  the  allotted 
word  gave  him  his  first  clue.  Or  he  may  name  any  one 
else  in  the  company  for  the  purpose.  If  the  guesser  tries 
his  skill  two  or  three  times  without  success,  he  may  claim 
relief  from  his  office,  and  some  one  else  may  be  appointed. 
In  this,  as  in  all  other  games,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
when  weariness  on  any  side  commences,  amusement  is  at 
an  end  ;  and  where  there  are  symptoms  of  a  game  reach- 
ing that  point,  it  should  be  relinquished  for  another. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 
A  KNOWLEDGE  of  customary  weights  and  measures  is  very 
desirable,  and,  therefore,  the  following  tables  have  been 
•  drawn  up  in  the  most  simple  form.  No.  i  is  the  most 
extensively  used  of  all  weights,  being  that  by  which  we 
buy  and  sell  nearly  everything  that  is  weighed.  No.  2  is 
used  principally  for  weighing  gold  and  silver.  No.  3  is 
often  met  with  in  physicians'  prescriptions,  although  drugs 
are  now  sold  by  avoirdupois  weight.  No.  4  is  that  by 
which  diamonds  and  other  gems  are  weighed.  The  grain 
i-s  divisible  into  sixteen  parts.  No.  5  represents  the  most 
frequently  used  of  measures  of  length.  The  articles 
marked  with  a  star  (*)  are  of  less  common  occurrence,  and 
are,  in  fact,  only  employed  for  special  purposes,  when 
they  arc  used.  The  degree  consists  of  only  sixty  geogra- 
phical miles,  which  are  equal  to  sixty-nine  and  a  half 
statute  miles.  No.  6  is  used  for  measuring  surfaces,  and 
is  employed  by  carpenters,  glaziers,  land-surveyors,  &c. 
No.  7  is  for  measuring  stone,  marble,  timber,  and  other 
solid  bodies.  No.  8  is  used  for  measuring  a  great  variety 
of  goods,  both  dry  and  liquid. 

Numerous  other  measures  were  formerly  in  use,  but  are 
not  here  given,  as  being  out  of  date.  There  are  also  cer- 
tain articles  of  commerce,  as  wool,  cheese  and  butter,  hay 
and  straw,  firewood,  &c.,  for  which  peculiar  weights  are 
used,  but,  as  these  are  principally  employed  in  wholesale 


trade,  they  also  are  omitted.  Coah  were  once  sold  by 
measure,  but  must  now  be  sold  by  weight.  In  London 
and  elsewhere,  a  ton  of  coals  consists  of  ten  sacks,  each, 
sack  containing  two  hundredweights.  Potatoes  are  now 
commonly  sold  by  weight,  though  measures  are  still  used 
in  some  places. 

I.— AVOIRDUPOIS    WEIGHT. 
I  Grain  (gr.) 

I  Scruple...         equals  10  Grains. 

I  Dram     „  3  Scruples. 

I  Ounce  (oz.)        „  16  Drams. 

I  Pound  (lb.)        „  16  Ounces. 

I  Stone  (for  meat  or  fish)      •     „  8  Pounds. 

I  Stone  (for  general  purposes)  „  14  Pounds. 

1  Hundredweight  (cwt.)             „  112  Pounds. 

I  Ton        „  20  Cwt. 


2. — TROY  WEIGHT, 
1 

I  Grain  (gr.) 

1  Pennyweight  (dwt.) 

I  Ounce  (oz.) 

I  Pound  (lb.) 


equals     24  Grains. 
„         20  Dwt. 
„         12  Ounces. 


-ArOTHECARIE.S'  WEIGHT. 


I  Grain. 
I  Scruple  .'. 
I  Drim 
I  Ounce    .. 
I  Pound    .. 


equals 


20  Grains. 

3  .Scruples. 

8  Drams. 
12  Ounces. 


4. — DIAMOND  MEASURE. 

I  Carat     ...         ...         ...  ecjuals     4    Grains. 

I  Carat     „         3.I  Gr.  Troy. 

5. — LONG  MEASURE. 
I  Inch. 

I  Nail  *    ...         ...         ...  equals 

I  Palm  * „ 

I  Hand  * „ 

I  Span  *  . . .         ...         ...  „ 

I  Foot       ...         ...         ...  „ 

I  Yard      ...         ...         ...  „ 

I  Ell*      

I  Fathom  *         ...         ...  „ 

I  Pole  or  Rod 


I  Furlong... 
I  Mile  (statute) 
I  League  ... 
I  Degree  ... 


i\  Inches. 

3  Inches. 

4  Inches. 
9    Inches. 

12    Inches. 
3    Feet. 
\\  Yards. 
2    Yards. 
51  Yards. 


„  40  Poles. 

,,  8  Furlongs. 

„  3  Miles. 

„  69  Miles. 

6.— SUPERFICIAL  MEASURE. 
I  Square  Inch. 

I  Square  Foot     ...  equals  144    Square  Inches. 

I  Square  Yard     ...  „  9    Square  Feet. 

I  Square  Pole     ...  „  30J  Square  Y'ards, 

I  Rood      „  40    Square  Poles, 

I  Acre       „  4    Roods. 

7. —CUBIC  OR   SOLID   MEASURE. 
I  Cubic  Inch. 

I  Cubic  Foot  equals  1,728  Cubic  Inches. 

I  Cubic  Yard       „  27  Cubic  Feet. 

r  „  40  Feet  of  Rough  Timber, 

I  Load  cr  Ton  -|  or 

(  „  50  Feet  of  Hewn  Timber. 

I  Ton  Shipping    „  42  Cubic  Feet. 

8.— HOLLOW    MEASURE, 

I  Gill. 

I  Pint        

I  Quart     ... 

I  Potde     

I  Gallon   ... 

I  Peck      

I  Bushel 

I  Coom     ... 

I  Quarter... 


equals 


4  Gills. 
2  Pints. 
2  Quarts. 
4  Quarts. 
2  Gallons. 
8  GalloHs. 
4  Bushels. 
8  Bushels. 


CASSELL'S  HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


i6r 


THE  AQUARIUM. 
MARINE  AQUARIUM  {continued). 
The  selection  of  objects  suitable  for  the  aquarium  having 
been  made,  upon  reaching  home  they  should  at  once  be 
placed  in  as  many  vessels  as  you  may  happen  to  have  at 
hand,  and  left  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  their  journey 
before  being  placed  in  the  aquarium.  The  crabs  will 
require  to  be  secured  by  a  perforated  cover,  otherwise 
they  will  be  sure  to  find  their  way  out. 

As  the  introduction  of  a  dead  animal  is  especially  to  be 
avoided,  every  object  should  be  carefully  examined  with 
a  magnifying  glass,  and  well  rinsed  in  sea  water  before 
being  put  into  the  aquarium.  If  there  be  any  suspicious 
indications,  keep  the  creature  in  water  by  itself  until  you 
are  satisfied  that  it  is,  or  is  not,  in  a  healthy  condition. 

In  arranging  the  rockwork  of  a  marine  aquarium,  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  formation  of  hiding-places. 
The  stones  or  pieces  of  granite  should  be  piled  up  to 


Begin  the  furnishing  of  your  aquarium  by  arranging  the 
sea-weed  at  the  sides,  leaving  the  space  in  front  quite 
clear.  The  limpet-shells  may  either  be  embedded  in  the 
shingle  at  the  bottom,  or  placed  on  the  rocks,  according 
as  they  may  appear  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  crabs  should  next  be  dropped  in,  and  supplied 
with  food.  The  best  food  for  crabs  and  anemones  is  the 
flesh  of  the  mussel  or  oyster,  cut  into  very  small  shreds 
with  a  pair  of  scissors.  If  this  is  not  to  be  had,  raw  beef 
is  a  good  substitute,  but  shell-fish  should  always  be  pro- 
cured if  possible.  The  edible  crab  before  referred  to  is  a 
very  peaceable  fellow ;  but  the  shore  crab,  though  very 
like  it  in  outward  appearance,  betrays  a  pugnacious  dis- 
position. The  hermit  is  also  fond  of  a  little  warlike 
exercise,  from  which  circumstance  he  has  acquired  the 
common  name  of  the  soldier  crab  ;  but  as  the  other  kinds 
are  fleeter  of  foot  he  will  have  no  opportunity  for  the  dis- 
play of  his  pugnacity,  unless  placed  in  company  with  one 
of  his  ow^n  species.     When  the  hermit  grows  too  large  for 


form  a  shelving  background,  which  will  shade  the  light, 
and  at  the  same  time  prevent  the  creatures  from  getting 
out  of  sight.  Immovable  objects,  such  as  serpuhie,  should 
be  placed  so  as  to  be  easily  seen.  Mussels,  if  deposited 
against  the  glass,  will  cling  to  it  and  creep  up  the  side, 
thus  revealing  the  suckers  of  the  byssus,  and  affording 
an  opportunity  for  observation  by  the  magnifying  glass. 

If  the  aquarium  has  been  in  preparation  for  some  time, 
and  green  growth  has  commenced  to  germinate  upon  the 
stones,  the  live  stock  may  be  introduced  at  once.  If  not,  the 
water  will  require  to  be  aerated.  This  may  be  done  by 
taking  some  out  with  a  cup  and  pouring  it  back  from  a 
distance,  or  by  emptying  about  one-third  of  the  water 
into  a  watering  pot  and  returning  it  in  a  shower  through 
the  rose.  All  the  creatures  you  have  collected  are  ac- 
customed to  shallow  water,  which  is  well  aerated  by  the 
splashing  of  the  waves ;  it  is  therefore  advisable  to 
imitate  this  natural  operation  every  day  for  a  time,  by 
moving  a  stick  quickly  backwards  and  for\vards  in  the 
water,  say  for  five  minutes  continuously.  When  in- 
digenous vegetation  has  fairly  set  in,  small  air  globules 
■will  be  generated  upon  its  surface,  and  these  will  rise  so 
plentifully  through  the  water  as  to  give  it  a  frothy  ap- 
pearance. This  may  be  taken  as  a  sign  that  other  means 
oi  aeration  may  be  discontinued. 

VOL.  I. 


the  shell  he  occupies,  he  goes  in  search  of  another  that 
will  afford  him  more  room,  and  if  he  fails  to  discover  an 
empty  one  to  his  taste,  he  will  attempt  to  dislodge  any 
other  hermit  that  he  may  chance  to  meet.  Then  comes 
the  tug  of  war,  the  end  of  which  is  that  the  vanquished 
generally  loses  a  claw,  and  not  unfrequently  his  life.  By 
placing  in  the  aquarium  an  empty  shell,  a  little  larger 
than  the  one  inhabited,  the  hermit  may  be  tempted  to 
change  his  cell,  which  he  does  in  this  wise.  He  first  in- 
spects the  shell,  walks  round  it,  and  turns  it  about ;  having 
made  up  his  mind  that  it  will  answer  his  purpose,  he  with- 
draws his  tail,  which  has  no  coating  to  protect  it,  but 
terminates  in  a  pincer-like  formation,  pushes  it  into  its 
new  abode,  and  walks  off  with  an  evident  feeling  of  pride 
at  his  achievement.  The  pincers  enable  him  to  keep  tight 
hold  of  the  shell,  without  which  no  hermit  crab  can  be 
considered  complete.  On  close  examination  it  will  be 
noticed  that  one  claw  is  larger  than  the  other  ;  the  smaller 
one  is  always  drawn  in  first,  and  the  larger  one  is  laid 
across  the  mouth  of  the  shell.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
hermit  does  not  alone  occupy  the  shell,  but  will  submit  to 
accommodate  a  colony  of  serpulas  or  a  parasitic  anemone 
on  the  outside,  and  a  worm  (the  Laminated  Nereus)  within. 
Should  the  hermit  forsake  his  abode  and  limp  about  in  an 
uncomfortable  manner,  he  will  require  looking  after,  for 

II 


l62 


THE    HOUSE. 


that  is  a  sure  indication  of  ill-health,  and  if  he  does  not 
speedily  die  a  natural  death,  the  more  hvely  crabs  will 
make  a  meal  of  his  unprotected  extremity. 

If  you  have  a  group  of  serpulas,  the  shell  to  which  they 
are  attached  should  be  placed  near  the  front  of  the  glass, 
where  they  can  be  readily  examined.  If  at  any  time  one 
of  the  worms  should  be  seen  hanging  helplessly  out  of  its 
tube,  take  a  needle  and  remove  it.  If  a  milky  film  be 
seen  at  the  mouth  of  any  of  the  tubes,  its  inhabitant  is  in 
a  state  of  decomposition.  To  remove  it,  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, the  use  of  a  crochet-needle,  which  has  a  hook 
at  the  end  of  it,  will  be  found  necessary. 

The  anemones  may  be  dropped  in  one  by  one  without 
regard  to  arrangement,  for  they  will  invariably  choose 
some  other  resting-place  than  the  spot  they  are  wanted  to 
occupy.  There  is  no  occasion  for  any  anxiety  as  to  their 
health,  for  they  seem  competent  to  resist  the  most  adverse 
influences,  and  to  exist  under  almost  any  conditions.  The 
writer  has  never  experienced  any  difficulty  in  keeping 
smooth  anemones  ;  some  have  lived  for  years  without 
change  of  water,  and  many  a  brood  of  juveniles  has  dotted 
the  rockwork  of  his  aquaria.  Sir  John  Dalyell  kept  one 
of  these  for  twenty  years,  and  in  that  time  it  produced  up- 
wards of  three  hundred  young.  The  anemones  require 
feeding  about  once  a  week.  Before  supplying  anemones 
with  food,  take  a  pointed  splint,  stick  a  shred  of  oyster  or 
mussel  on  the  end,  and  place  the  food  so  as  just  to  touch 
one  of  the  tentacles  of  the  animal ;  it  will  at  once  seize 
"  the  proffered  morsel  and  convey  it  into  its  mouth,  at  the 
same  time  drawing  in  its  tentacles.  These  tentacles 
possess  adhesive  properties  which  enable  the  creature  to 
catch  animalcules  that  come  in  its  way;  and  though  the 
hairs  that  give  it  this  power  are  too  fine  to  be  seen  with- 
out the  aid  of  a  microscope,  their  effect  may  be  felt  by 
placing  the  finger  against  them  when  the  tentacles  are 
expanded.  Anemones  will  remain  alive  without  being 
fed,  but  they  then  generally  decrease  in  size,  and  display 
their  feelers  less  frequently.  If  you  do  not  at  the  same 
time  feed  the  crabs,  they  will  walk  round  the  aquarium,  put 
their  claws  into  the  mouths  of  the  anemones,  and  steal 
their  food  before  it  has  had  time  to  get  beyond  their 
reach.  After  a  meal,  the  anemones  eject  the  indigestible 
matter,  which  should  be  removed  with  a  camel-hair 
pencil.  They  also  occasionally  exude  a  film,  which  covers 
the  whole  body,  and  gives  it  a  dull  appearance  ;  this  also 
should  be  removed  by  the  same  means. 

The  remaining  specimens  may  now  be  introduced  in 
any  order  ;  the  fish,  however,  last. 

When  once  furnished,  the  marine  aquarium  should  not 
require  any  change  of  water,  although  it  is  as  well  to  have 
a  supply  in  reserve.  A  mark  should  be  made  on  the  glass 
where  the  water  reaches,  and  when  evaporation  caHses  the 
water-level  to  descend  below  the  mark,  fresh  rain-water 
should  be  poured  in  to  make  up  the  deficiency. 

In  course  of  time,  the  length  of  which  will  depend  upon 
the  amount  of  light  admitted,  a  green  film  of  minute 
vegetation  will  cover  the  sides  of  the  glass.  This  should  be 
Aviped  gently  off  the  front  by  means  of  a  small  sponge  tied 
to  a  stick,  care  being  taken  not  to  disseminate  it  through 
the  water.  That  at  the  back  and  sides  may  be  allowed 
to  remain,  as  it  is  of  value  both  in  purifying  the  water 
and  moderating  the  light. 

The  foregoing  instructions  will  enable  any  person  to 
furnish  a  marine  aquarium  at  a  small  cost,  and  to  main- 
tain it  with  little  trouble.  Care  must,  however,  be  taken 
that  the  necessary  operations  are  not  performed  hurriedly, 
and  that  everything  is  cleansed  before  being  placed  in  the 
vessel.  After  the  furnishing  is  complete,  it  will  scarcely 
require  more  attention  than  a  fern-case,  while  it  will 
afford  a  source  of  constant  amusement  to  those  who  are 
interested  in  watching  the  movements  and  studying  the 
habits  of  the  animal  kingdom,  to  say  nothing  of  the  wide 
field  it  displays  for  the  use  of  the  microscope. 


THE      HOUSE. 

WATER  SUPPLY. 

The  importance  of  a  regular  and  sufficient  supply  of  pure 
and  wholesome  water  in  every  house,  has  been  abundantly 
acknowledged  by  all  intelligent  people,  has  been  proved 
by  experience,  and  insisted  upon  by  scientific  men.  Water 
enters  into  the  composition  of  all  our  food,  it  is  the  chief 
ingredient  in  all  our  drinks,  and  it  is  largely  present  in 
the  air  we  breathe.  Its  absence  for  a  short  time  only 
would  be  followed  by  the  extinction  of  our  very  life.  In 
the  present  article  we  shall  confine  our  remarks  chiefly  ta 
the  different  qualities  of  water,  and  the  modes  of  treating; 
it  in  given  circumstances.  The  supply  of  water  should 
be  constant,  as  it  contracts  impurities  when  stored  ;  and 
water  may  be  contaminated  readily  by  any  effluvia  arising 
from  the  sink  during  the  night,  when  a  kitchen  has  no 
air  admitted.  Pure  water  is  not  possible  with  an  inter- 
mittent supply.  As  to  the  quality  of  the  water,  one 
must  take  it  as  the  water  companies  provide  it,  and  use 
the  best  remedy  possible  for  its  purification  for  drink- 
ing purposes.  Dr.  Bernays'  remark  upon  the  purity  of 
water  is  worth  observing  attentively.  He  says,  "  It  is 
a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  water  supplied  by  any 
company  is  good  and  wholesome  if  filtered — water 
never  occurs  in  nature  in  a  state  of  purity;  and  it  is 
equally  a  mistake  to  suppose,  because  water  from  a  well 
appears  pure  and  is  not  conveyed  through  pipes,  that 
it  is  necessarily  fit  to  drink.  Pure  water  has  neither 
smell  nor  taste,  is  colourless  in  small  quantities,  but  when 
viewed  in  a  mass  is  of  a  more  or  less  blue  tint  ;  poured 
into  a  glass,  it  should  be  bright,  clear,  and  crystal,  and 
sparkle  with  the  gases  it  contains."  The  same  authority 
recommends  the  use  of  filtered  rain-water  for  cooking  and 
household  purposes,  the  impurities  of  this  water  being 
removable  by  filtration,  while  the  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  which  it  still  contains,  in  spite  of  this  filtration,  can 
be  rendered  harmless  by  boiling  the  water. 

As  a  safeguard  against  all  impurities  in  water — lead 
excepted,  the  presence  of  which  is  detected  by  a  sweet, 
mawkish  taste — the  water  should  be  boiled  in  a  kettle, 
allowed  to  rest^XkiGXi  carefully  drawn  off  from  the  sediment 
into  a  jug  or  pitcher,  and  aerated  by  being  poured  three  or 
four  times  at  a  slight  elevation  from  one  jug  into  another. 

It  is  of  the  most  vital  importance  to  health  to  ascertain 
the  quality  of  the  well-water  if  the  house  depends  upon 
that  for  its  supply.  Be  certain  that  it  does  not  contain 
salts  of  lime  in  excess,  which  render  the  water  hard  and 
unwholesome,  nor  soluble  animal  matter,  either  of  which 
may  be  largely  present,  and  yet  the  water  be  excessively 
brilliant.  If  the  water  but  slightly  curdles  soap,  it  is 
good,  but  if  the  lather  separates  into  flakes,  the  water 
is  injurious  to  health  if  drunk  Avithout  first  precipitating 
— in  the  form  of  rock  or  fur  in  kettles — the  lime  salts 
which  it  contains,  and  which,  when  drunk,  are  by  the 
heat  of  the  stomach  deposited  instead  of  being  taken 
into  the  system.  Soft  water  is  a  solvent  of  food ;  hard 
water,  on  the  contrary,  in  which  there  is  an  excessive 
proportion  of  salts  of  lime,  occasions  indigestion,  though 
that  is  a  minor  evil  when  compared  with  the  mischief  it 
brings  about  in  other  ways. 

Rain-water  is,  next  to  distilled  and  boiled  water,  the 
best  for  cooking  or  drinking,  besause  it  very  readily 
dissolves  food  in  the  stomach.  If  it  be  filtered,  it  is 
then  as  bright  as  any  other  water.  Science  asserts  that 
pure  water  is  not  at  all  requisite  for  maintaining  health, 
only  it  must  have  no  putrefactive  matter  in  it  to  induce 
disease.  It  is  said  that  even  the  presence  of  certain 
animalculce  in  the  water  does  not  injure  the  system, 
excepting  when  they  are  dead  and  putrid.  If  it  be 
true — and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  it — it  is  a  provi- 
dential arrangement,  for  millions  must  take  their  drink 
from  ponds  and  rivers  in  which  animalculas  abound. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


163 


There  arc  numerous  organic  impurities,  both  of  animal 
and  vegetable  matter,  existing  in  water,  which  have  their 
source  in  the  percolations  of  water  through  cultivated 
lands,  and  consists  of  deposits  of  sewage  matter.  Their 
presence  can  only  be  detected  by  an  analytical  chemist, 
excepting  when  it  is  found  that  putrefaction  readily  com- 
mences if  the  cistern  or  reservoir  be  covered.  Matters 
in  a  state  of  decay  possess  but  little,  if  any,  oxygen ; 
and  if  deprived  of  what  they  have,  they  form  them- 
selves into  new  life ;  but  if  once  the  air  be  freely  ad- 
mitted, the  process  often  stops,  and  the  deleterious  matter 
passes  off  in  gases.  Thames  water,  when  it  is  taken 
to  sea  in  casks,  soon  becomes  intolerably  putrescent 
from  the  gases  generated  in  it ;  but  on  rocking  them,  and 
exposing  it  to  the  atmosphere,  the  water  becomes  per- 
fectly sweet  and  wholesome.  All  these  organic  impuri- 
ties (that  is,  those  which  arise  from  the  growth  and  decay 
of  vegetable  and  animal  life)  can  be  rendered  harmless  or 
be  consumed  by  the  filtration  of  water  through  animal  char- 
coal. Wood  charcoal,  according  to  Professor  Frankland, 
has  not  this  property.  Dr.  Bernays,  on  the  contrary, 
asserts  that  wood  charcoal  removes  both  smell  and 
taste  from  foul  water,  and  it  is  therefore  well  adapted  to 
serv^e  as  a  filter.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  meat 
which  has  turned  putrid  from  heat  or  a  thunder-storm, 
if  it  be  boiled  for  ten  minutes  in  boiling  water,  with  a 
lump  of  charcoal,  is  thereby  rendered  as  good  as  ever. 

Dr.  Edward  Rivers  agrees  with  Professor  Frankland 
in  stating  that  "charcoal  obtained  from  animal  matter 
alone  appears  to  possess  the  power  of  removing  matter 
■  from  solution  in  water  to  any  extent.  Wood  charcoal 
has,  however,  been  very  much  used,  but  with  the  result, 
consequently,  of  only  aiding  in  mechanically  filtering  the 
water."  But  even  animal  charcoal  after  a  time  loses 
most  of  its  purifying  power,  and  when  this  is  the  case  it 
will  have  to  be  renewed. 

In  a  lecture — one  of  a  series — delivered  by  Professor 
Frankland  at  the  Royal  Institution,  he  stated  that  lead, 
poisonous  as  it  was,  did  not  contaminate  hard  water, 
and  that>"  soft  water,  circulating  through  leaden  pipes, 
is  soon  entirely  protected  by  the  formation  of  an  in- 
soluble coating  on  the  interior  of  the  pipes ;"  that 
"tinning  the  interior  of  the  pipes  is  dangerous,  inas- 
much as  abrasions  would  lead  to  the  formation  of  a 
voltaic  circuit,  and  a  more  rapid  solution  of  the  lead." 
Dr.  Bernays  affirms  that  spring  water  may  be  kept  with 
safety  in  leaden  cisterns,  provided  the  covers  be  of 
wood,  unleaded ;  otherwise  the  pure  water  which  rises 
in  vapour,  and  settles  in  drops  on  the  lid,  would,  if  it 
were  of  lead,  slowly  dissolve  the  latter  in  small  quanti- 
ties, which  would  then  drop  into  the  water. 

It  appears,  then,  that  water  is  best  contained  in  un- 
covered cisterns,  because  the  air  prevents  or  annihilates 
putrefaction ;  that  the  cisterns  or  reservoirs  should  not 
contain  much  more  water  than  is  needed  for  daily  con- 
sumption, or  it  becomes  stagnant  from  the  want  of  oxygen, 
and  its  organic  matter  putrefies  ;  that  putrid  water  can  be 
rendered  sweet  and  wholesome  by  filtering  it  through 
animal  charcoal,  made  by  strongly  heating  bones  in 
vessels  from  which  air  is  excluded  ;  though,  according  to 
Dr.  Bernays,  simple  wood  charcoal  will  purify  water 
equally  as  well. 

Water  should  never  be  allowed  to  stagnate ;  the  air 
should  be  admitted  to  it  freely,  by  leaving  exposed  cis- 
terns and  reservoirs  uncovered.  Water  which  is  hard 
from  excess  of  carbonate  of  lime  (chalk)  can  be  rendered 
soft  by  long  and  fast  boiling,  by  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum), 
by  carbonate  of  soda,  or  by  potash  added  twenty-four  hours 
before  the  water  is  needed,  or  by  exposing  it  in  shallow 
tanks  two  or  three  days  to  the  air.  The  remedy  being 
so  simple,  persons  living  where  the  mountain-limestone 
or  chalk  abounds  need  not  use  hard  water,  nor  need 
they  drink  it  where  gypsum  is  found. 


Nitrates — that  is,  combinations  of  nitric  acid  with  the 
other  constituents  of  water — are  injurious  in  drinking- 
waters.  Dr.  Lankester,  during  a  lecture  at  the  Royal  In- 
stitution, analysed  the  water  from  a  well-known  favourite 
pump.  It  was  found  to  be  bright,  cool,  fresh,  and  taste- 
less to  the  palate,  but,  owing  to  a  peculiar  combination  of 
nitric  acid  with  the  water,  upon  a  chemical  test  being 
applied,  it  yielded  a  large  amount  of  deleterious  matter. 
Nitric  acid  decomposes  all  vegetable  solutions,  and  when 
it  exists  in  impure  water,  is  highly  detrimental  to  health; 
nevertheless,  in  a  diluted  form,  taken  in  distilled  water,  it 
is  not  only  one  of  the  most  refreshing  of  beverages,  but  is 
also  a  good  tonic,  and  has  been  found  useful  in  asthma 
and  hooping-cough. 

If  a  cistern  or  reservoir  of  drinking-water  be  placed  in 
a  scullery,  or  where  offensive  smells  arise  from  any  cause, 
it  should  be  closely  covered,  for  the  reason  that  water 
quickly  absorbs  offensive  gases,  and  is  thereby  rendered 
totally  unfit  for  drinking  purposes.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  if  a  pail  of  water  be  set  in  a  newly-painted 
room,  the  smell  of  the  paint  is  rapidly  absorbed  by  the 
water  ;  and  in  the  same  way  water  standing  for  a  night 
in  an  occupied  sleeping-room  is  rendered  unwholesome  for 
drinking. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  have  the  water-pipes  and 
cisterns  brought  inside  the  house,  to  prevent  the  water 
from  freezing  and  the  pipes  from  bursting.  Exposed 
pipes  should  be  covered  with  straw  bands,  which  is 
the  least  permanent,  effective,  and  troublesome  method 
of  protection. 

The  Board  of  Health  enumerates  several  qualities 
which  water  should  possess — namely,  Softness  ;  freedom 
from  animal  and  vegetable  matter ;  aeration  by  a  pure 
atmosphere  ;  freedom  from  earthy  and  mineral  matter ; 
medium  temperature  ;  limpidity  or  clearness  ;  absence 
of  special  flavour  or  taste.  These  desiderata  cannot 
be  all  had ;  but,  as  we  have  before  observed,  most  if  not 
all  the  evils  complained  of  in  water  ordinarily  supplied 
or  obtained  from  wells  can  be  remedied  by  boiling  it  for 
a  long  time,  then  aerating  it,  when  cold,  by  pouring  it  at 
a  height  from  one  jug  to  another;  by  this  means  the 
flatness  and  deadness,  usually  the  characteristics  of  boiled 
water,  will  be  entirely  got  rid  of,  and  the  water  will  be 
as  fresh  and  bright  as  ever.  The  safest,  and  indeed  the 
only  thorough  remedy  for  all  impurities,  is  distillation  ; 
but  this  is  of  course  a  more  tedious  and  troublesome 
operation. 

In  a  future  article  it  is  our  intention  to  give  some 
further  information  respecting  pipes  for  the  conveyance 
of  water,  cisterns  for  containing  it,  and  other  matters 
bearing  upon  our  water  supply 


HOUSEHOLD   AMUSEMENTS.— III. 

FORFEITS. 

It  will  have  been  observed  that  many  of  the  games 
already  described  lead  up  to  the  payment  of  forfeits,  and 
that  some  appear  to  be  designed  for  the  express  purpose 
of  extracting  as  many  as  possible  from  the  various 
members  of  the  company.  This  is  really  the  case,  for 
"  crying  the  forfeits,"  as  it  is  called,  often  fonns  the  most 
amusing  part  of  an  evening's  entertainment,  and  is,  there- 
fore, usually  reserved  until  the  last.  It  is  conducted  in 
the  following  manner  : — 

Each  plaver  who  has  to  pay  a  forfeit  deposits  some 
small  article,  or  trinket,  in  the  hands  of  one  of  the 
company  appointed  as  collector— say  a  handkerchief;  a 
knife,  a  pencil-case,  or  anything  which  can  be  readily 
identified.  One  article  is  given  for  every  forfeit  incurred, 
and  it  is  redeemed  when  the  particular  task  assigned  to 
the  owner  has  been  duly  performed.  It  is  not  desirable 
that  very  many  forfeits  should  accumulate  before  they  arc 


'M 


HOUSEHOLD    DECORATIVE    ART. 


"  cried,"  as  this  often  takes  up  a  considerable  time  ;  but 
when  an  average  of  one  to  each  member  of  the  party  has 
been  reached,  if  the  number  is  between  a  dozen  and 
twenty,  it  is  time  to  stop  the  collection. 

Two  persons,  chosen  from  the  rest  of  the  company  for 
their  knowledge  of  a  good  number  of  suitable  and  amusing 
forfeits,  and  generally  ladies,  cry  the  forfeits  thus  : — One 
is  seated,  and  the  various  articles  collected  are  placed  in 
her  lap.  The  other  is  blindfolded,  and  kneels  down  before 
her  companion.  The  object  of  the  blindfolding  is  to  pre- 
vent the  recognition  of  any  of  the  articles  as  belonging  to 
particular  members  of  the  company,  and  thus  to  assure 
something  like  impartiality  in  the  allotment  of  the  various 
tasks. 

The  person  seated  takes  one  of  the  articles  from  the 
collection  before  her,  and,  holding  it  up  so  that  the 
company  may  recognise  the  owner,  usually  cries,  "  Here 
is  a  thing,  and  a  very  pretty  thing  ;  what  shall  be  done  by 
the  owner  of  this  very  pretty  thing?"  This  established 
form  of  words,  which  dates  farther  back  than  the  meniory 
of  man,  may,  however,  be  reduced  to  the  latter  clause 
alone,  if  that  plan  is  preferred.  The  blindfolded  lady  asks, 
"Is  it  fine,  or  superfine?"  or  "  Is  it  a  lady's  or  a  gentle- 
man's ?"  for  this  much  she  is  allowed  to  know,  that  she 
may  name  a  suitable  forfeit.  Having  received  an  answer, 
she  declares  the  task  which  the  owner  must  perform.  The 
following  are  examples  of  the  forfeits  which  may  be 
allotted, 

■  For  a  Gentleman. — i.  To  kiss  every  lady  in  the  room 
Spanish  fashion.  The  person  to  whom  this  forfeit  is 
assigned  usually  imagines  that  an  agreeable  task  is  before 
him  ;  but  he  is  thus  enlightened.  A  lady  rises  from  her 
seat  to  conduct  him  round  the  room,  and  she  proceeds  to 
each  lady  in  turn,  kisses  her,  and  then  wipes  the  gentle- 
man's mouth  with  her  pocket  handkerchief 

2.  To  make  a  Grecian  Statue.  To  do  this  the  gentle- 
man must  stand  upon  a  chair,  and  take  his /<7J'^  according 
to  the  pleasure  of  the  company.  One  person  may  stick  his 
arm  out,  or  bend  it  into  an  awkward  position  ;  another 
may  do  the  same  by  a  leg  ;  a  third  may  incline  his  head 
backward,  with  tlie  chin  elevated  in  the  air  ;  and  so  they 
may  proceed,  until  his  figure  is  sufficiently  removed  from 
the  "  Grecian  "  to  satisfy  the  party.  He  is  bound  to  be  as 
plastic  as  possible  while  the  statue  is  moulded. 

3.  To  perform  the  Dumb  Orator.  How  to  do  this  was 
described  in  our  last  paper.  The  forfeit  may  either  be 
allotted  to  one  person,  who  is  to  go  through  the  action 
while  either  a  lady  or  a  gentleman  volunteer  recites,  or  two 
forfeits  may  be  coupled,  and  both  reciter  and  actor  may 
take  their  parts  as  a  penalty. 

4.  Say  Half-a-dozen  Flattering  Things  to  a  Lady,  without 
using  the  Letter  /.  This  may  be  done  by  such  phrases  as 
"  You  are  pretty,"  "  You  are  entertaining,"  &c.,  but  such 
words  as  graceful,  beautiful,  and  charitable  are,  of  course, 
inadmissible. 

5.  To  try  the  Cold  Water  Cure,  the  gentleman  is  first 
blindfolded,  and  then  a  tumbler  filled  with  cold  water,  and 
a  teaspoon,  are  produced.  Not  to  be  too  hard  upon  him, 
he  is  allowed  to  take  a  seat.  Each  member  of  the  com- 
pany is  then  privileged  to  give  him  a  spoonful  ;  but  if  he 
can  guess  at  any  time  the  name  of  the  person  who  is 
"  curing"  him,  he  is  at  once  released  from  a  further 
infliction  of  the  remedy. 

6.  To  play  the  Learned  Pig.  To  do  this,  the  gentleman 
must  first  put  himself  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  attitude 
of  one.  He  must  go  on  all  fours,  and  he  is  then  to  answer 
questions  that  may  be  put  to  him  either  by  the  company 
or  by  somebody  who  may  volunteer  as  his  master,  to 
show  his  attainments.  The  questions  asked  are  some- 
thing like  the  following  :  "  Show  us  the  most  agreeable 
person  in  [the  company,"  or,  "  the  most  charming,"  "  the 
greatest  flirt,"  &;c.  After  each  question,  the  victim  is  to 
proceed  to  any  one  whom  he  may  select  and  signify  his 


choice  by  a  grunt.  The  learning  as  well  as  the  docility 
of  a  pig  has  its  limits,  and  the  game  must,  therefore,  not 
be  prolonged  too  far. 

For  a  Lady. — i.  To  Choose  Partners  for  a  Quadrille. 
In  this  the  lady,  after  making  her  choice,  is  informed  that 
the  quadrille  must  be  performed  blifidfold.  The  gentle- 
men selected  must  be  satisfied  with  that  honour,  and  go 
through  the  performance  which  devolves  upon  them  ;  but 
the  second  lady  may  be  allowed  to  reclaim  her  forfeiture, 
if  she  has  one,  as  compensation.  All  stand  up,  blind- 
folded as  we  have  said,  and  go  through  the  first  figure  of 
a  set,  as  best  they  may. 

2.  To  repeat  a  Proverb  Backwards.  Any  proverb  may 
be  chosen  by  the  lady  for  the  purpose. 

3.  To  stand  in  the  Middle  of  the  Room,  and  spell 
"  Opportunity."  If,  after  the  lady  has  spelt  the  word,  a 
gentleman  can  reach  her  before  she  regains  her  seat,  he 
may  avail  himself  of  the  "  opportunity"  offered,  under  the 
mistletoe. 

4.  To  say  "Yes"  or  "No"  to  Three  Questions  by  the 
Company.  The  lady  must  go  out  of  the  room,  while  the 
company  agree  as  to  each  of  the  questions  to  be  asked. 
To  each  of  these  the  lady  must  give  one  or  other  of  the 
plain  monosyllables.  Ladies  of  experience  say  the  safe 
answer  is  always  "  no;"  but  this  hint  must  be  reserved  to 
readers  of  these  papers. 


HOUSEHOLD   DECORATIVE  ART. 

v.— TO    IMITATE    BUSTS    AND    STATUETTES    IN    MARBLE 
BY  MEANS  OF  WAX. 

^'■ERY  beautiful  imitations  of  marble  or  Parian  statuettes 
may  be  made  at  a  small  cost  by  the  following  simple 
process  : — 

Let  the  experimenter  begin  with  any  well-shaped  busts. 
Choose  plaster  casts  measuring  eleven  inches  high  and 
seven  broad — these  can  be  bought  for  very  little  from 
the  itinerant  vendors  ;  we  have  so  purchased  them  for 
less  than  a  shilling  each ;  at  the  shops  they  will  be 
charged  from  eighteen-pence  to  half-a-crown  (on  account 
of  a  difference  in  the  quality),  but  they  are  worth  the  extra 
cost  if  you  wish  to  have  them  nicely  done,  and  a  close 
imitation  of  marble. 

Procure  a  pound  of  perfectly  white  wax  candles  (six  to 
the  pound),  break  up  and  melt  three  of  these  in  a  small 
saucepan — a  pint  one  is  about  the  size,  it  should  be  deep 
enough  well  to  contain  the  wax.*  Also  have  ready  a  basin, 
about  eight  inches  in  circumference,  if  shallow  and  spread 
at  the  mouth  the  better  ;  put  the  basin  on  a  large  dish  to 
catch  any  droppings  of  wax.  The  kitchen  table  will  be  a 
convenient  place,  as  the  work  must  be  done  where  it  is 
tolerably  warm,  especially  if  in  winter.  The  operator 
begins  with  the  pedestal,  takes  the  head  of  the  cast  next, 
and  finishes  with  the  bust.  As  soon  as  the  wax  is  melted, 
hold  the  pedestal  of  the  statue  over  the  basin,  and  pour 
the  wax  all  over  it  in  a  full  wash,  so  as  to  get  it  quite 
smooth.  Return  the  wax  from  the  basin  to  the  saucepan, 
and  pour  it  again  over  the  pedestal  (this  may  be  repeated 
three  or  four  times,  but  directly  the  wax  begins  to  thicken 
melt  it  again,  because  as  it  cools  it  will  leave  guttering 
marks).  Completely  cover  the  pedestal,  but  do  not  let 
any  of  the  wax  touch  the  bust.  If  the  back  is  not  quite 
perfect  it  can  be  left  till  the  last.  Next  take  the  head, 
hold  it,  face  upwards,  over  the  basin,  and  pour  the  wax 
over  it,  beginning  near  the  chin  :  the  throat,  head,  and 

*  Paraffin  candles  are  excellent  for  this  purpose,  being  very  white, 
hard,  and  admitting  of  a  high  polish  ;  and  its  cheapness  is  a  recommendation, 
but  the  material  is  dangerous.  To  use  it  in  safety,  the  candles  must  be 
melted  and  used  instantly,  not  left  on  the  fire  to  get  over-heated,  or  the 
paraffin  will  ignite.  In  finishing  a  certain  bust  with  paraffin  candles  we  let 
the  melted  material  remain  over  a  gas  stove  after  it  was  melted,  and  it  caught 
fire  ;  some  one  threw  water  on  it,  which  caused  an  explosion,  nearly  filling 
the  kitchen  and  singeing  the  eyebrows  and  hair  of  the  operator.  The 
safest  way  in  such  accident  is  to  let  the  fire  quietly  bum  itself  out. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


165 


face  ought  to  be  covered  each  time.  When  you  have  given 
these  several  coats  of  wax,  so  that  the  work  is  about  half 
finished,  hold  the  busi  across  the  basin,  and  cover  it  in 
the  same  way,  moving  the  saucepan  from  side  to  side  so 
as  to  cover  it  well  with  each  coat.  After  this  you  will 
probably  find  that  the  whole  figure  needs  more  wax.  The 
thickness  of  the  wax  when  finished  should  be  about  the 
sixteenth  of  an  inch,  measured  by  a  rule,  but  judgment 
is  the  best  guide. 

The  things  it  is  most  necessary  to  guard  against  are 
irregularities   in  pouring  on  the    wax, 
dust,  smuts,  and  dirt.    The  hands  and 
all  utensils  must  be  kept  very  clean. 
There  may  be  black  marks  in  the  cast 
which  show  very  pro- 
minently when  the  first  / 
coat  of  wax  is  put  on, 
but  which  become  ob- 
scured before  the  figure 
is   finished.      Do    not 
touch  these,  but  from 
time  to  time  you  may 
remove  any  droppings 
or    prominent     blem- 
ishes   carefully,  either 
before  the  wax  sets  or 
after    it    is   hard,    as 
•when  it  begins  to  set, 
the  whole  thickness  of 
coatings  will  peel  off  in 
large  blotches   if  dis- 
turbed.      When     the 
final   wash    has    been 
poured    on,    and    the 
•whole  is  partially  set, 
you  may  carefully  cut 
away  all  excrescences, 
and  model  your  figure 
(placed  near  the  fire  so 
as  to  be  warm,  but  not 
to   melt    the   wax)    in 
ev'ery  part  by  degrees, 
with    the    hands    and 
fingers,     rubbing     the 
rounded  parts   if    not 
quite      smooth,      and 
pressing  out  improper 
marks      by     repeated 
manipulation.      If  the 
back  have  any  parts  not  covered  with 
wax,  these  may  be  made  good  by  patch- 
ing on  and  moulding  in  any  small  pieces 
of  half-melted  wax  there  may  be  about. 

On  the  following  day,  when  the  wax 
is   thoroughly  hardened,  polish  it  all 
over  by  rubbing  it  lightly  and  quickly 
with  the  fingers  and  palm  of  the  hand. 
It  will  take  a  very  high  polish,  and  this 
finishing  admits  of  the  exercise  of  considerable  skill  and 
patience,  which  will   be   rewarded  if  the  work    is   done 
•well  enough,  as  it  may  be,  to  deserve  putting  under  a 
glass  shade. 

The  work  may  be  done  at  different  times  ;  a  coat  of  wax 
may  be  laid  on  one  day  and  another  the  next,  or  when  it 
is  all  laid  on  and  modelled  the  polishing  may  be  delayed 
for  some  days  ;  but  the  modelling  must  be  done  while  the 
wax  is  almost  warm  from  the  last  coat. 

The  quantity  of  wax  needed  to  cover  a  bust  of 
the  size  mentioned  is  five  candles  out  of  a  pound  of 
six.  It  would  be  less  trouble  to  have  a  deep  pipkin 
full  of  melted  wax  and  dip  the  figure  repeatedly  into 
it ;  but  this  would  require  a  great  deal  more  wax,  and 
therefore    be    more    expensive.     This   would,    however, 


DESIGN    FOR   A   TRANSPARENCY, 


be  worth  while  if  it  is  intended  to  operate  upon  many 
busts  and  statuettes.  A  ciuantity  of  wax  will  melt 
best  in  a  large  glazed  pipkin  with  a  lid,  placed  in  a 
hot  oven. 

COLOURED  TRANSPARENCIES. 
Trace  the  subjoined  design  on  a  large  square  of 
moderately  stout  cardboard  ;  or,  instead  of  a  square,  say 
a  piece  fourteen  inches  by  eleven.  The  tracing  should  be 
as  light  as  possible.  With  a  sharp  penknife  cut  round 
the  entire  outline,  leaving  the  vase  and  flowers  attached 
only  at  the  base,  A  to  A.  It  will  be 
perceived  that  none  of  the  pieces  are 
entirely  severed  from  one  another, every 
one  being  joined  at  some  place  to  the 
whole.  Thus  there  is 
one  continuous  outline, 
but  none  of  the  other 
lines  must  touch  it, 
or  each  other.  The 
\  centres   of  the  leaves 

are  cut  through  in  the 
middle,  but  the  cut 
does  not  extend  to  the 
sides.  Colour  the  por- 
tion of  the  card  indi- 
cated by  the  dotted 
lines  E  to  G,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the 
card  from  which  it  is 
to  be  looked  at,  from  B 
to  C,  and  from  D  to  E, 
with  a  smear  of  strong 
carmine,  from  C  to  D 
with  sap  green,  from  F 
to  F  cobalt  blue,  and 
all  the  rest  of  the  edges 
within  the  dotted  lines 
with  a  paler  tint  of 
green.  The  part  round 
the  vase  is  left  unco- 
loured.  Let  the  colours 
be  both  deep  and  full. 
They  must  be  put  on 
very  strong  in  tint  j  no 
skill  is  needed  ;  any 
one  can  do  it  well  with 
a  paint-brush.  When 
completed,  bend  the 
group  of  flowers  and 
vase  the  very  least  bit  possible  back- 
wards through  the  aperture.  In  this 
state  hold  it  up  towards  the  light  of  a 
candle  or  single  gas-burner,  the  coloured 
part  turned  towards  the  light.  The 
effect  is  beautiful.  Wall  papers  with 
floral  designs  will  furnish  ample 
models,  or  any  vase  or  group  of  flowers, 
only  in  cutting  them  the  operator 
must  remember  never  to  sever  them  entirely  one  from 
another.  The  best  way  to  trace  a  pattern  for  this  purpose 
is  to  prick  the  design  all  over  and  dot  through  the  pricked 
holes  in  pencil  ;  or  use  a  tracing-paper  made  by  scraping 
a  quantity  of  black  chalk  or  charcoal  on  a  piece  of  writing- 
paper,  and  rubbing  it  well  into  the  paper.  Place  this 
face  downwards  on  the  card.  Having  previously  traced 
the  design  you  wish  to  produce  on  transparent  tracing- 
paper,  place  it  on  the  black,  and  with  a  sharp  pencil 
mark  the  outline  hard.  Enough  will  remain  on  the  card 
for  the  experimenter  to  lightly  draw  in  the  subject  when 
the  papers  are  removed.  The  less  the  outline  which  is 
dr.awn  is  visible,  the  better  the  effect.  Busts  and  statues 
also  form  charming  subjects,  and  may  easily  be  traced  from 
photographs. 


1 66 


COOKING. 


COOKING. 

CHRISTMAS     FARE. 

In  the  present  papei",  we  propose  to  give  recipes  and 
directions  for  the  making  and  preparing  of  some  of  the 
dishes  which  usually  form  the  staple  of  an  English  dinner 
at  Christmas. 

Roast  Beef. — For  roasting,  the  sirloin  of  beef  is  con- 
sidered the  prime  joint.  Before  it  is  put  upon  the  spit, 
the  meat  must  be  washed,  then  dried  with  a  clean  cloth  ; 
cover  the  fat  with  a  piece  of  white  paper  fastened  on  with 
string.  Make  up  a  good  strong  fire,  with  plenty  of  coals 
put  on  at  the  back.  When  the  joint  is  first  put  down,  it 
should  be  about  ten  inches  from  the  fire,  and  then 
gradually  drawn  nearer.  Baste  it  continually  all  the  time 
it  is  roasting,  at  first  with  a  little  butter  or  fresh  dripping, 
afterwards  its  own  fat  will  be  sufficient.  About  ten 
minutes  before  it  is  to  be  taken  up,  sprinkle  over  it  a  little 
salt,  dredge  it  with  flour,  and  baste  it  until  it  is  nicely 
frothed.  The  time  it  will  take  in  roasting  depends  upon 
the  thickness  of  the  piece  ;  a  piece  of  sirloin  weighing 
about  fifteen  pounds,  should  be  roasted  for  three  hours 
and  a  half,  while  a  thinner  piece,  though  of  the  same 
weight,  may  be  done  in  three  hours.  It  must  also  be 
remembered  that  it  takes  longer  to  roast  when  newly 
killed  than  when  it  has  been  kept,  and  longer  in  cold 
weather  than  in  warm. 

Roast  Turkey. — For  preparing  a  turkey  for  cooking,  be 
careful  to  remove  all  the  plugs,  and  singe  off  the  hairs. 
Put  into  the  breast  a  stuffing  made  of  sausage-meat,  with 
the  addition  of  bread-crumbs  mixed  together  with  the 
yolks  of  two  eggs  beaten  up ;  rub  the  whole  bird  with  flour 
and  set  it  down  to  roast.  It  should  be  continually  basted 
with  butter,  and  when  nearly  done,  which  may  be  known 
by  seeing  the  steam  drawing  towards  the  fire,  it  must  be 
dredged  with  flour,  and  again  basted.  Serve  in  a  dish 
with  gravy,  garnished  with  sausage  or  forcemeat  balls. 
Bread  sauce,  which  is  served  in  a  sauce  tureen,  is  eaten 
with  it. 

Plmn  Pudding  luithout  Eggs. — Take  a  table-spoonful 
of  flour,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  suet  finely  minced,  half  a 
pound  of  grated  bread,  about  a  couple  of  ounces  of  brown 
sugar,  and  half  a  pound  of  currants  cleaned  and  dried  ;  a 
glass  of  brandy  may,  if  you  choose,  be  added.  Mix  the 
ingredients  with  sufficient  milk  to  make  them  into  a  stiff 
batter,  and  boil  in  a  cloth  for  four  hours.  With  the 
addition  of  half  a  pound  of  stoned  raisins  and  a  little 
candied  peel,  the  same  pudding  will  be  very  nice  baked. 

Plum  Pudding. — Take  one  pound  of  currants  carefully 
cleaned  and  dried,  one  pound  of  raisins  stoned  and 
chopped,  one  pound  of  flour,  one  pound  of  beef  suet  finely 
minced,  six  eggs  well  beaten  up,  one  ounce  of  candied 
orange-peel,  half  an  ounce  of  candied  lemon-peel  chopped 
small,  half  a  pound  of  brown  sugar,  and  a  tea-cupful  of 
cream,  the  grated  peel  of  one  lemon,  and  half  a  large  nut- 
meg grated  ;  one  glass  of  brandy  may  also  be  added.  Mix 
the  solid  ingredients  well  together  in  the  flour,  adding  the 
liquids  afterwards.  Tie  the  pudding  in  a  cloth  or  mould, 
put  it  into  a  copper  of  boiling  water,  and  keep  it  boiling 
for  seven  hours.  When  it  is  taken  out,  strew  grated  loaf 
sugar  over  the  top  and  serve.  If  a  mould  is  used,  it 
should  be  as  deep  and  narrow  as  possible. 

Afiother  Recipe. — Haifa  pound  of  currants,  half  a  pound 
of  raisins  stoned,  three  table-spoonfuls  of  flour,  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  bread  grated  fine,  six  ounces  of  beef  suet 
minced,  eight  eggs  beaten  up,  five  ounces  of  brown  sugar, 
a  small  grated  nutmeg,  a  pinch  of  salt,  three  cloves 
pounded,  and  half  a  tea-spoonful  of  ground  allspice;  a  glass 
of  brandy  may  be  added,  if  it  be  liked  ;  mix  all  the  ingredi- 
ents carefully  together,  and  boil  for  three  or  four  hours. 

A  Plum  Pudding  {ecofiomical). — Take  one  pound  of 
raisins  opened  and  stoned,  six  eggs,  a  claret-glass  of  rum 
or  brandy,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  minced  beef  suet,  a 


pound  of  flour,  half  a  pound  of  sugar,  a  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  the  peel  of  a  lemon  shred  fine  or  chopped,  and 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  bread-crumbs.  Half  a  pound 
of  well-washed  currants  will  make  your  pudding  still 
better.  Stir  in  with  these  as  much  new  milk  as  will 
bring  the  paste  to  the  proper  consistency.  Then  lay  a 
pudding-cloth  in  a  basin,  dust  the  inside  well  with  flour, 
pour  the  pudding  into  it,  tie  it  up  with  string,  not  too 
tight,  leaving  a  little  room  for  it  to  swell  ;  throw  it  into  a 
large  boiler,  or  small  copper  full  of  boiling  water,  let  it  boil 
galloping  not  less  than  four  hours,  though  five  are  better. 
Do  not  turn  it  out  of  the  napkin  on  to  the  dish,  until 
immediately  before  it  is  wanted,  in  order  that  it  may 
go  to  table  light.  If  sauce  is  required,  make  some 
melted  butter,  and  stir  into  it  a  table-spoonful  of  sugar, 
and  a  glass  of  brandy,  if  you  like  the  flavour.  This 
quantity  made  into  two  puddings,  will  cook  more 
speedily  and  thoroughly. 

A  smaller  Plum  Pudding  {reasonable). — Mix  together 
three  eggs  beaten  uell,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  half  a  pint 
of  new  milk,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  chopped  beef  suet, 
half  a  pound  of  raisins  stoned  and  chopped,  two  ounces  of 
well-washed  currants,  two  ounces  of  powdered  sugar,  half 
a  nutmeg  grated,  and  ten  cloves,  an  ounce  and  a  half  of 
candied  citron-peel ;  one  wine-glass  of  brandy  is  an 
optional  addition.  The  quantity  of  flour  and  bread- 
crumbs added  will  depend  upon  the  richness  which  you 
wish  your  pudding  to  be  of. 

Family  Pbnn  Pudding  {very palatable) — from  "Whole- 
some Fare." — Beat  up  four  eggs  well,  add  to  them,  first, 
half  a  pint  of  new  milk  and  a  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Then 
mix  in  half  a  pound  of  beef  suet,  chopped  very  fine ;  a 
pound  of  raisins  stoned  and  chopped  ;  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  currants  ;  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  brown  sugar  ; 
one  nutmeg  grated  ;  one  ounce  of  candied  peel,  out  into 
thin  small  strips.  Stir  all  well  together,  and  add  another 
half-pint  of  new  milk ;  then  beat  in  sufficient  flour  to 
make  it  a  stiff  paste.  You  may  add  a  glass  of  brandy  and 
a  glass  of  white  wine.  Tie  it  up  and  boil  it — if  in  a  mould 
or  basin  five  hours,  if  in  a  cloth,  four  ;  but  the  pudding  is 
better,  as  well  as  more  shapely,  when  boiled  in  a  mould 
or  basin.  It  may  be  enriched  by  blanched  almonds,  and 
a  larger  proportion  of  currants  and  candied  peel  ;  but  too 
rich  a  pudding  will  hardly  hold  together,  and  is  apt  to  fall 
to  pieces  when  turned  out  on  the  dish.  For  sauce,  make 
some  good  melted  butter ;  put  in  some  loaf-sugar,  and,  for 
those  who  are  fond  of  it,  a  glass  each  of  white  wine  and 
brandy,  and  a  dessert-spoonful  of  noyeau  or  any  other 
favourite  liqueur  at  hand.  Let  it  just  boil  up  after  mix- 
ing, then  pour  half  of  it  over  the  pudding,  and  serve  the 
rest  in  a  hot  sauce-boat.  This  pudding  may  be  made 
with  the  grated  crumb  of  household  bread,  as  well  as  with 
flour.  It  is  better  so,  if  to  be  eaten  cold.  Plum-puddings 
may  be  made  a  fortnight,  or  longer,  before  they  are 
wanted,  and  will  be  all  the  mellower  for  the  keeping,  if 
hung  up  in  a  dry  place  where  they  will  not  mould. 

Plum  Pudding  with  Apples. — Stone  and  chop  fine  two 
ounces  of  raisins,  take  four  ounces  of  apples  minced  very 
small,  four  ounces  of  currants  cleaned  and  dried,  four 
ounces  of  grated  bread,  two  of  loaf  sugar  pounded,  half  a 
nutmeg  grated,  and  a  small  quantity  of  candied  orange 
and  lemon  peel.  Mix  all  these  well  together  with  four 
eggs  beaten  up,  and  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  melted  butter 
just  warm. 

Sauce  for  Plum  Pudding. — Warm  about  two  or  three 
table-spoonfuls  of  sweet  cream,  and  mix  it  with  the  yolks 
of  two  eggs,  add  a  table-spoonful  of  sugar,  season  with 
grated  nutmeg  and  stir  over  the  fire  till  it  is  quite  hot,  but 
take  care  not  to  let  it  boil.  For  those  who  like  it,  wine, 
brandy,  or  rum,  about  three  table-spoonfuls  of  either,  may 
be  added. 

Mince  Meat,  for  Mince  Pies. — Mix  well  together  half  a 
pound  of  raisins,  stoned  and  chopped  small ;  half  a  pound 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


167 


of  currants  washed  ;  half  a  pound  of  chopped  beef  suet ; 
ten  or  a  dozen  apples  peeled,  cored,  and  chopped  ;  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  lean  beef  without  skin  or  fat,  boiled 
and  chopped;' one  nutnieg  grated,  and  a  teaspoonful  of 
allspice  ;  a  quarter  or  half  a  pound  of  candied  peel,  ac- 
cording to  the  richness  desired,  chopped.  Put  them  into 
an  earfhen  jar  with  a  close-fitting  cover,  and  pour  a  pint 
of  brandy  over  them.  Stir  up  these  ingredients  from  time 
to  time.  Mince-meat  is  best  made  a  fortnight  or  three 
weeks  before  it  is  wanted. 

Mrnce  Pies.—Oi  suet,  chopped  very  fine  and  sifted,  tvvo 
pounds;  currants,  two  pounds ;  raisins, one  pound;  apples, 
two  pounds  ;  bread,  half  a  pound  ;  moist  sugar,  one  and  a 
quarter  pounds  ;  red  and  white  wine,  mixed,  three-quarters 
of  a  pint ;  a  glass  of  brandy  (these  two  last  according  to 
taste) ;  the  peel  of  two  small  lemons,  and  the  juice  of  one  ; 
four  ounces  of  candied  orange-peel,  cut.  Mix,  with  cinna- 
mon, mace,  nutmeg,  and  salt,  to  the  taste.  If  preferred, 
omit  the  bread,  substituting  two  biscuits. 

Old-fashioned  Mincemeat. — Take  a  pound  of  beef,  a 
pound  of  apples,  two  pounds  of  suet,  two  pounds  of  sugar, 
two  pounds  of  currants,  one  pound  of  candied  lemon  or 
orange-peel,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  citron,  and  an  ounce 
of  fine  spices  ;  mix  all  these  together,  with  half  an  ounce 
of  salt,  and  the  rinds  of  six  lemons  shred  fine.  See  that 
the  ingredients  are  thoroughly  incorporated,  and  add 
brandy  or  wine  according  to  your  taste. 

HOT  DISHES   EASILY   SERVED  AT   SHORT  NOTICE. 

All  Soups;  but  note  that  mouthful  soups,  as  turtle, 
mock  turtle,  peas  and  pork,  giblet,  o.x-tail,  hare  soup,  &c., 
are  best  warmed  up  or  kept  hot  in  an  earthen  jar  plunged 
in  a  saucepan  of  boiling  water,  both  to  avoid  burning,  and 
to  diminish  the  amount  of  evaporation  from  the  soup,  and 
so  keep  it  from  becoming  too  thick.  Tapioca,  vermicelli, 
macaroni,  and  pastes  in  general,  thrown  into  clear  stock 
or  consomtne^  take  time  to  cook,  and  must  therefore  be 
prepared,  though  apparently  so  simple. 

All  Boiled  Fish:  Large  fish,  as  cod,  turbot,  halibut, 
skate,  salmon,  John  Dory,  sturgeon,  conger,  &c.,  to  be  cut 
in  steaks,  or  slices,  as  ser\^ed  in  portions  by  the  Paris 
restaurants  ;  small  flat  fish  to  be  simply  cleaned  ;  small 
long-shaped  fish,  as  whiting,  haddock,  jack,  &c.,  to  have 
their  tails  thrust  through  their  gills,  or  tied  in  their  mouths. 
To  stuff  fish  takes  longer  time  ;  but  balls  of  ready-cooked 
stuffing  can  be  heated  up  with  them  in  the  salted  water  in 
which  they  boil.  Of  course  the  fish  are  ready  cleaned, 
prepared,  or  trussed,  to  be  thrown  at  a  moment's  notice 
into  the  boiling  water.  Simple  sauces,  as  melted  butter, 
caper,  ready-opened  oyster,  essence  of  anchovy  or  shrimp, 
&c.,  can  easily  be  made  while  the  fish  is  boiling.  Fish  not 
usually  divikied,  like  large  mackerel,  and  which  take  a 
good  half-hour  to  boil,  are  best  split  open  at  the  belly, 
flattened,  and  fried. 

All  Fried  Fish  and  Broiled  Fish,  when  a  suitable  fire 
— as  charcoal,  which  is  speedily  lighted,  and  always  clear 
— is  at  command.  Large  fish  must  be  cut  into  steaks  like 
cod,  or  squares,  like  pike.  Smaller  fish  need  only  be  well 
scaled  and  cleaned  inside,  leaving  on  the  fins  and  head  for 
show.  The  smallest,  as  gudgeons,  smelts,  sprats,  and 
whitebait,  only  require  a  good  wiping  and  drying.  When 
the  cook  is  supplied  with  the  proper  means — i.e.,  a  deep 
frying-pan  and  plenty  of  good  fat,  a  large  fish,  as  a 
mackerel,  haddock,  gurnard,  pike,  or  carp,  will  fry  in 
much  less  time  than  it  will  boil,  and,  if  nicely  done,  make 
a  greater  show.  The  fish  will  be  ready  wiped,  dried, 
floured,  or  bread-crumbed,  lying  on  a  dish  fit  for  imme- 
diate use  ;  the  fat  dissolved  in  the  deep  pan,  covered  to 
keep  out  blacks,  &c.,  and  only  requiring  to  be  set  on  the 
fire,  to  bring  it  up  to  frying  heat. 

Stnall  Things. — These  must  be  the  housekeeper's  main 
dependence  for  a  het  repast  served  in  a  hurry  ;  and  some 
of  them  are  difficult  to  class  separately  from  what  she  is 


obliged  to  serve  as  roasts.  -  Tossed  or  sautdd  mutton  01 

beef  kidneys,  in  gravy  or  wine.  Savoury  omelettes,  of 
sweet  herbs,  grated  cheese,  chopped  bacon  or  ham,  con- 
taining a  ragout  of  veal  kidney,  sweetbread,  salmon,  green 
peas,  asparagus  tips.  Matelotes  of  fish  and  meat,  com- 
bined or  separate,  half  fried  previously  with  the  onions. 
Fricassees  of  veal  and  chicken,  ditto.  Curries  of  various 
things,  ditto.  Vol-au-vents  ;  ragout  made  previously. 
Sweetbreads  ;  served  white  or  brown.  Calf's  head  h.  la 
tortue,  not  whole,  but  in  portions.  Plain  boiled  ditto. 
Black  pudding. 

Boils. — The  list  of  these  is  very  short.  With  the  excep)- 
tion  of  sausages,  most  meat  articles  of  food  are  both  too 
large  and  too  solid  to  cook  in  that  way  in  a  short  space  of 
time,  besides  being  spoiled  by  quick  boiling.  Hens' 
eggs,  in  the  shell,  if  fresh,  and  done  to  half  a  minute,  are 
excellent.  Choice  and  remarkable  eggs  may  be  served 
boiled  in  the  shell.  All  require  boiling  as  long  as  hens' 
eggs  ;  some  longer.  There  is  the  egg  of  the  common 
duck,  the  nearly  black  one  of  the  East  Indian  duck,  the 
brown  one  of  the  cochin  china  and  other  breeds  of  fowls, 
the  small  thick-shelled  buff  one  of  the  guinea-fowl, 
and  the  pinky-brown  speckled  one  of  the  turkey.  The 
pea-fowl's  egg  very  much  resembles  that  of  the  ostrich  in 
miniature,  being  smooth,  but  indented  all  over  with  dimples. 
It  is  somewhat  bigger  than  a  turkey's,  of  a  dull,  yellowish 
white,  and  occasionally  freckled  with  a  few  small  reddish- 
brown  marks.  Pheasants'  eggs  are  delicate  ;  so  are  lap- 
wings', rooks',  and  waterhens'.  The  eggs  of  various  gulls 
and  other  seafowl  are  full-flavoured,  rich,  and  peculiarly 
grateful  to  many  palates.  A  goose's  egg,  poached  with- 
out breaking,  makes  quite  a  little  dish,  enough  to  set 
before  three  or  four  persons.  Plovers'  eggs  are  also  es- 
teemed a  great  delicacy. 

Vegetables. — Ready-mashed  potatoes,  browned  in  the 
oven  in  stnall  basins  or  tin  moulds.  Cold  boiled  potatoes 
warmed  up  maitre  d'hotel  way.  Soufflegd  potatoes.  Sliced 
or  quartered  potatoes,  done  in  a  hot  bath  of  fat.  Green 
peas,  French  way,  or  k  la  bourgeoise,  warmed  up.  French 
beans,  French  way,. idem.  Dried  haricots,  either  plain, 
boiled,  with  parsley  and  butter,  or  Breton  fashion.  Stewed 
tomatoes.  Stewed,  broiled,' or  ovened  mushrooms.  Fried 
cardoons,  celery,  and  salsify.  Stewed  artichoke  botton>s, 
cooked  beforehand.  Spinach,  either  true  or  patience  dock, 
the  better  for  a  second  or  third  heating-up.  Chopped 
cabbage,  ditto,  to  support  pork  chops.  Purde  of  sorrel, 
ditto,  for  warmed-up  fricandeau  of  veal.  Broad  beans, 
with  melted  butter  and  summer  savory,  ditto ;  old  Windsor 
beans,  skinned  and  stewed,  ditto.  Asparagus,  half-cooked 
before  ;  sea-kale,  ditto  ;  both  of  these  served  with  melted 
butter  poured  over  them. 

Roasts. — Pork  or  mutton  kidneys,  fried,  broiled,  or 
roasted  before  the  fire  in  a  Dutch  oven.  Veal  kidney, 
sliced  and  fried.  Lamb  chops,  with  cucumber  sauce.  All 
sorts  of  chops  and  cutlets,  whether  fried,  broiled,  plain,  or 
bread-crumbed  ;  half-cooked,  and  finished  off  in  a  ready- 
made  ragout  II  la  jardiniere.  Fried  or  roasted  sausages. 
Beef  steaks  from  the  rump  and  the  under-part  of  the  loin. 
Broiled  fowl,  with  mushroom  sauce.  Broiled  pigeons. 
Small  birds,  as  larks,  thrushes,  wheatears,  rails — land  and 
water— lapwings,  knots,  stints,  Sec,  roasted  in  a  saucepan. 
Civet  of  rabbit,  hare,  or  venison,  is  a  substantial  meat  dish 
quickly  served  :  the  same  may  also  be  said  of  hashes  of 
various  roast  meats.  Calfs  liver  and  bacon,  fried  k-la- 
mode  beef,  and  stewed  ox-cheek,  may  be  kept  hot  for 
hours,  and  ready  for  serving  at  a  moment's  notice. 

Third  C^«/-jf.— Pancakes,  with  sugar  and  orange  to 
squeeze  over  them  ;  apple  fritters  ;  bread  fritters  ;  plum 
pudding,  or  sweet  suet  pudding,  sliced,  toasted,  and  sauced 
with  brandy  ;  sweet  omelette,  filled  with  various  preserves 
— strawberry,  ripe  gooseberry,  raspberry,  currant  jelly 
black  or  red  ;  rum  omelette ;  anchovy  toast ;  welsh, 
rabbit ;  curry  omelette. 


i68 


ANIMALS    KEPT    FOR    PROFIT. 


ANIMALS  KEPT   FOR   PROFIT.-POULTRY. 

,  V. — THE   FATTENING  OF  CHICKENS   {continued). 

In  front  of  each  compartment,  as  described  in  our  last 
paper,  there  should  be  a  ledge  three  inches  wide,  on 
which  to  place  the  food  and  water-tins.  The  latter  must 
be  replenished  once,  the  former  three  times  a  day  ; 
and  after  each  meal  the  pens  should  be  darkened  for 
half  the  time  until  the  next,  by  hanging  a  cloth  over 
the  front.  This  cloth  is  best  tacked  along  at  the  top, 
when  it  can  be  conveniently  hung  over  or  folded  back 
as  required.  The  two  hours'  darkness  ensures  quiet 
and  thorough  digestion  ;  but  it  is  not  desirable,  though 
often  done,  to  keep  the  birds  thus  the  whole  time  till  the 
next  meal,  as  the  chickens  will  have  a  much  better  appe- 
tite on  the  plan  we  recommend. 

The  best  food  for  fattening  is  buckwheat-meal,  when 


on  a  small  scale,  everything  must  go  upon  system  ;  and 
that  system  is,  to  kill  the  chickens  the  very  day  they  are 
ready  for  it. 

If  extra  weight  and  fat  is  wanted,  the  birds  may  be 
crammed  during  the  last  ten  days  of  the  fattening  period, 
but  not  before.  The  meal  is  to  be  rolled  up  the  thickness 
of  a  finger,  and  then  cut  up  into  pellets  an  inch  and  a 
half  long.  Each  morsel  must  be  dipped  in  water  before 
it  is  put  into  the  bird's  throat,  when  there  will  be  no 
difficulty  in  swallowing.  The  quantity  to  be  given  can' 
only  be  learnt  by  experience. 

For  home  use,  however,  nothing  can  equal  a  chicken 
never  fattened  at  all,  but  just  taken  out  of  the  yard.  If 
well  fed,  there  will  be  plenty  of  good  meat,  and  the  fat  of 
a  fowl  is  to  most  persons  no  particular  delicacy.  In  any 
case,  however,  the  chicken  must  be  kept  without  food 
twelve  hours  before  it  is  killed. 


§1^.^.  ,5^t:^^^^>'  ^  ., 


ROUEN  AKD  AYLESBURY  DUCKS. 


it  can  be  obtained  ;  and  it  is  to  the  use  of  this  grain  that 
the  French  owe,  in  a  great  measure,  the  splendid  fowls 
they  send  to  market.  If  it  cannot  be  procured,  the  best 
substitute  is  an  equal  mixture  of  Indian  and  barley-meal. 
Each  bird  should  have  as  much  as  it  will  eat  at  one  time, 
but  no  food  must  be  left  to  become  sour  :  a  little  barley 
may,  however,  be  scattered  on  the  ledge.  The  meal  may 
be  mixed  with  skim  milk,  if  available.  A  little  minced 
green  food  should  be  given  daily,  to  keep  the  bowels  in 
proper  order. 

In  three  weeks  the  process  ought  to  be  completed.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  fat  only  is  added  by  thus 
penning  a  chicken  ;  the  lean  or  flesh  must  be  made  be- 
fore, and  unless  the  chicken  has  attained  the  proper 
standard  in  this  respect,  it  is  useless  even  to  attempt  to 
fatten  it.  Hence  the  importance  of  high  feeding  from 
the  very  shell.  The  secret  of  rearing  chickens  profitably 
is,  to  get  them  ready  for  the  table  at  the  earliest  possible 
period,  and  not  let  them  live  a  single  day  after.  Every 
such  day  is  a  dead  loss,  for  they  cannot  be  kept  fat.  Once 
up  to  the  mark,  if  not  killed  they  get  feverish,  and  begin 
to  waste  away  again.     To  make  poultry  profitable,  even 


There  are  various  modes  of  killing — all  of  them  verjr 
effectual  in  practised  hands.  One  is  to  give  the  bird  a. 
very  sharp  blow,  with  a  short  but  heavy  stick,  behind 
the  neck,  about  the  second  joint  from  the  head,  which 
will,  if  properly  done,  sever  the  spine  and  cause  death 
very  speedily.  Another  is  to  clasp  the  bird's  head  in  the 
hand,  and  swing  the  body  round  by  it — a  process  which 
also  kills  by  parting  the  vertebrae.  M.  Soyer  rccommends^ 
that  the  joints  be  pulled  apart,  which  can  easily  be  effected 
by  seizing  the  head  in  the  right  hand,  placing  the  thumb 
just  at  the  back  of  the  skull,  and  giving  a  smart  jerk  of 
the  hand,  the  other,  of  course,  holding  the  neck  of  the 
fowl.  And,  lastly,  there  is  the  knife,  which  we  consider 
the  most  merciful  plan,  as  it  causes  no  more  pain 
to  the  bird  than  that  occasioned  by  the  momentary 
operation  itself 

Fowls  are  easiest  plucked  at  once,  while  still  warm, 
and  should  be  afterwards  scalded  by  dipping  them  for 
just  one  instant  in  boiling  water.  This  process  will  make 
any  decent  fowl  look  plump  and  nice,  and  poor  ones,  of 
course,  ought  not  to  be  killed  at  all.  They  should  not 
be  "  drawn  "  until  the  day  they  are  wanted,  as  they  wili 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


169 


keep  much  longer  without.     We  now  pass  on  to  the  other 
inmates  of  the  poultry-yard. 

DUCKS  AND  GEESE. 

Ducks  will  do  well  in  a  garden  or  any  other  tolerably 
wide  range  where  they  can  procure  plenty  of  slugs  and 
worms,  with  a  pond  or  cistern  only  a  few  feet  across. 
Kept  in  this  manner,  they  will  not  only  be  found  profit- 
able, but  very  serviceable  ;  keeping  the  place  almost  free 
of  those  slugs  which  are  the  gardener's  great  plagu6,  and 
doing  but  little  damage,  except  to  strawberries,  for  which 
they  have  a  peculiar  partiality,  and  which  must  be  care- 
fully protected  from  their  ravages.  Other  fniit  is  too  high 
to  be  in  much  danger  from  them.  In  such  circumstances 
there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  ducks  arc  profitable 
poultry;  and  where  many  fowls  are  kept,  a  few  ducks 
should  be  added,  as  they  will  keep  themselves,  very  nearly, 
on  what  the  hens  refuse  ;  but  where  every  atom  of  the 
food  they  consume  has  to  be  paid  for  in  cash,  our  own 
opinion  is  that  ducks  do  not  pay  to  rear  except  for  io7vn 
markets,  their  appetites  are  so  everlasting  and  voracious. 
This  point,  however,  we  must  leave  to  the  experience  of 
the  reader.  The  Aylesbury  duck  is  of  the  purest  snow 
white  all  over.  The  head  should  be  full,  and  the  bill  well 
set  on  to  the  skull,  so  that  the  beak  should  seem  to  be 
almost  in  a  line  from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the  tip. 
The  bill  should  be  long,  and  when  viewed  in  front  appear 
much  like  a  woodcock's.  Eye,  full,  bright,  and  quite 
black.  The  legs  should  be  strong,  with  the  claws  well 
webbed,  and  in  colour  of  a  rich  dark  yellow  or  orange. 
Immense  numbers  of  these  ducks  are  bred  around 
Aylesbury.  It  is  not  at  all  unusual  to  see  around  one 
small  cottage  2,000  ducklings,  and  it  has  been  computed 
that  upwards  of  ;/^2o,ooo  per  annum  is  returned  to  the 
town  and  neighbourhood  in  exchange,  whilst  the  railway 
not  uncommonly  carries  a  ton  weight  of  the  birds  up  to 
the  London  market  in  a  single  night.  The  Aylesbury 
duck  often  begins  to  lay  before  Christmas.  Rouen 
ducks  are  not  nearly  so  forward,  rarely  laying  till  February 
or  March,  but  they  make  better  layers.  They  are  very 
handsome,  and  will  weigh  eight  or  nine  pounds  each  ;  and, 
as  a  rule,  do  much  better  in  most  parts  of  England  than  the 
Aylesburys.  Their  flesh  is  excellent.  The  best  general 
description  of  the  Rouens  are  those  which  in  plumage  are 
precisely  like  the  wild  mallard,  but  larger.  The  drake 
should  have  a  commanding  appearance,  with  a  rich  green 
and  purple  head,  and  a  fine  long  bill  of  a  yellow  ground, 
with  a  very  pale  wash  of  green  over  it,  and  the  "  bean  " 
at  the  end  of  it  jet  black.  His  neck  should  have  a  sharp, 
clearly-marked  white  ring  round  it,  not  quite  meeting  at 
the  back.  Breast,  a  deep  rich  claret  brown  to  well 
below  the  water-line,  then  passing  into  the  under  body- 
colour,  which  is  a  beautiful  French  grey,  shading  into 
white  near  the  tail.  The  back  ought  to  be  a  rich 
greenish  black  quite  up  to  the  tail-feathers,  the  curls  in 
which  are  a  rich  dark  green.  Wings,  a  greyish  brown, 
with  distinct  purple  and  white  ribbon-mark  well  de- 
veloped. The  flight-feathers  must  be  grey  and  brown  ; 
any  approach  to  white  in  them  is  a  fatal  disqualification, 
not  to  be  compensated  by  any  other  beauty  or  merit. 
Legs,  a  rich  orange.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of  a 
drake  possessing  the  above  colours  in  perfection.  The 
bill  of  the  duck  should  not  be  so  long  as  in  the  drake, 
and  orange  brown  as  a  ground  colour,  shading  off  at  the 
edges  to  yellow,  and  on  the  top  a  distinct  splash  or  mark 
of  a  dark  colour  approaching  black,  two-thirds  down 
from  the  top  ;  it  should  there  be  rounded  off,  and  on  no 
account  reach  the  sides.  The  head  of  the  duck  is  dark 
brown,  with  two  distinct  light  brown  lines  running  along 
each  side  of  the  face,  and  shading  away  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  neck.  Breast,  a  pale  brown,  delicately  pen- 
cilled with  dark  brown  ;  the  back  is  exquisitely  pencilled 
with  black  upon  a  moderately  dark  brown  ground.     The 


shoulder  of  the  wing  is  also  beautifully  pencilled  with 
black  and  grey  ;  flight-feathers,  dark  grey,  and  ribbon- 
mark  as  in  the  drake.  Belly,  up  to  the  tail,  light  brown, 
with  every  feather  delicately  pencilled  to  the  tip.  Legs, 
orange,  often,  however,  with  a  brown  tinge.  The  Mus- 
covy, or  Musk  duck,  appears  to  be  a  totally  distinct 
breed,  the  cross  between  it  and  other  ducks  being,  at  least 
usually,  unfertile.  The  drake  is  very  large,  often  weighing^ 
ten  pounds,  and  looking  far  more  on  account  of  the  loose 
feathering  ;  but  the  female  is  less  than  the  Aylesbury,  not 
exceeding  about  six  pounds.  The  plumage  of  this 
species  varies  greatly  from  all  white  to  a  deep  blue-black, 
but  usually  contains  both.  The  face  is  naked,  and  the 
base  of  the  bill  is  greatly  carunculatcd.  The  drake  is 
very  -quarrelsome,  and  we  well  remember  the  injuries 
inflicted  by  an  old  tyrant  of  this  breed  belonging  to  a 
relative,  upon  a  fine  Dorking  cock  in  the  same  yard. 
The  flesh  of  the  Musk  duck  is  very  good  eating  ;  but  it  is 
far  inferior  as  a  layer  to  either  the  Rouen  or  the  Aylesbury, 
and  cannot  be  considered  a  very  useful  variety.  Call 
ducks  are  principally  kept  as  ornamental  fowl.  The  flesh 
is  good ;  but  there  is  too  little  to  repay  breeding  them 
for  the  table,  and  their  only  proper  place  is  on  the  lake. 
The  East  Indian,  or  Buenos  Ayres  black  duck,  is  a  most 
beautiful  bird.  The  plumage  is  black,  with  a  rich  grceri 
lustre,  and  any  white,  grey,  or  brown  feathers  are  fatal. 
They  are  bred  as  small  as  possible,  never  exceeding  four 
and  five  pounds.  As  they  usually  pair,  equal  numbers 
should  be  kept  of  both  sexes.  The  flesh  of  this  duck  is 
more  delicious  than  that  of  any  other  variety,  in  our 
estimation.  The  Cayuga,  or  large  black  duck  of  America, 
is  a  breed  well  worth  naturahsing  in  this  country',  being- 
hardy  and  a  good  layer.  The  plumage  is  black,  approach- 
ing brown,  with  a  white  collar  or  neck.  Weight,  from 
six  to  eight  pounds  each,  being  thus  inferior  to  the  Ayles- 
bury and  Rouen,  but  with  better  flavour,  and  greater 
aptitude  to  fatten.  The  common  duck  needs  no  de- 
scription. We  believe  it  to  be  the  Rouen  more  or  less 
degenerated,  or  rather,  perhaps,  not  bred  up  to  the  per- 
fection of  that  breed.  It  should  be  remembered  in  keep- 
ing ducks  that  the  wild  birds  are  monogamous,  and  not 
more  than  two  or  three  should  be  given  to  one  drake,  if 
eggs  are  wanted  for  sitting.  The  duck  usually  sits  well, 
and  always  covers  her  eggs  with  loose  straw  when  leaving 
them,  a  supply  of  which  should  therefore  be  left  near  her. 
The  usual  number  laid  is  fifty  or  sixty  in  one  year  ;  but 
ducks  have  laid  as  many  as  two  hundred  and  fifty  ;  and 
we  believe  with  care  this  faculty  might  be  greatly  de- 
veloped, and  their  value  much  increased  as  producers  of 
eggs.  At  present  they  are  mostly  kept  for  table.  Ducks 
should  have  a  separate  house,  with  a  brick  or  stone  floor, 
as  it  requires  to  be  frequently  washed  down.  Clean  straw- 
should  be  given  them  at  least  every  alternate  night. 
Other  attention  they  need  none,  beyond  the  precaution 
of  keeping  them  in  until  they  have  laid  every  morning. 
This  is  necessary,  as  the  duck  is  very  careless  about 
laying,  and  if  left  at  liberty  will  often  drop  her  eggs  in  the 
water  whilst  swimming.  When  intended  for  /attaiingy 
ducks  should  only  have  a  trough  of  water  instead  of 
their  usual  pond,' and  should  then  be  fed  on  barley- 
meal.  Celery  will  add  a  delicious  flavour.  In  ordinary 
rearing  the  ducklings  should  be  left  with  the  hen,  or 
mother-duck,  and  kept  from  the  water  entirely  for  a  week 
or  ten  days  ;  then  only  allowed  to  swim  for  half  an  hour 
at  a  time,  till  the  feathers  begin  to  grow,  else  they  will  be 
liable  to  die  of  cramp.  They  will  soon  be  totally  inde- 
pendent of  their  mother,  and  may  then  be  left  entirely  to 
themselves  ;  only  taking  precautions  against  rats,  to 
which  ducklings  fall  victims  far  oftcner  than  any  other 
poultry. 

Gccse.—Oi  the  two  principal  breeds  of  geese,  the  grey 
or  Toulouse  is  larger  and  handsomer  than  the  Embden  or 
white  ;   they  are  also  better  shaped,  as  a  rule,  and  every 


lyo 


INMATES    OF    THE    HOUSE.— DOMESTIC. 


way  the  more  profitable  variety.  The  forehead  should  be 
flat,  and  the  bill  a  clear  orange  red.  The  plumage  is  a 
rich  brown,  passing  into  white  on  the  under  parts  and  tail 
coverts.  The  Embden  goose  is  pure  white  in  every 
feather,  and  the  eye  should  show  a  peculiar  blue  colour  in 
the  iris  in  all  well-bred  birds.  We  should  recommend  for 
market  to  cross  the  Toulouse  goose  with  the  white,  by 
which  greater  weight  is  gained  than  in  either  variety  pure- 
l^ired  ;  but  much  will  depend  upon  circumstances.  White 
or  cross-bred  geese  require  a  pond,  but  the  Toulouse,  with 
a  good  grass  run,  will  do  well  with  only  a  trough  of  water, 
and  will  require  no  extra  feeding,  except  for  fattening  or 
exhibition.  With  regard  to  the  general  management  of 
geese  little  need  be  said.  More  than  four  or  five  should 
not  be  allowed  to  one  gander,  and  such  a  family  will 
require  a  house  about  eight  feet  square  ;  but  to  secure 
fine  stock  t-hree  geese  are  better  to  one  male.  Each  nest 
must  be  about  two  feet  six  inches  square,  and,  as  the 
goose  wil-l  always  lay  where  she  has  deposited  her  first 
egg,  there  must  be  a  nest  for  each  bird.  If  they  each  lay 
in  a  separate  nest  the  eggs  may  be  left  ;  otherwise  they 
should  be  removed  daily.  Geese  should  be  set  in  March 
or  early  in  April,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  rear  the  young  in 
hot  weather.  The  time  is  thirty  to  thirty-four  days.  The 
goose  sits  very  steadily,  but  should  be  induced  to  come  off 
daily  and  take  a  bath.  Besides  this  she  should  have  in 
reach  a  good  supply  of  food  and  water,  or  hunger  will 
compel  her,  one  by  one,  to  eat  all  her  eggs.  The  gander 
is  usually  kept  away  ;  but  this  is  not  very  needful,  as  he 
not  only  has  no  enmity  to  the  eggs  or  goslings,  but  takes 
very  great  interest  in  the  hatching,  often  sitting  by  his 
mate  for  hours.  The  goslings  should  be  allowed  to  hatch 
out  entirely  by  themselves.  When  put  out  they  should 
have  a  fresh  turf  daily  for  a  few  days,  and  be  fed  on 
boiled  oatmeal  and  rice,  with  water  from  a  pond,  in  a  very 
shallow  dish,  as  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  swim  for  a 
fortnight,  for  which  time  the  goose  is  better  kept  under  a 
very  large  crate.  After  two  weeks  they  will  be  able  to 
shift  for  themselves,  only  requiring  to  be  protected  from 
very  heavy  rain  till  fledged,  and  to  have  one  or  two  feeds 
of  grain  daily,  in  addition  to  what  they  pick  up.  For 
fattening  they  should  be  penned  up  half-a-dozen  together 
in  a  dark  shed  and  fed  on  barley-meal,  being  let  out 
several  hours  for  a  last  bath  before  being  killed,  in  order 
to  clean  their  feathers. 


INMATES    OF  THE    HOUSE.— DOMESTIC. 

II. — THE   COOK, 

In  small  households,  where  only  one  kitchen  servant  is 
kept,  the  duties  of  the  cook  comprise  those  which  devolve 
on  the  kitchen  and  scullery-maids  of  larger  establish- 
ments. Whether  the  domestics  be  few  or  many,  how- 
ever, the  cook's  position  is  second  in  importance  to  none 
save  that  of  the  housekeeper. 

The  only  portion  of  housework  which  a  cook  in  a 
moderate-sized  family  is  generally  expected  to  undertake 
is  the  cleaning  of  the  hall,  the  entrance,  and  the  dining- 
room — work  which  can  be  done  before  breakfast,  and 
consequently  without  hindrance  to  her  special  vocation  of 
cooking.  In  very  few  instances  will  a  good  plain  cook 
consent  to  clean  boots  and  knives.  If  she  does,  a  knife 
machine  is  generally  stipulated  for,  and  is  not  an  unrea- 
sonable request  when  the  interruption  knife-cleaning 
occasions  is  taken  into  consideration.  Cinder-sifting, 
likewise,  belongs  to  cook's  work  in  small  families,  and  is 
much  facilitated  by  the  use  of  a  patent  sifter,  of  which 
more  anon. 

The  principal  qualities  to  seek  in  a  cook  are  early 
rising,  cleanliness,  punctuality,  and  sobriety.  Honesty 
is,  of  course,  essential  in  every  department  of  domestic 
service,  but  the  want  of  this  virtue  is  apt  to  display  itself 


in  cooks  less  in  acts  of  commission  than  of  omission. 
By  failing  to  make  the  most  of  the  stores  entrusted  to 
her  care,  or  by  disposing  of  articles  of  food  for  her  own 
profit,  what  is  indulgently  termed  '*  want  of  economy " 
becomes  actual  dishonesty,  and  tends  considerably  to 
impoverish  the  means  of  employers.  Therefore,  in  taking 
the  character  of  a  cook,  it  is  important  to  ascertain 
whether  she  has  the  practice  of  turning  every  article  of 
consumption — remnants,  &c. — to  the  best  account  for  her 
employer's  sake.  A  servant  that  possesses  such  know- 
ledge, and  is  willing  to  apply  it  to  its  right  use,  deserves 
better  wages  than  one  who  recklessly  squanders  her 
master's  substance.  If  the  pounds  annually  saved  by  an 
intelligent  and  faithful  servant  were  remunerated  by  a 
reward  of  so  many  shillings,  there  is  no  doubt  that  a 
spirit  of  economy  would  be  more  often  displayed  than  is 
the  case  where  no  note  is  taken  of  similar  virtues. 

A  great  point  would  be  gained  towards  securing  more 
efficient  cooks  than  now  usually  fill  situations  of  the  kind, 
if  every  mistress  of  an  establishment  would  prosecute  her 
inquiries  as  to  the  applicant's  fitness  for  the  place  beyond 
Ihe  regular  stereotyped  questions  relative  to  the  reasons 
for  leaving  the  last  situation,  wages,  &c.  Suppose,  for  in- 
stance— a  satisfactory  account  of  moral  character  having 
been  given — the  employer  were  to  test  the  servant's  know- 
ledge of  cooking  by  a  few  practical  questions,  such  as  : 
How  long  do  you  make  up  your  fire  before  roasting? 
What  time  do  you  allow  for  boiling  a  leg  of  mutton  of  a 
certain  weight?  What  use  do  you  put  cold  vegetables 
to  ?  What  do  you  do  with  bones  and  dripping  ?  How 
much  fresh  meat  do  you  require  per  week  to  supply  soup 
in  a  given  number  of  days  ?  How  much  meat  do  you 
consider  should  be  consumed  weekly  in  the  kitchen  ? 
How  many  loaves  do  you  think  are  sufficient  for  a  family 
of  so  many  persons  ?  (ic. 

By  similar  inquiries,  the  good  opinion  of  a  well-informed 
servant,  far  from  being  diminished,  would  increase  in 
favour  of  the  employer ;  and  the  bane  of  ignorance  would 
cease  to  characterise  the  present  body  of  cooks  as  a 
class.  As  much  for  the  benefit  of  the  inexperienced 
employer  as  the  employed,  the  following  directions  are 
given'. 

First,  with  regard  to  the  kitchen  fire.  A  good  manager 
will  keep  the  winder  of  the  range  close  handy,  in  order  to 
enlarge  or  narrow  the  opening  according  to  the  culinary 
operations  required.  This  •  cannot  be  easily  done  if  the 
grooves  are  suffered  to  become  choked  with  cinders  and 
dust.  The  only  way  to  obviate  this  difficulty  is  never 
to  light  the  kitchen  fire  before  first  sweeping  out  every 
portion  of  fuel. 

A  fire  for  roasting  requires  a  somewhat  wider  opening 
than  the  length  of  the  joint  about  to  be  suspended  in 
front.  Meat  should  always  be  put  down  before  a  "mend- 
ing fire  " — that  is,  one  which  has  been  made  up  of  coals 
still  unconsumed.  It  is  bad  economy  to  throw  up  the 
cinders  for  a  roasting  fire  until  the  joint  is  done.  A  well- 
made  fire  should  burn  steadily  with  very  little  stirring 
until  the  joint  is  half  cooked,  when  the  meat-screen  or 
dripping-pan  should  be  moved  from  the  front  of  the  fire ; 
the  lower  bars  of  the  range  should  be  thoroughly  raked 
out  from  dust,  the  burning  coals  should  be  brought  gently 
to  the  front,  and  the  back  filled  in  with  fresh,  surmounting 
the  top  with  a  few  pieces  of  coke  and  smaU  lumps  of  coal 
mixed.  By  this  means  the  progress  of  the  joint  in  getting 
too  rapidly  cooked  on  the  outside  is  arrested,  and  gives 
the  heat  a  chance  of  penetrating  to  the  centre.  A  fire 
thus  made  will  burn  briskly  by  the  time  when  the  appe- 
tising browning  of  the  joint  is  needed.  Half  the  failures  in 
roasting  are  attributable  to  putting  a  joint  down  before  a 
fierce  fire,  and  finishing  with  a  slack  one. 

Slow  roasting  at  the  commencement  is  indispensable  to 
the  preservation  of  the  flavour  of  the  meat.  This  may  be 
effected  by  regulating  the  distance  from  the  fire.    About 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


171 


fourteen  inches  will  be  found  a  good  distance,  admitting 
of  the  joint  being  "  neared,"  towards  the  end  of  the  cook- 
ing process. 

Fresh  killed  meat  requires  longer  to  roast  than  when 
"  hung."  Meat  a  little  frozen  should  be  put  into  cold 
water  till  thawed,  and  will  be  improved  by  being  hung  in 
the  kitchen  over-night.  This  rule  applies  especially  to  i 
Christmas  joints,  such  as  sirloin  of  beef,  and  turkeys  of  all 
sizes.  Fat  meat  takes  rather  longer  to  roast  than  lean  ; 
about  twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour  e.xtra  on  a  large 
joint  will  be  sufficient.  The  usual  time  allowed  for  roast- 
ing is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  to  every  pound,  ac- 
cording to  the  strength  of  the  fire  and  size  of  joint. 

Some  cooks  are  partial  to  frothing  their  roasts,  by  using 
flour.  A  well-cooked  joint  needs  no  such  addition  to  its 
natural  appearance,  the  streaks  of  gravy  which  flow  from 
the  centre,  when  the  joint  is  well  done,  being  ornament 
sufficient.  If  any  flour  be  used,  it  should  be  very  lightly 
dusted  on  from  the  dredger,  about  half  an  hour  before  the 
Joint  is  taken  up. 

Made  gravies  are  generally  considered  objectionable 
with  roast  meat.  Every  joint  should  be  made  to  supply 
its  gravy  in  its  own  trimmings.  Pieces  of  flap,  shanks  of 
mutton,  &c.,  which  arc  not  usually  sent  to  table,  should 
be  put  into  a  small  saucepan,  with  some  water  or  plain 
stock,  when  the  joint  is  set  down.  These  should  be  after- 
wards strained,  and  either  poured  over  the  burnt  ends,  or 
added  to  the  gravy  which  has  flowed  from  the  joint  into 
the  dripping-pan.  A  pinch  of  burnt  sugar  will  supply  the 
browning.  The  best  gravy  of  all  for  roasts  is  that  which 
is  cleared  from  the  dripping  saved  from  a  former  roast 
joint,  to  which  may  be  added  some  boiling  water  and  a 
little  salt.  Gravy  should  never  be  poured  over  a  roast 
joint.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  send  the  gravy  to  table  in  a 
sauce-boat,  or  tureen. 

Poultry  requires  to  be  put  down  before  a  brisk  fire,  and 
should  be  previously  lightly  dredged  with  flour,  and 
covered  with  clarified  beef  dripping.  Hares  will  eat  more 
tender  if,  for  the  first  half  hour  of  roasting,  they  are  basted 
with  salt  and  water  in  the  proportion  of  a  dessert-spoonful 
of  salt  to  half  a  pint  of  water.  When  basted  the  above 
time,  the  salt  and  water  should  be  removed,  and  fresh 
dripping  laid  in  the  pan.  Some  people  recommend  water 
and  salt  as  a  first  basting  for  all  joints.  The  mixture  cer- 
tainly improves  the  colour  of  the  roast,  but  we  fancy  at 
the  cost  of  its  flavour,  the  salt  exciting  a  too  hasty  flow 
of  the  gravy. 

Now  that  the  use  of  close  stoves  and  kitcheners  has 
become  so  general,  the  art  of  roasting  in  front  of  a  fire  is 
in  danger  of  being  lost.  "  Roasting  in  the  oven,"  as  the 
new  method  is  termed,  to  be  successful,  requires  a  jar  of 
boiling  water  to  be  put  into  the  oven  with  the  joint.  The 
steam  keeps  the  meat  from  becoming  dry  on  the  outside, 
and  prevents  the  objectionable  flavour  of  burnt  fat.  The 
water  should  not  be  removed  till  the  joint  is  ready  to 
brown.  This  practice  holds  good  for  all  baking  in  the 
side  ovens  0/  the  ordinary  kitchen-range. 

Boiling  is  a  more  simple  process  of  cooking  than  roast- 
ing, and  fails  generally  from  being  too  hastily  performed.  A 
steady  simmering  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  maintain  during 
this  mode  of  cooking,  for  which  purpose  cinders  mixed 
with  a  little  coal,  and  the  refuse  from  the  trimmings  of 
vegetables  will  be  found  to  answer  best.  Boiling  is  not 
an  economical  method  of  dressing  meat,  if  the  liquor  in 
which  the  joint  is  boiled  is  afterwards  thrown  away  ; 
therefore,  not  more  water  should  be  used  for  the  purpose 
than  win  just  cover  the  meat.  When  the  water  is  near 
boiling,  scum  will  rise  to  the  surface,  and  should  be 
carefully  removed  as  fast  as  it  is  formed.  When  the  scum 
no  longer  rises,  the  pot  may  be  set  aside  to  simmer  until 
the  end.  Wrapping  meat  in  a  cloth  and  boiling  in  milk 
or  lemon-juice  is  often  recommended  to  secure  a  whiteness 
of  appearance,  but  no  mode  is  so  efiectual  as  the  patient 


removal  of  the  scum  itself  which  causes  the  unsightly 
aspect.  From  twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour  per  pound 
of  meat,  will  not  be  found  too  long  to  boil  a  joint  slowly 
and  well. 

Cold  water  should  be  used  for  boiling,  whenever  the 
liquor  is  to  be  afterwards  converted  into  soup. 

All  kinds  of  fish  with  the  skin  on  should  be  put  into 
cold  water,  with  about  a  dessert-spoonful  of  salt  to  a  quart 
of  water.  Crimped  cod,  slices  of  salmon,  and  other  cut  fish, 
must  be  put  into  boiling  water  containing  the  above  pro- 
portion of  salt.  The  water  should  barely  cover  cut  fish. 
A  whole  fish,  weighing  about  four  pounds,  will  take  about 
half  an  hour  to  cook,  after  the  water  has  come  to  a  boil. 
Skimming  is  as  necessary  for  fish  when  boiling,  as  for 
meat.  As  soon  as  the  water  has  boiled,  the  cover  of  the 
fish-kettle  should  be  tilted  on  one  side,  to  prevent  the  skin 
of  the  fish  from  cracking.  Some  kinds  of  fresh-water  fish 
are  considered  to  be  improved  by  boiling  a  few  herbs  in 
the  water,  such  as  sprigs  of  thyme,  bay-leaf,  &c.,  accord- 
ing to  tast-e. 

Frying,  being  an  expeditious  mode  of  cooking,  is  in 
general  favour  with  inferior  cooks,  but,  if  carefully  per- 
formed, is  both  economical  and  wholesome.  Of  all  modes 
of  cooking,  however,  none  are  so  liable  to  prove  unsatis- 
factory as.  that  of  frying,  unless  the  nicest  discernment  is 
exercised  as  to  what  articles  will  fry  well,  or  net.  The 
chief  drawback  to  success  in  this  branch  of  cookery,  in 
England,  is  the  shape  of  the  ordinary  frying-pan.  Although 
one  is  constantly  told  in  cookery  books  that  "  frying  is 
simply  boiling  in  fat,"  the  vessel  in  which  the  process  is 
usually  performed  precludes  the  possibility  of  complete 
immersion.  In  France,  where  frying  is  most  successfully 
practised,  the  frying-pan  is  generally  from  seven  to  eight 
inches  deep,  rendering  the  first  principle  of  the  art  easy  to 
be  carried  out.  Too  little  fat,  insufficient  heat,  and  want 
of  careful  preparation,  are  apt  to  make  fried  dishes  in 
English  households  wasteful  and  indigestible. 

Before  putting  whatever  is  to  be  fried  into  the  pan, 
sufficient  fat  should,  if  possible,  be  put  into  the  vessel  to 
cover  the  article.  The  pan  should  be  scrupulously  clean. 
If  there  is  any  doubt  upon  this  score,  it  is  best  to  melt  a 
little  fat  in  it  over  the  fire,  and  wipe  the  pan  out  with  the 
fat,  which  should  afterwards  be  put  aside.  The  great  art 
of  good  frying  is  to  know  when  the  fat  is  hot  enough. 
This  may  be  ascertained  by  sprinkling  a  few  drops  of 
cold  water  into  the  fat  when  supposed  to  be  nearly  boiling. 
If  the  water  hisses,  the  fat  is  hot  enough.  A  piece  of 
bread  dipped  in  hot  fat  will  be  the  best  test  as  to  whether 
it  is  over-heated  or  not.  If  the  bread  just  browns, 
the  fat  will  do  ;  if  it  blackens,  the  fat  should  be  thrown 
away,  as  it  will  destroy  whatever  is  put  in  it. 

It  is  essential  to  a  good  colour  of  fried  food  that  the 
articles  should  be  perfectly  dry.  The  only  exception  to 
having  things  perfectly  dry  before  frying  is  parsley,  which, 
to  look  green  and  crisp,  should  be  shaken  through  cold 
water  immediately  before  it  is  plunged  into  the  pan. 

Lard  is  excellent  for  frying  fish,  and,  if  not  burnt,  may 
serve  for  several  times.  Beef  and  mutton  dripping  are 
better  for  meat.  Oil  is  much  used  by  foreigners,  but  if 
not  of  the  finest  quality  gives  a  disagreeable  flavour  to 
viands.  Butter  is  the  least  desirable  of  all  fats  for  the 
purpose,  on  account  of  the  salt  and  water  in  it  ;  and  it  has 
besides  a  disposition  to  blacken,  unless  great  skill  be  used. 
Broiling  is  a  favourite  mode  of  English  cookery,  and  is 
especially  adapted  to  our  taste  for  plain  meat.  In  order 
to  broil  successfully  the  gridiron  must  be  perfectly  clean. 
It  should  previously  to  being  used  be  heated  over  the  fire, 
and  wiped  between  the  bars  with  mutton  or  beef  suet,  or 
fat.  A  clear  fire  is  needful,  but  not  necessarily  a  large 
fire.  The  gridiron  should  be  raised  slightly  at  the  back. 
A  good  cook  will  never  leave  the  fire  when  broiling  is  in 
progress,  the  chief  art  being  to  keep  the  meat  constantly 
turned  in  order  to  prevent  the  pieces  from  settling.     Forks 


172 


DOMESTIC    SURGERY. 


should  never  be  used  for  turning  meat,  A  small  pair  of 
steak  tongs  soon  defray  their  cost  in  the  amount  of 
nourishment  they  save.  If  a  fork  must  be  used,  the  cook 
should  avoid  sticking  it  in  the  prime  part  of  the  meat. 

Broiled  meats  should  not  be  sent  to  table  in  gravy, 
still  less  should  the  meat  be  slashed  to  supply  a  gravy. 
A  little  pepper  and  salt,  just  before  removing  the  meat 
from  the  fire,  is  all  the  relish  usually  necessary.  The  plates 
and  dishes  cannot  well  be  too  hot  on  which  a  broil  is 
served. 

The  above  are  the  simple  rudiments  of  plain  cookmg, 
and  should  be  familiar  to  every  servant  who  undertakes 
a  cook's  situation  in  an  English  household.  It  is  not 
possible  here  to  give  full  details  of  the  duties  of  a  cook, 
who  should,  however,  understand  the  making  of  pies, 
puddings,  pastry,  and  bread  in  general ;  she  must  also 
know  how  to  ^prepare  sauces,  gravies,  and  soups  ;  she 
must  be  competent  to  dress  vegetables,  and  prepare  all 
ordinary  herbs  ;  she  is  to  know  the  value  and  importance 
of  her  stock-pot,  and  to  see  that  it  is  never  forgotten  ; 
she  is  expected  to  be  acquainted  with  the  most  effectual 
methods  of  keeping  provisions,  uncooked  or  cooked  ;  she 
must  look  well  to  all  the  arrangements  of  her  larder, 
kitchen,  and  kitchen  utensils,  and  must  know  how  to 
serve  up  all  ordinary  dishes.  In  many  families  some 
of  the  duties  of  the  housekeeper  fall  to  the  cook's  share 
of  work,  and  will  form  the  subject  of  another  chapter. 


DOMESTIC    SURGERY. 

TEETHING. 

The  Gums  mid  Teeth. — The  proper  care  of  the  teeth 
as  organs  most  essential  for  the  preservation  of  health, 
cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  parents.  Many  of 
the  illnesses  of  childhood  are  directly  connected  with  the 
eruption  and  development  of  the  teeth  ;  and  these  will  be 
more  particularly  referred  to  in  other  papers,  the  object  of 
the  present  article  being  only  to  point  out  those  facts  in 
connection  with  the  teeth  which  every  well-educated  father 
and  mother  should  be  acquainted  with.  Each  individual 
has  two  sets  of  teeth,  the  temporary  and  the  permanent ; 
the  former  being  contained  in  the  jaws  at  birth,  and  taking 
their  proper  positions  within  the  first  three  years  of  child- 
hood, the  latter  being  at  the  same  time  developed  in  the 
jaws  and  appearing  from  the  sixth  to  the  twenty-first  years. 
The  temporary  teeth  are  twenty,  and  the  permanent 
thirty-two  in  number.  In  the  illustration  (Fig.  23),  taken 
from  the  jaws  of  a  child  of  from  six  to  seven  years 
old,  the  whole  of  the  temporary  teeth  are  seen  in  their 
proper  positions,  and  in  addition,  the  crowns  of  four  of  the 
permanent  teeth  have  appeared  through  the  gum  at  the 
back  of  the  temporary  set.  The  remaining  permanent 
teeth  are  those  embedded  in  the  jaws,  and  at  present  im- 
perfectly developed. 

The  teeth  of  the  two  jaws  correspond  in  number  and 
form,  and  the  temporary  teeth  are  as  follows  : — In   the 
centre  of  each  jaw  are  four  cutting  or  incisor  teeth  ;  on 
each  side  of  these  is  a  pointed  canine  or  eye  tooth  ;  and 
beyond  these  again  two  grinding  or  molar  teeth.      In  the 
permanent  set  the  teeth  are  of  course  larger,  and  are  the 
.  following  :— There  are  four  incisors,  two  canine,  and  four 
small  pre-molar  or  bicuspid  teeth,  as  in  the  child  ;  but,  in 
addition,  there  are  on  each  side  three  large  grinding  or 
j   molar  teeth,  the  last  of  which  is  called  the  wisdom-tooth, 
-•  from  its  being  cut  only  when  years  of  discretion  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  reached. 

The  period  at  which  each  tooth  makes  its  appearance 
through  the  gum  is  pretty  constant,  though  it  will  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  growth  and  health  of  the  child.  On 
an  average,  the  central  incisors  are  cut  about  the  seventh 
month  ;  the  lateral  incisors  from  the  seventh  to  the  tenth 
month  ;  the  front  molars  from  the  twelfth  to  the  fourteenth 


month  ;  the  canines  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  twentieth 
month  ;  and  the  back  molars  from  the  eighteenth  to  the 
thirty-sixth  month.  The  permanent  teeth  appear  in  a  dif- 
ferent order,  the  earliest  being  the  first  molars  ;  and  these 
appear  in  the  sixth  year,  and  take  their  places  imme- 
diately behind  the  temporary  teeth.  The  two  middle 
incisors  are  cut  about  the  seventh  year,  and  these  neces- 
sarily displace  all  four  of  the  temporary  teeth  ;  the  two 
lateral  incisors  appear  in  the  eighth  year  ;  the  first 
bicuspids  in  the  ninth  year  ;  the  second  bicuspids  in  the 
tenth  year ;  the  canines  from  the  eleventh  to  the  twelfth 
year  ;  the  second  molars  from  the  twelfth  to  the  thirteenth 
year  ;  and  the  wisdom-teeth  from  the  seventeenth  to  the 
twenty-first  year.  It  is  to  be  understood  that  the  above 
enumeration  applies  to  both  jaws,  but  that  the  teeth  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  usually  a  little  earlier  in  their  appearance 
than  those  of  the  upper  jaw. 

Lancing  the  Gums. — When  an  infant  is  cutting  its  teeth 
its  mouth  is  hot,  and  the  gum  is  swollen  and  tender.  Great 
relief  may  be  afforded,  and  even  its  life  may  be  saved, 
should  it  be  subject  to  convulsions,  by  freely  lancing  the 
gums.  This  operation  should  of  course  be  performed  by 
a  medical  man,  if  one  can  be  procured,  but,  in  case  of 
urgent  need,  a  parent  would  be  justified  in  performing  it 
himself,  if  provided  with  a  proper  instrument,  and  having 
some  knowledge  of  the  subject.  The  gum-lancet  is  a  steel 
instrument  of  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  24,  and  may  be 
procured  of  any  surgical  instrument-maker.  In  lancing 
the  gums  of  the  lower  jaw  it  will  be  most  convenient  to 
have  the  infant  held  against  the  breast  of  a  nurse,  and  in 
the  sitting  position,  when  the  operator,  sitting  or  kneeling 
in  front,  must  steady  the  jaw  with  the  left  hand,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  25,  and  with  the  right  make  a  steady  cut 
on  the  top  of  the  inflamed  gum  down  to  the  crown  of  the 
tooth,  against  which  the  edge  of  the  lancet  should  be 
made  to  grate.  In  lancing  the  gum  of  the  upper  jaw,  the 
infant  may  be  most  conveniently  held  on  the  knees  of  a 
nurse,  and  with  the  head  fixed  between  the  knees  of  the 
operator,  who  can  then  lean  over  and  see  clearly  what  he 
is  about.  Lancing  of  the  gums  should  only  be  resorted  to 
when  the  tooth  makes  a  prominence  through  the  gum,  and 
it  will  therefore  usually  make  its  appearance  in  a  day  or 
two.  If,  however,  the  gum  has  been  lanced  a  little  pre- 
maturely, no  harm  will  have  been  done,  the  gum  being 
more  yielding  after '  than  before  the  operation,  and  the 
haemorrhage,  which  is  never  of  any  amount,  serving  to 
relieve  the  over-distension  of  the  part. 

Care  of  the  Teeth. — The  temporary  teeth  require  some 
supervision  on  the  part  of  the  parent,  as  the  child  is  too 
young  to  do  more  than  complain  if  he  is  in  pain.  Children 
who  have  suffered  much  from  infantile  diseases  almost  in- 
variably have  badly-developed  and  unsound  first  teeth,  but 
may,  if  well  cared  for,  grow  up  strong  and  vigorous,  and 
with  sound  permanent  teeth.  It  is  a  common  error  to 
suppose  that  the  administration  of  medicine  has  caused 
the  early  decay  of  the  first  set,  or  the  unsightly  markings 
sometimes  present  on  the  second  set  of  teeth  ;  whereas  it 
is  the  disease  for  which  the  remedies  were  given  which  has 
left  its  trace  behind.  The  molar  teeth,  both  of  the  first 
and  second  set,  are  most  liable  to  decay,  and  a  child's 
mouth  should  be  carefully  examined  from  time  to  time  to 
see  if  any  of  these  teeth  are  discoloured  or  hollowed  out. 
If  they  are,  the  child  should  be  at  once  taken  to  a  dentist, 
to  have  the  diseased  tooth  stopped  before  it  becomes 
painful,  so  that  it  may  not  become  necessary  to  extract  it 
before  its  full  time.  As  the  permanent  molar  teeth  take 
up  their  position  behind  the  temporary  teeth,  it  is  most 
important,  for  the  full  development  of  the  jaw  and  the 
proper  arrangement  of  the  teeth,  that  the  temporary  teeth 
should  not  be  extracted  too  early.  At  the  same  time,  if 
the  jaw  should  be  small,  and  the  teeth  are  taking  up 
irregular,  and  perhaps  too  prominent  positions,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  extract  even  some  of  the  permanent  teeth  at 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


173 


once,  in  order  to  allow  the  others  to  take  their  proper 
places.  For  this  purpose  a  parent  should  consult  some 
respectable  dentist,  carefully  avoiding  all  unqualified 
practitioners,  and  should  be  careful  to  see  that  all  the 
directions  he  gives  are  carried  out,  and  particularly  that 
any  mechanical  arrangement  which  may  be  necessary  in 
order  to  bring  irregular  teeth  into  position,  is  fairly  and 
fully  attended  to. 

Later  in  life,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  cleaning  of  the 
teeth    with   tooth-brush    and    powder, 
or  soap,  it  is  well  to  pay  an  occasional 
visit  to  the  dentist  to  have  the  "  tartar," 
or    earthy   matter    deposited    by    the 
saliva,  removed   from  the  front  teeth. 
Even  in  the  most  cleanly  mouths  this 
is  apt  to  collect  and  injure  the  gums, 
if  it  does  not  the  teeth  also ;  and,  as  it 
is    very   tenacious,    it    requires    some 
skill    for   its   removal.      At   the   same 
time  the  dentist  should  be  requested  to 
inspect  all  the  teeth,  in  order  to  detect 
the    first    inroads   of  disease,    so   that 
by   careful    "  stopping "    the   mischief 
may  be  arrested.     The  nature  of  the 
stopping   to  be  applied   in   each   case 
must  of  course  be  left  to  the  discre- 
tion   of   the    dentist,     but    a    patient 
should  on  no  account  consent  to  the 
insertion     of    a     cheap     "  amalgam " 
stopping   into   any  of  the  front  teeth, 
since  this   always  leads   to  great  dis- 
coloration of  the  teeth,  and 
consequent      disfigurement. 
When  toothache  supervenes 
upon  decayed  teeth,  recourse 
must  of  course  be  had  to  the 
dentist,  who  may,  in  favour- 
able cases,  contrive  to  save 
the  tooth  by  destroying  the 
nerve  andthen  carefullystop- 
ping  the  cavity.     Extraction 
is  the  last  remedy,  and  has  re- 
cently been  robbed  of  nearly 
all  its  horrors  by  the  intro- 
duction into  dental  practice 
of  the  administration  of  the 
nitrous-oxide  gas  as  an  anses- 
thetic.    This  gas,  when  care- 
fully administered  in  its  pure 
state,   has    the   power,   like 
chloroform,  of  rendering  the 
patient  perfectly  insensible, 
but  has  this  advantage  over 
chloroform,  that  the  insensi- 
bility is  much  shorter,  and 
that  recovery  from  its  influ- 
ence is  immediate,  and  unat- 
tended with  sickness.    Many 
dentists  are  in  the  habit  of 

administering  this  agent  for  all  cases  of  extraction  of  teeth, 
but  no  person  should  take  this,  or  any  other  ansesthetic, 
without  first  consulting  his  ordinary  medical  attendant. 

Toothache  is  perhaps  the  most  agonising  pain  to  which 
one  can  be  subject.  If,  from  circumstances,  immediate 
recourse  cannot  be  had  to  a  dentist,  relief  may  sometimes 
be  obtained  temporarily  by  the  insertion  of  a  pledget  of 
cotton-wool  soaked  in  laudanum  into  the  hollow  tooth, 
and  by  the  application  of  warm  fomentations  to  the  face. 
Several  specific  remedies  are  sold,  which  are  certainly  effi- 
cacious as  a  temporary  application  in  cases  of  toothache, 
and  the  introduction  of  a  few  drops  of  warm  laudanum 
into  the  ear  often  does  good.  The  formation  of  an  abscess 
around  a  tooth  may  be  known  by  the  deep-seated  throb- 


bing pain  it  gives  rise  to,  and  the  extraction  of  the  tooth 
is  the  only  certain  way  of  obtaining  relief. 

False  Teeth  are  exceedingly  healthful,  by  supplying  the 
lost  power  of  mastication  ;  and  no  one  who  has  lost  his 
back  teeth  should  hesitate  to  have  the  want  supplied  arti- 
ficially, both  for  his  own  comfort  and  also  for  the  pre- 
servation of  the  front  teeth,  upon  which  an  undue  amount 
of  work  would  otherwise  be  thrown.  Artificial  teeth  can 
be  had  of  every  price,  but  here,  as  elsewhere,  we  would 
say,  avoid  an  unqualified  dentist,  whose 
cheap  teeth  would  be  dear  at  any  price, 
since  the  purchaser  would  have  no  com- 
fort in  wearing  them.  The  question  of 
the  necessity  for  extracting  the  stumps 
of  teeth  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of- 
the  dentist ;  but  if,  as  often  happens, 
it  is  advisable  to  remove  some,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  wait  some  weeks  be- 
fore the  model  of  the  mouth  can  be 
properly  taken  so  as  to  ensure  a  proper 
fit.  One  caution  only  need  be  given 
with  regard  to  false  teeth,  that  they 
should  always  be  removable  at  will,  and 
should  invariably  be  removed  from  the 
mouth  when  the  wearer  goes  to  bed. 

Inflammation  of  the  Tonsils  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  common  varieties  of 
"  sore  throat."  The  suft'erer  experiences 
pain  and  difficulty  in  swallowing,  and 
talks  with  a  peculiar  thick  voice,  which 
is  very  characteristic.  On  looking 
into  the  throat  the  back  part 
of  it  is  seen  to  be  red  and 
inflamed,  and  the  tonsils  are 
found  to  be  almost  blocking 
up  the  passage.  If  there  is 
much  fever  and  constitu- 
tional disturbance  a  medical 
man  should  be  consulted  at 
once,  but  the  best  domestic 
treatment  consists  in  fre- 
quently gargling  the  throat 
with  hot  milk  and  water,  and 
the  application  of  linseed- 
meal  poultices  round  the 
throat.  The  bowels  should 
be  thoroughly  relieved  with 
an  ordinary  aperient,  and 
the  patient  should  be  fed 
with  nourishing  food,  in  the 
form  of  soup  or  broth,  and 
will  probably  be  the  better 
for  a  glass  or  two  of  port 
wine.  If  an  abscess  forms  in 
the  tonsil,  it  may  produce 
alamiing  symptoms  of  suf- 
focation by  its  presence,  and 
a  surgeon  should  be  at  once 
called  in  to  open  it.  An 
abscess  may  burst  of  itself  into  the  throat,  and  thus  give 
relief,  but  only  after  many  hours'  suffering. 

Enlaroed  Tonsils  are  often  found  in  >oung  persons  of 
delicate  health,  and  give  a  peculiarly  vacant  appearance  to 
the  countenance  by  obliging  the  sufferer  to  keep  the  mouth 
constantly  open,  and  to  breathe  heavily.  A  more  serious 
consequence  of  enlarged  tonsils  is,  however,  the  effect 
upon  the  chest  produced  by  the  imperfect  admission  of  air 
to  the  lungs,  the  tendency  to  the  deformity  called  "  pigeon- 
chest"  being  common  in  these  cases.  The  only  effectual 
treatment  is  for  the  surgeon  to  remove  a  portion  of  each 
tonsil ;  and  this  can  be  safely  done  even  in  young  children. 

Erratum  \tt  some  Copies. — On  page  iia,  Pait  II.,  line  30  from  top,  for 
"  femoral"  read  "  temporal." 


174 


HOME   GARDENING. 


HOME   GARDENING. 

ROTATION   CROPPING  [continued). 

August. — I.  Early  strawberries  will  have  completed 
their  work  in  the  producing  Ir.ie,  and  the  ;ate  kinds  be 
making  progress,  and  therefore  it  will  be  necessary  to 
give  them  their  summer  dressing,  by  clearing  away  all 
weeds,  runners,  and  whatever  material  was  laid  down  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  the  fruit  free  from  grit  and  dirt. 
A  good  watering  with  liquid  manure  will  prove  very  bene- 
ficial both  to  those  that  have  done  bearing  and  those  that 
are  coming  into  fruit.  Raspberries  will  be  in  full  bearing 
now,  and  as  much  depends  on  the  gathering,  we  would 
advise  daily  recourse  to  the  trees  for  that  purpose,  until 
they  have  ceased  to  yield.  These,  like  strawberries, 
should  lie  kept  entirely  free  from  weeds  and  other 
litter,  and  be  occasionally  supplied  with  liquid  manure. 
2.  The  whole  of  this  plot,  if  properly  managed,  will  be 
under  winter  crop,  with  the  exception  of  that  portion  oc- 
cupied by  a  few  potatoes  intended  for  seed.  Under  good 
management,  broccoli  will  have  been  planted,  and  turnips 
sown  by  this  time,  and,  if  so,  little  remains  to  be  done, 
except  the  making  up  of  deficiencies,  of  which  our  readers 
will  be  the  best  judges.  3.  This  department  being  of  a 
permanent  nature,  little  need  be  said,  save  to  recom- 
mend salt  to  be  sparingly  scattered  over  sea-kale  ;  but 
rhubarb  will  need  a  more  generous  food,  and  must 
have  its  full  quantum.  Weeds  must  be  in  all  cases  kept 
at  bay,  and  neither  crop  must  be  permitted  to  extend 
beyond  its  proper  boundary.  4.  As  the  onions  in  this 
plot  will  have  made  considerable  progress,  a  vigilant  watch 
must  be  kept  upon  them,  so  that  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe 
they  may  be  pulled  up,  dried,  and  stored  away  in  some 
dry,  airy  place.  The  ground  thus  rendered  vacant  should 
be  at  once  planted  with  celery,  in  single  trenches,  forty- 
two  inches  asunder  from  centre  to  centre,  and  not  deeper 
than  eighteen  inches.  A  six  inch  layer  of  well-rotted 
stable  dung  should  be  mixed  up  with  the  soil  at  the  bottom 
of  each  trench,  previous  to  planting.  The  first  row  planted 
will  require  earthing-up  by  this  time,  and  this  operation  you 
cannot  do  better  than  see  to  at  once.  A  good  watering  will 
also  prove  beneficial  in  dry  weather.  5.  Such  peas  as  are 
over  should  be  removed  without  delay,  to  make  room  for 
future  ci'ops,  or  for  the  broccoli  planted  between  them. 
Any  gaps  in  the  rows  of  savoys,  Brussels  sprouts,  &c., 
should  be  filled  up  at  once,  and  as  soon  as  the  whole 
of  the  peas  have  done  their  work  for  the  season,  remove 
the  haulms,  stir  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  give  it  a 
good  soaking  with  liquid  manure,  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
couraging the  growth  of  the  broccoli  and  other  green  crops, 
which  will  require  earthing-up  shortly.  6.  As  this  plot 
is  at  present  entirely  occupied  by  kidney  beans,  both  dwarf 
and  runners,  you  will  merely  have  to  keep  the  ground 
clear  of  weeds,  and  see  that  the  latter  have  proper  support. 

7,  Provided  the  requisite  quantity  of  beans  were  planted 
here,  and  the  carrots  were  properly  thinned  last  month, 
all  you  will  have  to  do  for  the  present  is  to  remove  the 
haulms  of  the  first  crop  of  beans  as  soon  as  done  with, 
and  keep   the  compartment   tidy  in   all   other  respects. 

8,  As  some  of  the  early  celery  is  still  in  this  quarter, 
due  attention  must  be  given  to  it,  so  far  as  earthing-up, 
watering  with  liquid  manure,  and  weeding,  is  concerned. 
A  moderate  quantity  of  endive  may  be  planted  out  here, 
and  a  few  lettuces  might  very  well  be  planted  upon  the 
celery  ridges,  provided  it  can  be  done  early  in  the  month, 
because,  if  left  later,  the  ridges  will  be  required  for  earthing- 
up  before  the  celery  can  be  cleared  away. 

September. — i.  No  time  should  be  lost  in  giving  this 
plot  the  dressing  advised  last  month,  provided  you  have 
hitherto  omitted  to  do  so,  and  there  will  be  little  required 
afterwards  save  keeping  weeds  under,  and  getting  rid  of 
any  litter  that  may  perchance  accumulate  thereon.  As  the 
raspberries — that  is  to  say,  the  earlier  ones — will  have  done 


bearing  by  the  end  of  the  month,  you  may  cut  away  the 
old  canes,  and  thus  strengthen  the  young  ones,  and  thereby 
increase   their   fruitfulness    next   year.      Place    stakes  to 
the  autumn-bearing  ones,  to  which  secure  them  from  time 
to  time,  as  required.     A  few  of  these  late-bearing  kinds 
should  be  cultivated  in  every  garden.     2.  This  compart- 
ment, provided  it  has  been  properly  treated,  will  be  filled 
entirely  with  winter  crops,  and  all  the  attention  they  will 
require  at  present  is  earthing  up.    Such  of  these  vegetables, 
however,  as  are  at  all  backward  will  be  greatly  assisted  by 
one  or  two  applications  of  liquid  manure.     Not  that  we 
approve  of  gross  growth,  as  that  only  tends  to  make  them 
more  susceptible  of  injury  from  frost  and  so  forth  ;  but 
in  moderation  assistance  of  this  kind  will  be  found  very 
beneficial.     3.  The   chief  attention    required   here   is  to 
keep  the   ground  entirely  clear  of  weeds,  with   the  ex- 
ception of  gathering  seed  of  sea-kale  that  has  been  per- 
mitted   to    ripen.     4.  The    growth    of    celery    must    be 
hastened  by  every  legitimate  means,  because  the  onion 
crop  will  have  prevented  your  putting  in  the  plants  so 
early  as  you  would  otherwise  have  done.     Earth  up  such 
as  are  ready  for  the  operation,  but  not  otherwise,  as  we 
are  no  advocates  for  performing  this  kind  of  work  too 
hastily.     Where  lettuces  or  the  celery  ridges  have  been 
cut  for  the  table  you  may  remove  the  old  stalks,  for  two 
reasons — first,  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  celery,  and, 
secondly,  for  the   purpose  of  giving  the  plot  a  neat  and 
orderly  appearance.     5.  The  peas  in  this  plot  will  soon  be 
done  with,  and  the  removal  of  their  haulms  will  give  more 
room    to    the   savoys,   broccoli,   and    other   winter   stuff 
planted    between    them.     In   a  word,   as    soon   as   you 
have  cleared  away  the  former,  give  the  soil  a  moderate 
digging,  and  a  slight  allowance  of  liquid  manure.     In  a 
little  time  the  latter  may  be  earthed  up  a  little,  that  is  to 
say,  as  sooa  as  they  have  taken  advantage  of  the  addi- 
tional space  accorded  them,  which  their  roots  will  have 
done   in   a  week    or   so ;    and   fill   up   all   gaps   in   the 
rows,    and    keep    the    weects    under    by    the   continual 
use  of  the  hoe.      6.  As  soon  as  the  kidney  beans  have 
given  over  bearing,  the  ground  they  occupied  should  be 
cleared,  manured,  and  trenched  for  a  supply  of  spring  cab- 
bages, which  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
ready  for  their  reception.     Let  the  rows  be  two  feet  apart, 
and  the  plants  one  foot  asunder  in  each  row,  so  that  every 
other  one  may  be  drawn  early,  and  the  others  left  to  heart. 
7.  The  broad  beans  occupying  a  portion  of  this  plot  should 
be  removed  as  soon  as  they  have  completed  their  work 
of  bearing ;  and,  having  manured  and  dug  the  ground, 
it  will  be  ready  to  receive  cauliflowers  or  some  similar 
crop.     The  carrots  in  this  compartment  will  need  little  or 
no  attention  till  the  end  of  the  month,  when  they  will  be 
ready  for  taking  up  and  storing  away.     The  parsnips  and 
beetroots,  as  a  rule,  should  be  left  in  the  ground  until 
March,  with  the  exception  of  such  as  you  may  require  for 
use  between  now  and  that  time.   8.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
earth  up  the  celery  several  times  during  this  month,  taking 
care,  however,  not  to  commence  the  work  too  early,  nor  to 
allow  a  particle  of  earth  to  enter  the  hearts  of  the  plants. 
Coal-ashes  will  be  found  beneficial  for  blanching  the  latest 
crop,  provided  they  are  placed  against  the  plants  and  an 
additional  outer  lining  of  soil  is  added.     Endive,  which 
should  be  advancing  rapidly  on  this  ground,  must  be  kept 
perfectly  free  from  weeds,  and  on  no  account  must  any- 
thing be  allowed  to  enter  the  hearts  of  any  one  of  the 
plants, 

October. — i.  Little  or  nothing  will  be  required  here  for 
the  present,  with  the  exception  of  putting  a  stop  to  the 
growth  of  weeds  by  rooting  them  up  with  the  hoe,  and  the 
removal  of  every  description  of  litter.  The  late  rasp- 
berries will  most  probably  still  continue  to  bear,  and  as  they 
do  not  like  dry  weather  you  will  be  doing  them  a  good 
turn  by  supplying  them  with  a  little  moisture.  Suckers 
may,  and  indeed  should,  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  are 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


175 


ripe,  bu:  the  pruning  may  be  postponed  till  the  sprinj,' 
with  advantage.  2.  This  compartment,  if  filled  witli 
winter  crops,  will  need  very  little  care  save  earthing  up 
such  of  them  as  have  not  yet  been  attended  to.  3.  The 
seakale  in  this  plot  will  be  ready  for  forcing  towards  the 
end  of  the  month,  which  can  be  accomplished  in  two 
ways,  namely,  on  the  ground  with  the  aid  of  inverted 
flower-pots  and  long  litter,  and  by  talcing  the  roots  or 
stools  up  and  bringing  them  forward  in  a  heated  structure 
of  some  kind.  4.  Every  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
earthing  up  of  celery  on  this  plot,  and  provided  dry 
weather  continues,  a  good  watering  with  liquid  manure 
will  be  found  to  improve  its  growth.  5.  In  a  general 
way  the  peas  on  this  quarter  will  have  been  gathered 
long  ere  this,  and  in  that  case  the  sooner  their  haulms 
are  cleared  off  the  better  it  will  be  for  the  broccoli 
and  other  green  stuff  that  has  occupied  the  intervening 
spaces.  Of  course,  it  will  be  some  time  before  they 
resume,  or  rather  acquire,  their  natural  colour,  but  the 
air  will  enable  them  to  do  so.  6.  Provided  you  did 
not  put  in  the  cabbage  plants  as  advised  last  month, 
you  should  do  so  now,  on  the  spot  from  which  the  kidney 
beans  came.  The  ground,  however,  must  be  well  ma- 
nured and  dug  or  trenched  previously,  and  the  strongest 
plants  alone  used.  7.  The  carrots  may  now  be  taken  up 
and  stored,  but  the  parsnips  and  beetroots  should  be  left 
in  the  ground  for  the  present.  The  portion  of  the  plot 
just  cleared  of  the  carrots  should  be  at  once  well  dug,  and, 
provided  it  is  moderately  sheltered,  it  will  do  for  the  first 
crop  of  early  cauliflowers.  8.  If  necessary,  thin  out  the 
late-sown  turnips,  but  this  must  be  done  in  moderation 
the  first  time.  See  that  such  things  as  lettuce  and  endive 
be  fully  exposed  for  the  present,  and  that  celery  be  earthed 
up  when  requisite,  if  a  dry  day  be  chosen  for  the  work. 


CAGE-BIRDS :  THEIR  HOMES  AND   TREAT- 
MENT  IN   WINTER. 

The  annual  mortality  of  cage-birds  in  autumn  and  winter 
is  far  greater  than  that  of  other  seasons  ;  this  is  very 
much  due  to  the  houses  in  which  they  live.  They  re- 
quire exercise  and  warmth,  and  they  are  often  destitute 
of  both  to  a  sufficient  degree.  The  rooms  in  which  their 
cages  hang  are  frequently  hot  by  day  and  cold  by  night  ; 
and  as  for  exercise,  how  can  an  active  bird  get  what  is 
worth  the  name  in  his  little  circular  wire  prison  and  low 
narrow  cell,  which  forbids  all  free  use  of  his  wings  ?  Men 
of  judgment  and  experience  have  long  since  condemned 
all  the  little  cages  of  a  circular  form,  not  only  because 
their  limits  are  so  confined,  but  because  they  supply  the 
bird  with  no  shelter  whatever.  Why  should  birds  in 
confinement  have  no  chance  of  hiding  their  heads,  when 
they  have  so  strong  a  liking  for  the  practice  in  a  state  of 
nature  .-*  In  winter  especially,  the  best  cage  is  oblong, 
and  only  open  in  front.  It  can  be  made  handsome,  and 
such  small  birds  as  goldfinches,  linnets,  and  canaries,  will 
be  all  the  better  and  happier  for  one.  The  ends  of  such 
a  cage  may  be  formed  of  wire  as  usual,  and  covered  in 
with  a  sheet  of  glass.  In  a  cage  so  made,  birds  may 
be  kept  safe  from  the  effects  of  the  sudden  changes  of 
temperature  which  are  so  injurious.  Proper  attention  to 
this  one  particular  will  stop  half  the  gaping,  panting,  and 
wheezing  which  distress  our  birds  so  commonly  now.  To 
add  to  their  dangers,  in  this  country  it  begins  to  get 
extremely  cold  very  often  while  our  captive  warblers  are 
partly  denuded  of  their  feathers  by  moulting.  This  renders 
It  all  the  more  needful  t©  look  well  to  the  lodgings  of  cage 
birds,  for  it  is  hardly  possible  for  them  to  get  through  the 
winter  well  if  they  begin  it  either  without  their  winter  coat 
or  an  equivalent.  The  process  of  moulting  in  birds,  like 
that  of  dentition  in  children,  is  trying,  and  calls  for  special 
care,  and  this  is  another  reason  for  urging  our  plea. 


When  moulting  in  winter  they  require  plenty  of  air,  as 
well  as  green  food,  and  generous  diet  generally.  Heed 
birds,  which  we  have  mostly  in  mind,  should  not  be 
limited  to  one  sort  of  seed,  but  should  have  flax,  canary, 
and  bird-turnip  seed,  as  well  as  groats.  They  do  not  want 
a  bath  in  winter,  though  requisite  in  summer ;  but  if  the 
claws  become  encrusted  gently,  put  them  in  warm  water  to 
cleanse,  and  as  gently  dry  them  afterwards.  Keep  their 
cages  very  clean,  and  their  trays,  and  all  that  pertains 
to  them.  Let  their  nicely  sanded  floor  be  a  credit  to  you. 
See  that  vermin  are  extirpated.  Let  the  birds  have  a  little 
old  mortar,  broken  up,  to  keep  them  in  lime.  Cover 
up  their  cages  at  night,  but  not  so  as  to  stifle  them. 
Generally  do  your  utmost  to  feed  them  with  varied  and 
nutritious  diet,  as  green  herbs,  chopped  boiled  egg, 
crushed  bread  and  butter,  and  the  seeds  above  named, 
and  you  will  sec  your  birds  prosperous  and  happy. 

Our  remarks  are  not  wholly  inapplicable  to  other  birds, 
but  chiefly  refer  to  those  which  are  named.  The  same 
general  principle  may  be  extended  to  all  cage  birds,  to  the 
full  details  of  whose  general  treatment  we  intend  to  de- 
vote a  paper  in  a  future  number. 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 

BLINDS. 

Fig.  60  shows  the  commonest  form  of  blind — the  com- 
mon roller  blind.  It  is  almost  too  well  known  to  need 
description.  The  roller.  A,  is  made  from  a  square  strip  of 
one  and  a  quarter  or  one  and  a  half  inch  wood,  with  the 
corners  planed  off  until  the  piece  is  octagonal.  On  one 
end,  usually  the  right  hand,  is  fastened  a  little  grooved 
wheel,  B,  and  through  the  centre  of  both,  the  pivot,  c,  a 
piece  of  stout  iron  or  steel  wire,  is  driven.  At  the  other 
end  of  the  roller  a  similar  pivot  is  driven  through  a  sort 
of  flange,  D,  which  is  just  to  keep  the  blind  from  running 
over  the  end.  The  pivots  at  each  end  are  supported  in 
two  brackets,  of  hard  wood  or  metal,  something  like  E  F, 
one  having  only  a  hole,  as  F,  through  it,  the  other  a  hole 
and  an  oblique  cut  from  the  top,  into  which  to  drop  the 
pulley-end  pivot,  after  the  other  pivot  has  been  thrust  into 
the  hole  F.  Over  the  pulley^  B  an  endless  cord,  G.  runs, 
which  cord  also  r.uns  round  the  pulley,  H,  which  may  be 
fastened  in  any  convenient  position  on  the  side  of  the 
window-frame.  This  pulley  is  in  a  small  brass  frame, 
which  works  in  the  slide,  I,  the  back  of  which  is  formed 
into  steps  like  a  ratchet.  Into  this  a  spring  on  the  frame 
of  H  catches,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  the 
frame  to  slide  downwards  only.  The  object  of  this 
movement  is  the  tightening  of  the  cord,  G,  in  ovder  to 
keep  the  blind  wherever  it  is  wanted.  'The  material 
of  which  the  blind  is  composed  is  tacked  to  the  wooden 
roller,  and  in  a  wide  hem  at  the  bottom  a  lath  is  slipped, 
and  a  tassel  and  cord  are  fastened  to  the  middle  with 
a  screw-ring,  for  the  convenience  of  puUing  the  blind 
down.  This  form  of  blind,  however,  has  many  disadvan- 
tages ;  for  instance,  as  its  firmness  is  dependent  on  friction 
entirely,  it  is  subjected  to  an  unusual  amount  of  strain  at 
its  working  parts,  which  working  parts  are  often  of  too 
soft  a  material  and  of  too  hasty  a  manufacture.  The  pro- 
cess of  pulling  up  is  also  tedious  and  inconvenient,  the 
edges  of  the  slide,  I,  often  scratching  the  fingers.  It  is  not 
wonderful,  therefore,  that  many  devices  have  been  thought 
of  and  patented  to  remedy  these  evils.  We  illustrate  one 
of  these  plans,  not  as  being  superior  to  many  we  have  seen, 
but  simply  to  show  the  principle  on  wl«ch  they  are  most 
of  them  based,  it  being  quite  impossible  to  mention  all. 
Fig.  61  shows  a  front  view  of  this  arrangement.  The 
frame,  A,  is  screwed  on  to  the  window-frame,  in  the  same 
position  as  the  wood  brackets  before  mentioned,  and  has 
in  its  edge  a  holp  at  C,  to  carry  the  blind  pivot.  So  far, 
there  is  no  material  difference.  The  roller  is  also  just  the 
same,  but  at  each  end  it  is  let  into  a  hollow  iron  end. 


175 


THE    HOUSEHOLD  MECHANIC. 


Fig.  60. 


which  terminates  in  a  pivot  fitting  into  the  hole  C.  On 
the  end  of  this  box  is  a  sort  of  drum,  D,  and  further  out 
still  a  ratchet-wheel,  E  (Figs.  62  and  63).  Round  the  edge 
of  this  ratchet-wheel  is  found  a  sort  of  band  of  brass, 
which  is  hinged  to  the  bracket,  A,  at  F,  and  on  this  band  is 
a  small  drop-tooth,  G,  which  takes  into  the  ratchet.  The 
lower  end  of  the  band  terminates 
in  a  projection,  H,  in  which  is  a 
small  hole.  The  bracket  support- 
ing the  other  end  of  the  roller  (Fig. 
64)  is  quite  simple,  the  catch  A  fall- 
ing over  the  oblique  slit  by  its  own 
weight,  thereby  preventing  the  pivot 
from  jumping  out  of  its  place. 

Now  suppose  we  have 'the  blind 
coiled  round  the  roller,  as  in  the  last 
case,  and  slipped  into  its  place  in 
the  brackets,  the  band  G  falls  over 
the  ratchet,  which  cannot  move 
because  of  the  tooth  in  G.  Fasten  a 
thin  cord  to  the  hole  in  the  side  of 
the  drum,  and  pa^s  it  through  the 
eye,  H,  and  let  a  sufficient  length 
hang  down.  The  stick  in  the 
bottom  of  the  blind  requires  to  be 
heavier  than  usual,  because  its 
weight  has  to  bring  the  blind  down. 

To  let  the  blind  down,  take  hold 
of  the  string,  I,  and  raise  it 
backward,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
63.     This  will  bring  up  the 
band  G,  and  with  it  release 
the  tooth  from  the  ratchet  ; 
and  the  cord,  being  allowed 
to  slip  through  the  fingers, 
will  be  coiled  on  the  drum 
by  the  descent  of  the  blind. 
To  draw   it   up   it   is  only 
necessary  to  pull  the  string, 
I,  thereby  drawing  from  the 
drum  the  cord  coiled  on  it, 
the  back  of  the  teeth  in  the 
ratchet  raising  up  the  little 
catch  in  G,  w-hich  falls  into 
its  place  by  its  own  weight. 
When  all  the  cord  is  drawn 
off  the  drum,  the  blind  should 
exactly  reach  the  top,  so  that 
the  possibiHty  of  over-winding 
the   blind   is   prevented.      No 
tassel   is  necessary  to  this  ar- 
rangement. 

The  spring-blind  consists  of 
a  hollow  cylinder  of  metal  (tin- 
plate),  in  which  a  spiral  spring 
is  coiled.  The  act  of  pulling 
down  the  blind  by  the  tassel, 
winds  up  the  spring;  but  a 
spring  lever  catch  falls  into 
a  ratchet  at  one  end,  and  pre- 
vents it  from  flying  up  again. 
The  lever  is  pulled  up  by  a 
string  fastened  to  it,  and  the 
bhnd  goes  up.  It  is  necessary 
to  steady  it  up  with  the  tassel,  to  prevent  too  sudden 
jerks.  These  arrangements  can  hardly  be  recommended, 
because,  from  their  construction,  they  are  rather  liable  to 
get  out  of  order,  and  should  the  spring  break,  the  cost  of 
its  renewal  is  considerable. 

We  now  come  to  the  most  elaborate,  though  decidedly 
the  most  complete  of  all— the  Venetian  blind.  This  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  thin  flat  laths,  the  full  length  of  the 
width  of  the  window  sashes,  and  about  three  inches  wide, 


Fig.  64. 


Fig.  63. 


Fig.  65. 


suspended  by  means  of  tapes  at  about  two  inches  apart. 
These  laths  are  capable  of  being  turned  obliquely,  either 
outwards  or  inwards,  or  of  being  altogether  raised  out  of 
the  way.  The  advantage  of  thus  being  able  to  modify  the 
light  afforded,  while,  at  the  same  time,  free  ventilation 
between  the  laths  is  in  no  degree  impeded,  is  such  as  to 
need  no  comment  or  recommenda- 
tion. 

The  method  by  which  these  varied 
required  adjustments  are  attained 
will  be  seen  by  reference  to  Fig. 
65,  which  shows  a  two-tape  light 
Venetian  bhnd.  A  series  of  thin 
laths  are  strung  by  means  of  tapes, 
D,  at  intervals  of  about  two  inches, 
as  before  stated.  The  bottom  lath, 
C,  being  much  thicker  and  stronger 
than  the  others,  and  the  top  lath, 

B,  the  same.  The  wide  tapes  run 
from  the  top  lath,  B,  to  the  bottom, 

C,  on  both  sides,  and  hold  the  thin 
laths  in  their  places  by  means 
of  thin  tapes  sewn  to  the  wide 
ones  alternately  on  the  right  and 
left  edges.  From  one  edge  of  the 
lath  B,  on  the  outside  of  the  tapes  D  D, 
are  two  wide  tapes  running  up  to 
the  top  board,  A,  and  round  two  wide 

pulleys,  E  E,  in  it  to  the  other 
edge,  so  making  a  triangular 
sling,  which  suspends  the 
top  lath  from  which  the 
whole  set  hangs.  The  board 
A  is  screwed  to  the  lintel 
or  top  of  the  window-frame. 
By  referring  to  the  end 
view,  Fig.  66,  the  whole  plan 
by  which  the  laths  are 
turned  obliquely  to  diminish 
or  increase  the  admission 
of  light,  will  be  evident, 
by  pulling  the  cord  H  on 
either  side.  So  far  for  the 
adjustment,  now  we  have  to 
show  the  drawing  up.  The 
hmit  of  length  to  which  the 
blind  descends  is,  of  course,  the 
length  of  the  tapes,  D  D,  but 
by  raising  the  bottom  lath,  C, 
by  means  of  cords  passing 
through  holes  in  each  lath,  or 
behind  the  tapes,  D,  each  suc- 
cessive lath  takes  up  the  one 
above  it,  until  the  whole  are 
accumulated  in  a  bundle  at 
the  top  of  the  window,  ali. 
being  supported  on  the  thick 
bottom  one,  C.  The  cords  which 
accomplish  this  end  pass  from 
the  board,  C,  to  which  they  are 
knotted,  up  through  a  hole  in 
each  lath  to  the  fixed  board.  A, 
over  small  pulleys,  K  K,  in  this 
board,  and  thence  to  each  end 
of  this  board,  and  down  over  a  pair  of  pulleys,  L,  to  the 
hand  at  I.  The  two,  or,  in  other  cases,  three  or  more, 
cords  are  here  knotted  together,  to  prevent  the  laths  going 
up  one  side  at  a  time,  instead  of  quite  horizontally,  as 
they  should  do.  The  blind  is  fastened  up  by  winding  the 
cords  round  two  hooks  in  the  window-frame.  It  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  the  laths  composing  Venetian  blinds 
should  be  very  thin  and  well  made,  or  the  weight  would 
be  too  great  to  allow  of  their  being  conveniently  pulled  up. 


Fig.  62. 


Fig.  66. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


^n 


THE    REARING  AND    MANAGEMENT   OF 
CHILDREN. 

VI,— CHILDREN'S  CLOTHING  {continued). 
Short-c0ating   the    Baby. — There    are   two    important 
things  that  should  never  be  forgotten  in  dressing  infants 


profuse  perspiration,  predisposes  them  to  take  cold.  Colds 
arc  the  commencement  of  all  kinds  of  diseases,  and  some- 
times establish  a  permanent  constitutional  derangement. 
Secondly,  the  clothes  of  babies  and  little  children  should 
never  restrict  them.  All  strings  and  buttons  should  be 
loose  ;  bodies,  waists,  and  armholes  roomy,  and  to  spare. 


Fig.  54- 


Fig-  55. 


Fig.  56. 


Fig.  57. 


Fig.  58. 


Fig.  60. 


Fig.  61. 


Fig.  62. 


Fig.  59. 


Fig.  63. 


Fig.  64. 


and  children  :  neither  to  load  them  with  clothes,  nor 
to  let  them,  on  the  other  hand,  be  exposed  to  cold  in- 
sufficiently protected.  With  a  young  child,  care  to  shield 
it  from  draughts  and  to  wrap  it  in  a  comfortable  cloak,  and 
not  to  expose  it  to  inclement  weather,  is  most  necessary. 
Over-heating  clothing  weakens  children,  and  by  causing 

VOL.   I. 


There  must  be  no  compressing  ligatures  anywhere.  Boots, 
such  as  we  often  see  adopted  for  babies,  are  unfit  for 
them.  The  shoemaker  produces  a  narrow  case  that 
cramps  up  the  little  creature's  toes,  and  deforms  them  ; 
it  is  tightly  laced  up  the  middle,  and  cruelly  confines  the 
ankle,  that  actually  swells  round  it,  often  the   occasion 


13 


178 


THE   REARING   AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    CHILDREN. 


of  weak  joints  and  thick  and  unshapely  limbs  in  after  life. 
Up  to  a  year  old,  the  little  knitted  sock  all  of  soft  wool  is 
the  best  foot-covering  for  the  infant  human  being.  After 
that,  when  the  child  begins  to  walk  a  little,  and  toddles 
from  chair  to  chair,  a  similar  knitted  sock,  with  a  cork 
sole  to  it,  is  all  that  is  needed.  As  soon  as  it  begins  to 
get  about  on  its  feet  let  it  have  little  shoes — very  small 
pieces  of  silk  merino,  or  llama,  wi-U  make  a  baby's  quilted 
shoes.  Place  a  piece  of  thin  flannel  next  the  silk,  and  line 
with  cambric  muslin  ;  tack  all  together,  and  quilt  it.  Any 
shoemaker  will  cut  the  mother  a  pattern  for  her  shoe,  and 
and  also  a  pair  of  cork  soles  or  thin  soft  leather  to  sew 
them  to.  It  is  easy,  and  takes  little  time  to  make  such  a 
pair  of  shoes.  They  must  be  bound  with  ribbon  round 
the  top  and  straps  ;  have  buttons  on  the  straps,  and 
rosettes  on  the  toes.  Many  ladies  make  such  shoes  for 
fancy  bazaars.  When  the  child  is  carried  out,  a  little 
pair  of  woollen  gaiters,  with  soles,  must  be  drawn  over 
them  and  up  the  legs.  When  the  baby  begins  to  walk  out 
of  doors,  let  it  have  easy  black  kid  shoes  with  straps  ; 
these  may  be  followed  by  very  loose  cashmere. 

It  is,  generally  speaking,  an  unthrifty  plan  for  a  young 
mother  to  cut  up  her  baby's  long  robing  and  underskirts 
to  short-coat  it.  If  her  family  increases  these  long  gar- 
ments will  be  ready  for  new  visitors,  and  it  only  takes  two- 
thirds  of  the  material  to  make  the  little  frocks  and  petti- 
coats afterwards.  It  is  one  comfort,  where  economy  is 
needed,  to  know  that  the  expense  of  clothing  the  first 
baby  will  cover  the  cost  of  two  or  even  three  more,  and  the 
first  trouble,  too,  will  be  sufficient  for  all ;  and  only  a  few 
renewals  will  be  wanted  in  the  wardrobe.  The  expediency 
of  keeping  the  flannels  is  doubtful,  because  new  flannel  is 
better  than  old  for  this  purpose. 

There  is  a  better  way  of  making  babies'  flannels  than 
either  of  those  we  have  yet  given  ;  but  many  mothers 
object  to  the  pleated  flannel  body  as  too  warm  and 
weakening  for  the  infant.  The  body  is  a  plain  piece, 
fifteen  inches  long  and  eight  wide  ;  double  it  in  half  the 
narrow  way  at  A  A,  Fig.  63,  and  cut  out  the  half  circles  for 
arm-holes  at  B  B.  Bind  it  all  round  with  white  ribbon  or 
flannel  binding,  and  after  the  skirt  has  been  added,  sew 
on  strings  at  C  C  C,  about  three  inches  from  the  edge,  and 
the  other  side  at  the  edge  at  D  D  D.  This  allows  the 
body  to  wrap  over  in  front.  The  back  breadth  of  the 
skirt  of  the  flannel  is  gored  away  each  side  to  six  and  a- 
half  inches  at  the  top,  the  half  allowed  for  the  skirt 
seam  and  the  front  breadth  to  nine  and  a  half  inches. 
The  front  breadth  is  split  open  down  the  centre. 
The  two  breadths  of  flannel  are  run  and  felled  to- 
gether before  this  slit  is  made.  Next  bind  it  all  round, 
waist  and  all,  and  then  sew  the  waist  of  the  flannel  to  the 
waist  of  the  body.  Tie  the  skirt  together,  with  ends  of 
ribbon  sewn  on  for  the  purpose.  Flannel  can  be  bought 
with  the  edge  worked  with  coloured  silk  to  use  for  babies' 
clothing. 

The  cape  of  the  baby's  cloak  may  also  be  used  alone 
when  the  child  is  short-coated.  Most  likely  the  entire 
cloak  will  require  remaking  and  cleaning  for  a  new  baby, 
and  therefore  it  is  well  to  wear  out  the  cape  in  this 
manner. 

Short  frocks,  or  as  they  are  called  three-quarter  frocks, 
which  are  first  used  for  babies,  measure  about  half-a-yard 
long  in  the  skirt,  and  are  added  to  eight-inch  deep  bodies. 
After  a  month  or  two,  a  few  more  tucks  are  run  in  these 
skirts,  to  enable  the  child  to  walk  freely.  A  very  delicate 
infant  in  cold  weather  will  be  better  studied  by  having  its 
first  "  short  coat"  frocks  five-eighths  long  in  the  skirt  and 
gradually,  but  not  too  quickly,  reduced. 

Plain  muslin  frocks  neatly  hemmed  are  quite  sufficient 
for  short  frocks,  but  where  it  is  desired  to  have  them  hand- 
somer in  appearance  they  may  be  made  like  long  frocks 
as  regards  the  embroidery. 

Both  for  the  three-quarter  dresses  and  the  quite  short 


ones,  many  mothers  use  pretty  light  fine-printed  cambrics, 
or  scarlet  tulle,  or  in  winter  merino  or  plaid.  All  babies' 
frocks  are  now  completely  gored  on  both  sides  of  the 
front  breadth,  which  is  set  into  the  body  perfectly  plain 
at  the  waist.  The  back  breadth  may  be  plain,  and  set 
into  the  waist  gathered.  Two  widths  generally  suffice  to 
form  an  infant's  dress,  but  should  more  be  employed,  the 
side  one  would  also  be  sloped  away  in  the  seams  towards 
the  front. 

A  very  handsome  frock  for  a  baby  may  be  made  of 
muslin,  the  gored  front  breadths  made  of  rows  of  machine 
tucks  upright,  and  placed  between  bars  of  embroidered 
insertion.  This  entablier  front,  as  it  is  called,  is  edged  all 
round  with  insertion,  outside  which  there  fs  a  robing  of 
vandyked  work,  also  carried  all  round,  and  forming  a 
robing  continued  from  the  braces  on  the  body.  These 
braces  go  straight  across  the  back  of  the  body  like  a 
bcrthe,  as  shown  in  Fig.  56.  The  back  of  the  body  is 
simply  plain,  a  little  full,  and  drawn  slightly  at  the  neck 
and  waist  into  the  worked  bands.  It  is  a  plain  unsloped 
piece  of  muslin.  All  round  the  hem  of  the  skirt  there 
is  a  deep  embroidered  flounce.  The  front  of  this  dress  is 
shown  in  the  illustration  marked  Fig.  55.  The  sleeves  can- 
not be  very  well  seen  in  the  entire  drawing,  but  Figs.  60 
and  61  show  two  ways  in  which  they  may  be  made.  A  plain 
sleeve  entirely  of  narrow  machine  ruches  may  be  set  in 
an  embroidered  band,  and  edged  with  a  frill  of  vandyke, 
worked  and  headed  with  an  epaulette  with  a  lappet,  like 
Fig.  61,  the  lappet  falling  behind  ;  or  it  may  be  merely 
trimmed  with  a  narrow  edge  and  set  in  under  a  graduated 
frill,  like  Fig.  60  ;  or  it  may  be  a  plain  tucked  sleeve  edged 
with  a  narrow  band  of  work  and  a  frill  like  Fig.  61,  without 
the  lappet  epaulette.  This  frock,  made  of  very  fine  Swiss 
muslin,  with  Swiss  muslin  or  lace  trimmings,  is  an  elegant 
dress,  either  run  with  blue  ribbon  under  every  part  of  the 
insertion  or  worn  over  a  blue  sarcenet  slip.  A  sash  can 
be  tied  behind  of  pinked-out  blue  gros  grains,  with  short 
ends  and  four  bows  similar  to  the  sash  drawn  in  Fig.  58  ; 
bows  to  correspond  should  tie  up  the  shoulders,  and  silk 
or  fine  thread  lace  socks  and  blue  silk  quilted  shoes  cover 
the  little  feet.  Silk  quilted  shoes  are  very  soft,  comfort- 
able, and  pretty  for  a  baby's  best  wear  up  to  a  year  and 
a  half  old. 

Winter  frocks  for  children  short  coated  are  exceedingly 
pretty  made  of  plaid.  The  Rob  Roy,  that  is  scarlet  and 
black ;  the  Robertson,  also  scarlet  and  black,  dice  of 
scarlet  and  white ;  and  the  scarlet  Stuart  plaid  are  particu- 
larly appropriate  for  children.  So  is  the  dress  Stuart,  the 
scarlet  plaid,  in  which  a  little  green,  yellow,  and  black  is 
mixed,  mounted  on  a  white  ground.  Fig.  57  illustrates  a 
pretty  way  of  making  a  boy's  frock  of  this  plaid.  A  yard- 
and-a-half  makes  a  child's  frock.  Cut  the  body  and  sleeves 
first,  using  about  a  quarter-of-a-yard  for  the  purpose  ;  fold 
the  rest  in  half.  The  front  width  is  gored  on  both  sides 
to  about  eight  inches  across  the  waist.  For  a  boy's  frock 
gore  a  little  off  each  side  of  the  back  also,  but  not  for  a 
girl's  frock.  Cut  the  front  breadth  in  half  where  the 
slanting  pattern  is  observed.  Mitre  one  side  and  bind  it 
with  black  ribbon,  velvet,  or  braid.  Bind  the  under  edge 
straight,  to  prevent  its  fraying.  Sew  the  mitred  edge 
about  "an  inch  over  the  other,  and  put  a  small  black  or  a 
gilt  button  in  every  scollop.  The  mitres  continue  up  the 
body.  The  body  is  piped  at  the  top  and  the  mitres  added. 
The  sleeves  are  plain,  and  mitred  bands  are  laid  round 
them  with  lappet  ends  behind,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
The  belt  is  mitred,  and  so  is  the  sash  of  two  short  ends 
and  four  bows  and  a  knot.  The  edge  of  the  skirt  is  merely 
hemmed.  Lace  must  be  tacked  round  the  top  and  sleeves 
of  this  and  all  coloured  frocks. 

Fig.  53  is  suitable  for  a  girl  or  boy.  It  may  be  made 
up  of  plaid,  merino,  or  cashmere,  or  of  white  pique,  the 
trimming  of  velvet  or  braid.  A  robing  of  the  trimming  is 
brought  down  each  side  of  the  front,  and  goes  all  round 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   G-UIDE. 


179 


the  back  of  the  skirt  above  the  hem  ;  or  it  may,  after 
traversing  the  hem  at  the  sides  of  the  frock,  again  be 
carried  up  behind,  and  the  back  of  the  skirt  be  trimmed 
up  with  straps  hke  the  front  ;  but  if  this  is  done  the  skirt 
must  be  so  gored  in  both  breadths  as  to  be  plain  behind 
as  well  as  in  front  at  the  waist,  with  only  a  couple  of 
pleats  just  at  the  back  of  the  hips.  Every  strap  up  the 
skirt  and  body  is  pointed  at  each  end  and  run  on  with  a 
fancy  button  in  every  point. 

Fig.  64  is  a  baby  girl's  short  frock.  The  tunic  and 
lower  part  of  the  bodice  can  be  made  of  plaid,  and  the 
rest  of  the  frock  of  plain  cashmere.  It  is  also  pretty  if 
with  the  tunic  and  corset  of  grey  cashmere  and  the  petti- 
coat and  bodice  top  of  scarlet.  The  tunic  is  gored  quite 
plain  to  the  waist  in  front,  and  slightly  gored  at  the  sides 
of  the  back,  which  is  pleated  at  the  waist.  The  edge  is 
mitred  and  bound  with  black  braid.  The  petticoat  is  only 
a  piece  put  on  under  the  mitres  of  either  plain  scarlet 
cashmere  or  with  upright  small  pleatings.  The  top  of 
the  body  and  sleeves  are  scarlet,  plain  or  pleated,  accord- 
ing to  the  petticoat.  For  a  dress  frock  blue  llama  over 
wtiite  alpaca  is  very  pretty,  and  the  alpaca  petticoat 
trimmed  with  two  rows  of  blue  ribbon.  Instead  of  the 
mitred  edge  two  rows  of  white  ribbon  can  be  used  to  trim 
the  tunic,  or  instead  of  two  plain  rows  a  twisted  row,  like 
Fig.  54.  The  tunic  must  of  course  correspond  with  the 
petticoat  in  the  style  of  trimming,  only  blue  trimming  is  laid 
on  the  white,  and  white  on  the  blue.  The  sleeves  are  epau- 
lettes, the  shape  of  which  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  62. 

In  winter,  children  from  the  time  they  are  short  coated 
generally  wear  a  pelisse  made  exactly  like  a  frock  with  a 
high  body  and  long  sleeves,  and  a  cape  and  collar  of  the 
same  material.  The  capes  are  now  made  very  short,  and 
do  not  quite  reach  to  the  waist.  Black  velveteen,  brown, 
or  blue  merino  are  very  suitable  for  such  a  purpose.  Trim 
with  a  broad  military  braid  and  a  narrow  one  of  the  same 
colour  as  the  pelisse,  and  a  row  of  buttons  down  the  front 
in  the  manner  illustrated  by  the  cut,  Fig.  59.  Many  people 
use  white  worsted  braid  for  such  a  purpose.  In  very  cold 
weather  the  pelisse  can  be  worn  over  the  frock,  which  is, 
however,  generally  removed. 


THE   HOUSE. 

LIFE    ASSURANCE. 

It  will  be  rather  difficult  to  explain,  in  a  popular  manner, 
the  principles  involved  in  the  computations  by  which  the 
profits  of  a  life  assurance  company  are  assessed,  and  from 
which  are  derived  the  large  bonuses  referred  to  in  our 
last  paper.     Let  us,  however,  see  what  we  can  do. 

By  certain  methods  of  calculation  known  to  actuaries, 
an  estimate  is  periodically  made,  usually  every  five  or 
seven  years,  of  the  present  value,  at  the  time  of  the  inves- 
tigation, of  all  the  sums  assured  and  bonus  additions  to  the 
pohcies  for  which  the  company  have  made  themselves 
liable,  as  well  as  of  all  annuities  and  other  liabilities. 
Against  this  is  set  the  value,  also  computed  in  present 
money,  at  the  same  date,  of  all  the  assets  or  funds  in 
hand  to  meet  such  liabilities.  The  difference  between 
these  two  amounts — both,  observe,  estimated  in  present 
money — is  the  surplus  or  profit  of  the  company  ;  and 
supposing  the  estimates  to  have  been  made  upon  true 
principles  of  valuation,  this  surplus  should  be  the  sum 
that  has  been  actually  realised  during  the  preceding  five 
or  seven  years. 

It  would  be  quite  out  of  place  here  to  attempt  any 
investigation  or  even  explanation  of  what  these  true  prin- 
ciples are.  Indeed,  even  well-informed  actuaries  are  far 
from  being  agreed  on  the  subject,  and  a  great  variety  of 
practice  necessarily  prevails  among  the  different  com- 
panies in  connection  with  the  periodical  valuations. 

We  shall  confine  ourselves  to  stating  generally  that  as 


regards  the  liabilities,  the  estimate  should  be  made  upon 
a  table  that  may  fairly  be  considered  to  represent  the 
mortality  of  the  company  under  investigation  ;  and  the 
rate  of  interest  should  be  less,  probably  by  i  per  cent., 
than  the  interest  actually  realised  on  the  investments. 
The  method  of  dealing  with  the  "loading,"  or  per  cent- 
age  for  profit  added  to  the  net  rate  of  premium,  should 
be  indicated,  to  show  that  the  valuation  has  not  been 
made  upon  an  erroneous  and  dangerous  principle,  by 
which  the  future  profit  is  anticipated,  instead  of  the 
actually  rea/ised  profit  during  the  preceding  quinquennial 
or  septennial  term  being  shown.  It  is  most  important  to 
bear  in  mind  that  if  in  the  valuation  of  the  future  pre- 
miums the  "  loading  "  be  included,  the  effect  will  be  to 
treat  as  a  present  asset,  available  for  division,  what  is,  in 
fact,  the  reserve  for  future  expenses  of  management,  to 
provide  for  bonuses  which,  as  we  have  before  pointed 
out,  the  assured  public  w///  have,  and  to  guard  against 
possible  fluctuations  in  the  rate  of  interest  and  mortality  ; 
for. it  will  easily  be  seen  that  the  one  may  diminish  and 
the  other  increase  from  financial  and  sanitary  conditions 
over  which  the  most  prudent  company  can  have  no  con- 
trol. And  as  regards  the  assets,  it  should  be  made 
apparent  that  their  present  value  is  set  down  at  such  a 
sum  only  as  they  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  realise 
if  they  had  to  be  sold  at  the  date  of  the  estimate.  To 
deal  with  this  important  subject,  and  with  others  bearing 
upon  it  in  connection  with  the  affairs  of  life  assurance 
companies,  in  which  so  many  thousands  of  persons  are 
vitally  interested,  is  admitted  to  be  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult of  the  social  problems  of  the  day. 

The  surplus  or  profit  being  arrived  at  by  one  or  other 
of  the  methods  adopted  by  actuaries,  is,  in  the  case  of  a 
mutual  company,  divided  among  the  policy-holders  by  an 
addition  to  the  sum  assured  payable  at  death,  which  is 
termed  a  reversionary  bonus,  by  a  cash  payment,  or  by 
an  equivalent  reduction  in  the  annual  premium  payable, 
according  to  the  arrangements  of  the  society. 

In  a  proprietary  company  a  certain  proportion  only — 
which  may  be  two-thirds,  three-quarters,  or  four-fifths — is 
divided  among  the  recipients  entitled  to  share  therein, 
according  to  the  provisions 'of  the  deed  of  settlement, 
while  the  remaining  one-third,  one-quarter,  or  one-fifth,  as 
the  case  may  be,  goes  to  the  proprietors  or  shareholders, 
to  remunerate  them  for  the  use  of  their  capital,  which  is 
an  important  security  to  the  assured  body. 

Another  very  difficult  and  much-discussed  question 
relates  to  the  principles  of  division  as  regards  the  relative 
rights  of  the  different  recipients.  Each  office  will  probably 
be  prepared  to  show  thac  its  own  method  of  distribution 
is  the  only  correct  and  equitable  one.  As,  however,  scarcely 
two  offices  adopt  the  same  plan  of  division  of  the  surplus 
among  individual  policy-holders,  and  as  they  cannot  all 
be  right,  we  can  only  counsel  our  readers,  as  they  cannot 
alter  the  matter,  to  assure  their  lives  in  a  good  office,  to 
take  all  they  can  get  in  the  way  of  a  bonus,  and  to  hope 
that,  to  some  extent  at  least,  they  will  participate  in  the 
profits  of  the  business  in  proportion  to  their  several  con- 
tributions to  those  profits,  remembering  that  the  chief 
thing  to  be  considered  on  their  parts  is  the  security  offered 
by  the  office  of  their  choice,  and  the  certainty  that  the 
sum  contracted  for,  and  the  bonus,  whatever  it  may 
amount  to,  will  be  duly  paid  upon  a  claim  arising. 

And  now  we  shall  probably  be  expected  to  define  what 
we  mean  by  the  expression  a  "good  office."  We  can  only 
reply  briefly,  that  in  our  opinion  an  office  that  merits  this 
appellation  is  one  that  will  be  able  to  give  satisfactory  in- 
formation on  the  following  points,  viz. : — 

I.  Publication  oj  Accounts,  comprising  annual  balance- 
sheets  and  valuation  returns,  stating  the  principles  of 
valuation,  and  showing  clearly  the  amount  at  risk,  and  the 
present  or  cash  value  of  assets  in  hand  to  meet  it,  how 
invested,  and  at  what  rate  of  interest 


i8o 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 


2.  Expenditu7-c. — It  should  be  shown  that  the  value  of 
the  "  loading,"  or  of  the  proportion  thereof,  whatever  it 
may  be  that  is  reserved,  is  sufficient  to  cover  expenses  of 
management,  and  to  provide  for  the  bonuses  which  in  the 
present  day  the  assured  insist  upon  having.  If  the  expen- 
diture exceeds  the  "  loading,"  the  office  cannot  be  solvent. 
The  working  expenses  in  twelve  first-class  offices  vary 
from  seven  and  a  half  to  ten  and  three-quarters  per  cent, 
on  the  premium  income  of  the  year. 

3.  Amalgafnaiiojis. — It  would  be  satisfactory,  as  a  rule, 
to  find  that  there  had  been  none,  though  cases  may  arise 
in  which  an  amalgamation  between  two  companies  might 
have  taken  place  to  the  advantage  of  both,  provided  no 
undue  amount  were  paid  for  the  business. 

4.  Caiitio7i  if  I  the  Acceptance  of  Risks,  so  that  the 
assumed  rate  of  mortality  is  not  exceeded.  This  requires 
very  careful  watching,  as  will  be  apparent  when  we  state 
that  the  mortality  experience  recently  collected  and  pub- 
lished by  the  Institute  of  Actuaries  (which  embodies  the 
experience  of  twenty  important  assurance  companies, 
ranging  over  160426  lives),  shows  that  the  duration  of 
life,  even  among  the  selected  lives  upon  which  assurances 
have  been  effected,  differs  very  little,  at  all  events,  from 
that  shown  by  the  Carlisle  table  of  mortality,  a  table  in 
very  general  use  among  life  assurance  companies.  The 
reason  why  the  benefit  of  selection  (from  which  at  first 
sight  it  would  appear  that  the  office  must  derive  great 
advantage,  all  the  lives  being  subjected  to  a  strict  medical 
examination)  is  not  greater  than  it  appears  in  fact  by  these 
tables  to  be,  is  probably  that  there  is  always  a  contrary 
influence  at  work  against  the  company  to  induce  the 
acceptance  of  lives  known  to  be  doubtful,  if  not  altogether 
diseased,  and  the  unsoundness  of  which  the  company's 
medical  examiner  cannot  always  detect. 

5.  Safe  Investment  of  the  assets,  at  a  remunerative  rate 
of  interest. 

6.  Careful  Management  gencraWy,  by  an  efficient  actuary. 


GOLD  AND  SILVER  MARKS. 
Many  articles  of  gold,  and  nearly  all  of  silver,  and  even 
electro-plate,  bear  certain  marks,  some  acquaintance  with 
which  everybody  ought  to  possess.  The  marks  upon 
the  precious  metals  are  called  "  hall  marks  " — probably 
because,  in  London,  they  are  put  on  at  the  Goldsmit»hs' 
Hall.  Only  one  quality  of  silver  is  hall-marked,  viz., 
standard  silver,  in  the  proportion  of  eleven  ounces  and 
two  pennyweights  of  pure  silver  and  eighteen  penny- 
weights of  alloy  to  every  twelve  ounces  troy  weight. 
With  gold,  the  case  is  different,  and  a  person  may  pur- 
chase hall-marked  gold  of  many  values  from  about  eighty 
shillings  per  ounce,  although  gold  worth  less  than  about 
one  pound  eleven  shillings  and  sixpence  per  ounce  is 
very  seldom  marked.  In  1869  the  Goldsmiths'  Com- 
pany in  London  discontinued  marking  gold  chains  of  in- 
ferior quality  ;  and  gold  watch  cases  must  be  of  eighteen 
carat  gold.  Some  foreign  watches  marked  as  eighteen 
carat  gold,  have  the  cases  in  part  made  of  silver  or  other 
inferior  metal.  In  England  also,  sometimes,  rings  marked 
as  gold  of  superior  quality  are  partly  of  inferior  gold. 
This  is  the  result  ©f  fraud  :  unprincipled  makers  some- 
times taking  rings  to  be  hall-marked,  after  which  they  cut 
out  the  portion  marked  and  insert  it  in  rings  of  lower 
value.  This  is  also  done  with  silver,  but  to  a  less  extent. 
Assuming  that  articles  bearing  the  hall  marks  of  the 
United  Kingdom  are  what  they  profess  to  be,  we  will 
describe  those  marks.  They  are  of  five  sorts,  as  follow  :  — 
I.  The  hall  mark  proper,  denoting  the  place  where  the 
articles  were  stamped.  For  Birmingham  there  is  an 
anchor  ;  for  London,  a  leopard's  head  ;  for  Chester,  a 
dagger  and  three  wheat  sheaves  ;  for  Sheffield,  a  crown ; 
for  York,  five  lions'  heads  and  a  cross  ;  for  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne,  three  castles ;  for  Exeter,  a  castle  with  three  towers; 


for  Edinburgh,  a  castle  and  lion  ;  for  Glasgow,  a  tree  and 
a  fish  with  a  ring  in  its  mouth  ;  for  Dublin,  a  figure  of 
Hibernia. 

2.  The  duty  ma?-k,  which  is  the  head  of  the  reigning 
monarch,  and  shows  that  duty  has  been  paid. 

3.  The  standard  mark  is,  for  England,  a  lion  passant ; 
for  Edinburgh,  a  thistle  ;  for  Glasgow,  a  lion  rampant ; 
for  Ireland,  a  crowned  harp.  Gold  is  also  marked  with 
figures,  as  22  for  gold  of  twenty-two  carats,  18  for  gold  of 
eighteen  carats,  9  for  gold  of  nine  carats  ;  and  these 
figures  are  the  only  guide  the  purchaser  has  to  the  quality 
of  the  metal. 

4.  The  maker's  mark  is  the  initials  of  the  maker  in 
common  capital  letters. 

5.  The  date  mark,  which  varies  yearly,  and  shows  when 
the  stamps  were  impressed.  By  this  mark,  therefore,  the 
age  of  an  article  can  be  ascertained.  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  give  the  explanations  of  the  date  matics  of  the  Gold- 
smiths' Company  for  two  hundred  years.  1656  to  1675, 
old  English  capitals  ;  1676  to  1695,  small  Roman  letters  ; 
1696  to  1715,  the  court  alphabet  ;  1716  to  1735,  Roman 
capitals  ;  1736  to  1755,  small  Roman  letters  ;  1756  to 
1775,  old  Enghsh  capitals  ;  1776  to  1795,  small  Roman 
letters  ;  1796  to  181 5,  Roman  capitals  ;  i8i6to  1835,  small 
Roman  letters  ;  1836  to  1855,  old  English  capitals  ;  1856 
to  1875,  old  English  small  letters.  The  head  of  the 
sovereign  will  aid  in  explaining  the  dates. 

Inasmuch  as  many  articles  of  jewellery  go  into  the 
market  without  any  of  the  above  marks,  the  public  have 
no  guarantee  beyond  the  word  of  the  dealer.  Under  the 
circumstances,  it  is  desirable  that  people  should  take  the 
advice  of  a  leading  manufacturer,  who  says  they  ought — 
I,  to  learn  the  various  qualities  and  prices  of  gold  ;  2,  in- 
quire at  time  of  purchase  what  quality  of  gold  they  are 
buying  ;  3,  have  the  quality  plainly  stated  on  an  invoice  ; 
and  4,  pay  in  proportion  to  quality. 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 

BELL-HANGING. 
The  simplest  way  to  look  into  the  mystery  of  bells  and 
bell-hanging,  as  known  in  ordinary  houses,  will  be  perhaps 
to  trace  a  wire  from  the  pull  at  one  end  to  the  bell  at  the 
other.  Fig.  68  is  a  diagram  of  a  bell-pull  such  as  is  usually 
found  at  the  side  of  the  fireplace,  and  in  this,  as  in  nearly 
all,  the  principle  of  action  is  leverage.  The  lever  A  is 
pivoted  on  the  screw  c,  and  has  on  its  upper  end  a  knob, 
B,  to  take  hold  of.  The  nose  of  the  screw  being  prolonged 
and  screwed  to  take  on  the  ornamental  plate  which  hides 
the  working  part,  both  plate  and  knob  being  of  various 
patterns  and  qualities,  according  to  the  situation. 
Fastened  to  A,  and  also  hanging  on  C,  is  the  drum  D, 
round  a  part  of  which  runs  a  flat  chain,  of  which  there  is 
just  enough  to  encircle  about  one-half  of  the  drum,  to  which 
it  is  fastened  on  the  top.  The  lever  is  only  free  to  move 
between  the  gap  in  the  ring,  or  about  a  quarter  of  a  circle. 
This  movement,  however,  is  quite  sufficient.  A  small  hole 
at  G  in  the  ring,  allows  the  chain  to  move  out  or  in  with 
each  movement  of  the  handle.  The  wire,  w,  is  fastened  to 
the  lowest  link,  and  proceeds  to  the  crank,  H,  the  form  of 
which  is  that  of  a  simple  triangle  hinging  on  a  pivot  at  the 
apex,  I,  the  opposite  comers  having  holes  to  receive  the 
wires.  In  the  course  of  the  wire,  if  the  bell  is  a  long 
way  off",  and  not  in  a  direct  line,  perhaps  several  of  these 
cranks  will  be  found,  and  they  also  vary  in  form  according 
to  the  direction  of  the  motion  required.  Should  the  wire 
have  to  traverse  long  distances  horizontally,  it  is  passed 
through  small  staples  of  galvanised  wire  to  prevent  its 
weight  from  dragging  it  down.  The  wire  used  is  copper, 
and  the  price  per  ounce  about  2d. ;  but  in  large  quantities 
it  is  much  cheaper.  The  hanging  of  the  bell  itself  is 
shown  at  Fig.  67.  A  is  a  flat  brass  frame,  which  fastens  to 
the  wall,  and  having  a  lever  arm,  B,  pivoted  on  it,  to  the 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


i8i 


end  of  which  lever,  opposite  the  pivot,  the  wire,  w,  and 
the  spiral  spring,  s,  arc  fastened  on  a  little  boss,  or  drum, 
round  the  pivot.  But  hanging  with  P.  is  a  long,  flat  spring, 
C,  to  the  end  of  which  is  fastened  the  bell,  D,  The  spiral 
spring,  s,  is  nailed  to  the  wall  at  T,  and  is  fastened  at 
sufficient  tension  to  pull  back  the  lever,  B,  to  its  stop,  H, 
after  it  has  been  moved  by  the  wire,  w.  The  spring,  s, 
has,  however,  to  the  whole  length  of  the  wire  through 
all  its  various  bends  and  turnings,  strained  tight  right  up 
to  the  handle,  A,  P'ig.  68,  and  upon  it  the  balance  neces- 
sary depends.  The  flat  spring,  c, 
to  which  the  bell,  D,  appends,  has 
for  its  purpose  only  the  prolonging 
o(  the  swing  motion  of  the  bell,  for 
it  is  well  known  that  a  single  move- 
ment of  A  will  produce  a  ring  continued 
in  proportion  to  the  delicacy  of  the 
balance.  Should,  however,  any  bell  fail 
to  act,  the  cause  will  most  probably  be 
that  the  length  of  wire  between  two  of 
the  cranks  has  got  stretched  or  broken, 
in  which  case  the  handle.  A,  Fig.  68, 
will  hang  down  loose. 

Where  a  number  of  bells  from  different 
parts  of  an  establishment  are  all  brought 
together,  they  should  be  arranged  on  the 


Fig.  O7. 


COOKING. 

SHELL-FISH. 

Mussels  with  Sharp  Sauce. —  Cook  the  mussels  as 
already  directed  ;  turn  them  out,  and  set  the  liquor  aside 
to  settle.  Leave  each  mussel  in  the  valve  or  half-shell  to 
which  it  is  attached,  removing  the  other  half-shell.  Take 
out  the  weeds  and  the  parasitic  crabs.  Neatly  arrange  or 
pile  the  mussels  in  the  half-shells  in  the  centre  of  a  dish. 
A  soup-plate  will  serve  for  a  small  quantity.  Take  some 
of  the  mussel-liquor,  and  with  it, 
instead  of  water,  make  melted  butter, 
using  the  butter  liberally.  Add 
pepper  and  a  good  dash  of  vinegar. 
When  it  boils,  pour  it  over  your 
mussels,  and  serve. 

Scalloped  Mussels. — Cook  the  mussels 
as  above  ;  pick  and  take  them  out  of 
their  shells.  Have  scallop-shells  or  tin 
pans  made  of  that  shape.  Put  grated 
bread-crumbs  at  the  bottom  ;  on  these 
lay  mussels,  putting  amongst  them  little 
bits  of  butter ;  season  v/ith  pepper  and 
grated  nutmeg ;  sprinkle  more  bread- 
crumbs over  them,  and  so  on  till  the 
shells  are  full,  covering  all  with  bread- 
top.  Moisten  with  a  small  quantity  of  the 
Set   in  the  oven  of  your  cooking-stove, 


bell-board    in    a  regular   and  systematic  order — that    is,  |  crumbs  at  the 

the  smallest,  or   highest  toned,  should   be  at  one  end,  !  mussel  liquor. 

and    gradually    range    up   to    the    largest,    or    deepest    or  in  an  American  oven,  till  they  are  well  heated  through, 

toned,   each    succeeding   bell   a   trifle   higher   than   the  '■  and  the  top  nicely  browned. 

former.     The  reason  for  this  arrangement  is  obvious — j      Fried  Mussels  {Grande  Cuisine). — Shake  your  mussels 

the  smaller  bells  allowing  the  wires  to  the  others  to  pass  1  in  a  saucepan  with  the  lid  on  without  water.  When  well 

over  them  without  touchine:  them.      W^ith  large  numbers  i  opened  take  them  out  of  the  shells,    remove   the  weed 


of  bells  together,  it  would  be  often  difficult 
to  tell  which  had  been  nmg,  from  the  slight 
variation  in  tone,  so  the  following  arrange- 
ment is  adopted  : — Each  wire  passes  in  as 
usual  to  its  respective  bell,  affixed  to  which 
is  a  small  catch,  having  at  the  bottom  a 
pendulum,  which  continues  to  swing  a  con- 
siderable time  after  the  bell  has  ceased  to 
ring  ;  or,  better  still,  after  setting  in  motion 
their  respective  pendulums,  all  the  wires 
proceed  to  a  single  gong,  which  only  utters 
one  note,  and  leaves  the  pendulum  to  show 
which  room  requires  attention.  The  great 
advantage  of  the  latter  plan  is  too  evident 
to  require  even  mentioning. 

The  numerous  forms  of  bell-pull  contrived 
to  suit  the  varied  requirements  of  house- 
holds, are  all  more  or  less  on  the  same 
principle  as  we  have  illustrated.  The  wires 
themselves  are  often  passed  through  tubes 
of  thin  zinc  let  into  the  plaster  of  the  wall, 
several  wires  sometimes  passing  through 
one  tube  ;  but  the  cranks  and  connections 
should,  if  possible,  be  where  they  are  acces- 
sible when  repairs  are  necessary.  In  hotels 
and  large  buildings,  electricity  is  rapidly  superseding 
the  old  system  of  bell-hanging,  and  it  is  now  being 
gradually  introduced  into  ordinary  houses.  In  another 
paper,  we  shall  treat  fully  of  electric  bells.  Speaking- 
tubes,  again,  are  very  useful,  and  easily  contrived,  ordi- 
nary iron  gas-pipe  answering  the  purpose  nearly  as  well 
as  gutta-percha,  and  at  a  much  less  price,  and  the 
flexible  ends  and  whistles  can  be  purchased  sufficiently 
handsome  for  the  most  elegant  apartment,  and  suffici- 
ently cheap  to  be  within  the  reach  of  the  most  ordi- 
nary purse. 

When  several  pipes  terminate  in  the  same  place,  the 
whistles  are  fitted  with  indicators— little  ivory  rods  which 
are  blown  out  when  the  whistle  is  used,  thereby  showing 
where  the  attention  is  required. 


attached  to  the  root  of  the  tongue  (really  the 
foot)  and  the  crabs  which  nestle  inside  the 
mussel.  Lay  them  on  a  napkin  to  cool  and 
drain.  Make  a  batter  to  dip  them  in  with  a 
little  of  their  own  liquor,  flour,  butter,  and  an 
Qgg  ;  season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  what  else 
you  please.  When  this  is  smooth  and  well 
thickened  over  the  fire,  it  is  ready.  Dip  the 
mussels  one  by  one  in  this  ;  lay  them  on 
a  board  so  as  ndt  to  touch  each  other.  When 
cold,  with  the  sauce  sticking  to  them  firmly, 
roll  them  separately  in  bread-crumbs,  and 
fry  them  light  brown  in  a  de6p  small  sauce- 
pan containing  plenty  of  hot  fat.  They  may 
be  sened  heaped  on  a  dish  garnished  with 
fried  parsley,  or  they  make  an  elegant  gar- 
nish for  fried  fish  served  on  a  napkin.  Large 
oysters  (scalded  before  dipping  in  the  batter) 
may  be  fried  and  served  in  the  same  way. 

Cockles. —  Cockles,  especially  those  from 
shores  overlying  a  stratum  of  clay,  after  a 
thorough  washing  in  two  or  three  waters, 
and  draining  awhile,  should  be  put  into  salt 
and  water — less  salt  than  sea-water,  which 
may  be  easily  ascertained  by  tasting — to 
I  cleanse  themselves.  Let  them  lie  there  all  night,  changing 
the  water  if  you  can.  Cockles  are  nicest  roasted  on  the 
bars  of  a  grate,  or  a  tin  laid  on  the  flat  top  of  a  cooking 
stove,  or  in  an  iron  dish  set  into  the  oven,  and  eaten  hot 
with  bread  and  butter.  As  soon  as  they  open  wide  they 
are  done  enough  ;  or  they  may  be  shaken  in  a  closed 
saucepan,  with  no  water,  over  a  brisk  fire,  till  they  are 
done.  Cockles  may  be  dressed  in  all  the  ways — except 
frying— practised  with  oysters  and  mussels.  They  are 
good  pickled,  scalloped,  stewed,  and  in  sauce  to  go  with 
any  boiled  fish. 

Scallops.— On  opening  your  scallops,  before  detaching 
them  from  the  shell,  trim  away  and  reject  the  beards, 
keeping  the  white,  red,  and  black  parts  of  the  fish  ;  wa-h 
them  in  several  waters  ;   then  boil  them  an  hour  or  more 


1 82 


COOKING. 


till  tender,  in  no  more  water  than  will  cover  them  ;  then 
serve  them  as  a  stew,  thickening  their  liquor  with  flour 
and  butter,  and  seasoning  with  pepper,  salt,  and  vinegar  ; 
or  scallop  them  in  their  own  shells  with  bread-crumbs, 
butter,  pepper,  moistened  with  a  little  of  their  own  juice, 
and  browned  on  the  top  in  an  oven  or  before  the  fire. 
They  may  be  added,  chopped  to  oyster  or  lobster  patties, 
and,  with  hard-boiled  eggs,  may  enter  appropriately  into 
any  fish  pie,  but  in  every  case,  the  scallops  must  be  well 
boiled  previously. 

Stewed  Oysters. — A  light  dish  for  invalids  who  find 
uncooked  oysters  too  cold  and  difficult  of  digestion.  As 
you  open  the  oysters,  put  them  and  the  liquor  from  the 
shells  into  a  small  basin,  leaving  the  beards  on  them; 
these  are  not  left  for  the  sake  of  being  eaten,  unless 
liked,  but  for  the  juice  that  comes  from  them.  For  a 
dozen  middle-sized  oysters,  put  into  a  small  saucepan  a 
lump  of  butter  as  big  as  an  egg;  over  this,  pour  the 
oysters  and  their  juice;  dredge  a  Tcry  little  flour  over  them, 
season  moderately  with  pepper  and  grated  nutmeg,  add 
two  or  three  table-spoonfials  of  cold  water  ;  set  the  sauce- 
pan on  a  gentle  fire,  keep  shaking  the  oysters  round  and 
round  ;  as  soon  as  the  butter  is  melted  and  the  liquor 
hot,  set  the  saucepan  on  the  side  of  the  stove  to  let  the 
oysters  get  warm  through — they  must  never  boil,  which 
would  make  them  hard  and  shrunken.  Continue  shaking 
or  stirring  from  time  to  time.  On  a  hot  dish,  lay  a  large 
sHce  of  toasted  bread  ;  on  this  deposit  the  oysters  with  a 
spoon  ;  then  pour  over  them  nearly  all  the  gravy,  leaving 
in  the  saucepan  a  table-spoonful  or  so,  into  which  the  grit 
and  sediment  will  have  settled. 

The  Razor  Fish  or  Solen  should  also  be  cooked  like 
oysters,  and  makes  most  excellent  and  strengthening 
soup. 

Clams  figure  very  conspicuously  in  American  bills  of 
fare.  We  have  never  seen  them  sent  to  table  in  Great 
Britain,  though  they  are  to  be  had  for  the  gathering  on 
many  spots.  "  Clams,"  observes  Soyer,  "  are  a  species 
of  cockle,  only  found  in  Devonshire,  Cornwall,  parts  of 
Wales,  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland  and  Scotland." 
"  The  fish,"  he  adds,  "  is  much  superior  in  flavour  to  the 
oyster,  and  if  eaten  raw,  should  be  about  the  same  size ; 
but  if  larger,  should  be  made  into  soup,  or  cooked  in  the 
same  way  as  the  oyster," 

Stewed  Clams  {Americaii). — Put  the  clams  in  a  stew- 
pan,  with  about  the  same  quantity  of  water  as  the  juice  of 
the  clams.  Boil  twenty-five  or  thirty  minutes  ;  remove 
all  the  scum  that  rises,  and  season  with  butter  and  a  dust 
of  pepper. 

Hashed  Clams. — Chop  clams  fine ;  stew  them  in  their 
own  juice  and  a  little  water.  Boil  fifteen  minutes,  and 
season  with  butter  and  pepper.  After  taking  up  the  hash, 
thicken  the  gravy  with  one  or  two  Qgg  yolks,  and  lay  bits 
of  toasted  bread  round  the  dish.  Clams  may  also  be 
fried  in  batter,  or  with  egg  and  bread-crumbs. 

VEGETABLES. 

Boiling  is  the  ordinary  mode  of  cooking  vegetables. 
The  rule  is  to  throw  them  (whether  roots,  foliage,  flowers, 
or  unripe  seeds)  into  cold  water,- after  trimming  or  other 
preparation  ;  to  let  them  lie  there,  if  shrivelled  or  droop- 
ing, until  they  have  recovered  their  natural  crispness  ; 
then  to  throw  them  into  rain  or  river  water,  or  other 
water  made  soft  artificially  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
pinch  of  carbonate  of  soda  ;  to  keep  them  boiling  without 
the  Hd  (with  roots  this  is  immaterial,  though  it  is  one 
means  of  keeping  greens  a  good  colour) ;  to  remove  all 
scum  as  it  rises  ;  to  cook  them  enough  ;  and  to  take 
thern  up  as  soon  as  they  are  done  through,  instead  of 
leaving  them  to  seethe,  and  lose  their  natural  juices  in 
the  water 

To  this  there  are  exceptions.  Peas  and  beans  may  be 
thrown  into  cold  water  when  they  are  dried,  but  when  green 


are  best  not  thrown  into  cold  water ;  and  the  former  should 
be  boiled  in  the  least  quantity  of  water  possible.  Potatoes 
require  different  treatment,  according  to  their  kind  and 
the  soil  in  which  they  grew.  Very  mealy  or  large  potatoes, 
if  thrown  into  boiling  water,  will  fall  to  pieces  outside, 
v/hile  still  raw  in  the  centre  ;  while  small  firm  or  waxy 
varieties  (like  the  old  Dutch)  are  best  thrown  into  boiling 
salt  water.  If  you  buy  potatoes  of  the  grower,  he  will 
often  tell  you  what  treatment  suits  them.  At  any  rate,  an 
experiment  both  ways  wiH  soon  settle  the  difficulty.  But 
the  qualities  of  potatoes  vary,  not  only  with  soil  and  kind, 
but  also  with  the  period  in  the  season.  We  have  known 
potatoes,  waxy  and  watery  when  first  dug  up,  become 
light  and  floury  in  February  or  March,  after  the  eyes  had 
sprouted  perhaps  three  or  four  inches.  The  reason  is 
plain  :  superabundant  moisture  had  been  drawn  off,  and 
the  starch,  which  forms  one  of  its  component  elements, 
had  had  time  to  mature  itself 

How  to  cook  Potatoes. — It  is  well  known  that  a  good 
potato  may  be  spoiled  by  bad  cooking  ;  and,  by  good 
management,  a  bad  one  may  be  rendered  comparatively 
good.  In  fact,  no  vegetable  depends  more  on  the  cooking 
than  a  potato.  In  the  first  place,  if  the  skin  is  taken  off 
them  before  boiling,  it  should  not  be  peeled,  but  scraped, 
for  the  following  reason  :  if  peeled,  it  is  reduced  in  size 
considerably;  besides,  the  outside  removed  is  the  very 
best  portion  of  the  root.  An  iron  saucepan  is  preferable 
to  a  tin  one  for  cooking  them,  as  it  prevents  their  boiling 
so  fast  ;  but  the  best  way  is,  first  to  Avash  them  very 
clean,  then  to  put  them  on  the  fire  with  just  cold  water 
enough  to  cover  them  ;  when  it  has  begun  to  boil,  throw 
in  a  handful  of  salt,  and  add  a  pint  of  cold  water,  which 
checks  their  boiling,  and  gives  them  time  to  be  done 
through,  without  allowing  them  to  crack.  As  soon  as 
done,  rather  under  than  over,  which  may  be  ascertained 
with  a  fork,  pour  the  water  off  them,  and  replace  the 
pan  on  the  fire  for  a  short  time,  until  the  remaining 
moisture  is  evaporated.  If  not  immediately  wanted, 
do  not  place  the  lid  upon  them,  or  the  steam  will  be 
confined,  but  cover  them  with  a  cloth.  New  potatoes 
require  great  caution  not  to  over-boil  them,  or  they  will 
be  tasteless  and  watery. 

Mashed  Potatoes. — After  boiling  as  above,  peel  them 
into  a  bowl,  mash  them  immediately  with  a  wooden 
spoon,  adding  salt,  a  small  quantity  of  hot  milk,  and  a 
little  bit  of  butter  oiled.  When  served  on  the  dish,  it  will 
be  an  improvement  to  brown  their  surface  before  the  fire, 
or  in  a  gentle  oven  ;  or  they  may  be  put  in  a  buttered  tin 
or  pudding-basin,  set  into  the  oven,  and  then  turned  out 
on  to  the  dish. 

Stewed  Onions  {Oignons  en  Matelote). — Peel  some  large 
onions,  taking  care  not  to  cut  their  tops  too  short,  in  order 
that  they  may  not  fall  to  pieces.  Throw  them  into  boil- 
ing water,  and  let  them  boil  a  minute  or  two.  Take  out 
and  drain  them  ;  lay  them  side  by  side  in  a  stew-pan, 
with  a  lump  of  butter,  a  bunch  of  sweet  herbs,  pepper  and 
salt.  In  another  saucepan,  brown  flour  in  butter,  with  a 
little  chopped  onion  ;  when  nicely  coloured,  moisten  with 
common  claret.  Burgundy,  or  cider ;  let  the  sauce  thicken, 
and  then  pour  it  through  a  strainer  over  the  onions  in  the 
stew-pan,  which  you  will  set  upon  the  fire,  and  let  them 
stew  gently.  Give  the  finishing  touch  with  a  gherkin 
chopped  small,  and  a  dash  of  vinegar.  In  your  dish  lay 
as  many  slices  of  toast  as  there  are  onions  ;  put  an  onion 
on  each,  and  pour  the  sauce  over  the  whole.  The  sauce 
should  be  thick,  and  is  improved  by  the  addition  of  strong 
stock  or  good  gravy  to  the  wine  or  cider,  on  mixing  it 
with  the  browned  flour  and  butter. 

Stewed  Tiirnips  {Mitonnage  aux  Navels). — A  French 
form  of  mashed  turnips,  which  might  be  called  with 
propriety,  turnip  sauce,  and  is  very  nice  with  boiled 
mutton,  veal,  or  poultry.  Peel  turnips,  cut  them  in  pieces, 
and  set  them  on  to  boil  in  salted  water.     "^Vhen  they  are 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


183 


tender,  take  them  out,  and  in  the  water  in  which  they 
have  been  boiled,  simmer  some  crumbs  of  bread  over  a 
gentle  fire.  Mash  the  turnips,  warm  them  in  another 
saucepan  with  butter  and  pepper,  then  mix  them  up  with 
the  boiled  bread.  Stir  two  or  three  egg-yolks  in  a  little 
milk,  mix  these  and  another  bit  of  butter  with  the  bread 
and  turnips.  Let  the  whole  stew  gently  a  minute  or  two 
to  thicken,  and  serve. 

Turnip  Tops.  —  In  spring  an  excellent  vegetable  is 
furnished  by  the  shoots  of  turnips.  The  time  to  take 
them  is  the  moment  they  show  signs  of  running  to  seed, 
because  their  season  is  very  short,  especially  if  the 
weather  is  dry  and  sunshiny.  When  once  sticky  and 
thready,  they  are  over.  They  are  never  dear,  and  in  the 
country  may  often  be  had  for  the  gathering.  In  gardens, 
it  is  worth  while  making  a  small  late  sowing,  or  leaving  a 
patch  of  turnips,  to  make  ''  tops,"  because  they  come  in 
when  other  greens  are  scarce.  After  freshening  up  the 
turnip  tops  in  cold  water,  throw  them  into  a  large  kettle 
of  boiling  soft  water,  and  keep  boiling,  uncovered,  until 
quite  tender.  When  done,  put  them  into  a  cullender  to 
drain,  squeezing  them  gently  with  your  ladle.  Then 
transfer  them  to  a  vegetable-dish  ;  press  them  with  the 
bottom  of  a  plate,  holding  the  dish  upright,  to  let  the 
water  run  out.  Dust  the  surface  with  a  little  pepper,  and 
spread  a  lump  of  butter  over  it.  Cut  the  flattened  turnip 
tops  across  both  ways  with  a  knife,  so  as  to  divide  them 
into  small  squares,  and  serve.  Any  left  cold  may  be 
heated  up  next  day  in  a  saucepan,  after  being  chopped 
fine  with  a  little  butter  and  salt ;  they  are  even  better  so 
than  they  are  the  first  day. 

There  are  other  garden  roots  whose  spring  shoots,  on 
starting  up  to  seed,  are  not  only  available  but  good  as 
vegetables  ;  those  of  salsify  for  instance,  if  soaked  and 
served  exactly  like  asparagus,  are  delicious. 

Celery  is  a  most  useful  and  agreeable  plant  ;  the  im- 
perfectly blanched  portions  give  a  tempting  flavour  to 
stews  and  broths,  while  the  brittle  leaf-stalks  are  the 
Englishman's  favourite  accompaniment  to  bread  and 
cheese.  The  following  is  an  approved  American  recipe 
for  its  use: — Cut  blanched  celery  as  fine  as  possible,  add 
salt,  and  send  it  to  table,  where  vinegar  and  Qgg  can  be 
added  if  desired.  Unless  served  as  soon  as  prepared,  it 
will  be  apt  to  turn  brown.  Ornament  the  dish  with  green 
celery  leaves.  Onions  can  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner, 
and  make  a  fine  salad  for  those  who  relish  them.  Cooked 
celery  is  more  digestible  and  equally  palatable. 

Celery  stewed  Brown. — Cut  the  white  part  of  celery 
into  three  inch  lengths,  tie  them  with  thread  into  little 
bundles,  after  a  good  rinsing  in  a  pail  of  cold  water,  and 
throw  them  into  boiling  broth  to  cook  till  tender,  which  will 
take  some  twenty  or  five-and-twenty  minutes.  Untie  the 
bundles  as  you  take  them  out  and  arrange  them  neatly  in 
the  middle  of  a  dish.  Brown  a  little  butter  and  flour  in  a 
saucepan,  dilute  with  the  broth  which  boiled  the  celery, 
stir  in  a  little  mushroom  catchup,  pour  it  over  the  celery, 
and  serve. 

Celery  stewed  White. — Prepare  as  before,  and  tie  in  bun- 
dles, throw  them  into  as  much  boiling  water  or  veal  broth 
as  will  just  cover  them.  As  it  diminishes  by  evaporation, 
all  up  with  milk,  taking  care  to  prevent  its  boiling  over  or 
burning.  Keep  the  cp.iantity  of  the  boiUngs  as  small  as 
possible.  When  the  celery  is  tender,  arrange  it  on  the 
dish,  thicken  the  liquor  with  flour  and  butter  (not  too 
much  of  the  former),  season  lightly  with  pepper  and  salt, 
and  pour  it  over  the  celery.  The  flavour  of  the  vegetable 
should  not  be  overpowered  by  the  sauce. 

Caitlijlowers  and  Broccoli. — These  vegetables  are  dis- 
tinguished more  by  the  season  at  which  they  come,  than 
by  any  distinctive  quality  in  the  nature  of  their  substance. 
The  cauliflower  is  tender  and  cannot  resist  our  winters  ; 
whereas,  broccoli  stand  mild  winters,  although  they  too 
are  cut  off  by  our  severer  frosts.      Consequently  the 


cauliflower  season  lasts  from  about  the  middle  of  June  to 
the  middle  of  November.  Some  broccoli,  planted  early 
in  May  will  show  their  faces  in  autumn,  and  continue 
coming  in  (according  to  the  weather  and  the  variety  cuhi- 
vated)  from  that  time  till  May,  or  even  June.  Green  and 
purple  broccoli  are  dehcious,  but  small ;  they  are  also 
rather  a  late  summer  and  autumn  than  a  spring  crop. 
The  usual  plan  is,  to  throw  the  heads  trimmed,  leaving  a 
narrow  circlet  of  shortened  leaf-stalks  round  them  into  a 
pail  of  salt  and  water,  to  draw  out  the  insects.  The  heads 
are  then  boiled  and  served  whole. 

A  better  plan  is  to  cut  up  your  cauliflower  heads  into 
sprigs,  leaving  to  each  sprig  its  portion  of  stalk,  and  to  the 
outer  sprigs  their  little  bit  of  green.  As  you  do  so,  throw 
them  into  a  pail  of  cold  water,  without  salt.  After  leaving 
them  there  awhile  to  freshen,  put  them  into  a  large  sauce- 
pan containing  plenty  of  boiling  soft  water.  Let  them 
boil  fast,  with  the  lid  off,  till  the  fork  tells  you  they  are 
tender,  which  will  take  from  five-and-twenty  minutes  to 
three-quarters  of  an  hour.  Then  take  them  up  with  a 
perforated  ladle  or  strainer,  in  which  you  will  let  each  lot 
of  sprigs  drain  a  few  seconds  before  depositing  them  in 
their  dish.  When  the  whole  are  neatly  piled  therein,  put 
a  lump  of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg  with  a  breakfast-cupful 
of  cold  water  into  a  saucepan,  dust  in  gradually  a  bump- 
ing teaspoonful  of  flour,  stirring  continually  all  the  while. 
When  smooth,  add  a  dessert-spoonful  of  vinegar  and  a 
dust  of  pepper.  Let  this  sauce  boil  up  once,  pour  it  over 
the  cauliflower  in  the  dish,  and  serve. 

Cauliflowers  and  Cheese. — Arrange  the  cooked  sprigs 
on  the  dish,  as  above.  Put  into  the  sauce  instead  of 
vinegar,  a  table-spoonful  of  grated  cheese.  Pour  this  over 
the  cauliflowers.  Sprinkle  the  surface  with  a  mixture  of 
bread-crumbs  and  grated  cheese,  and  set  it  before  the  fire, 
or  in  the  oven,  to  be  slightly  browned. 


FURNITURE. 

When  articles  of  furniture  are  offered  at  a  very  low  price 
defects  should  be  sought  for ;  the  cheapest  are  not  always 
the  best.  Chests  of  drawers,  with  a  deep  drawer  at 
bottom,  and  without  feet,  are  more  convenient  than  the 
usual  make  ;  nevertheless, 'the  feet  are  useful  in  keeping 
the  drawers  dry  if  they  are  placed  on  the  ground-floor. 
Those  with  a  deep  drawer  are  only  fit  for  upper  bed- 
rooms, but  they  are  most  useful  for  holding  bonnets  and 
light  articles. 

It  is  a  disputed  point  whether  the  use  of  bed-furniture 
is  detrimental,  or  not,  to  health.  When  draught  is  occa- 
sioned by  ill-fitting  doors  and  windows,  some  protection 
to  the  sides  of  a  bedstead  is  necessary  ;  but  where  there 
is  no  draught,  it  is  better  to  have  no  hangings.  The 
old-fashioned  four-post  bedstead,  with  its  array  of  dra- 
peries, was  suited  to  the  times  in  which  it  originated  ; 
yet,  even  now  by  some  persons  these  cumbrous  four- 
posters  are  preferred,  as  giving  a  grand  and  imposing 
appearance  to  the  room.  We  give,  on  the  next  page, 
an  engraving  of  one  of  the  four-post  bedsteads  (Fig.  i), 
with  the  chair,  toilette-table,  and  glass,  of  the  time  of 
Queen  Anne.  The  table,  chair,  and  mirror  are  very 
elegant  ;  but  in  the  latter,  utility  is  sacrificed  to  appear- 
ance ;  the  glass  is  very  small  compared  with  the  size  of 
the  frame,  underneath  which  is  a  time-piece.  The  recum- 
bent figures  on  each  side  the  mirror  are  of  Dresden  china, 
and  contain  essences,  perfumes,  and  cosmetics. 

The  Arabians,  Figs.  2  and  3,  are  excellent  substitutes 
for  four-post  bedsteads,  as  they  admit  of  curtains  without 
entirely  excluding  the  air.  The  top— usually  called  the 
tester — should  not  be  covered  excepting  by  net-work. 
The  upright  posts  of  an  Arabian  bedstead  should  be 
polished  or  painted  ;  but  they  are  often  left  rough  and 
unsightly,  to  be  covered  with  dimity  or  other  material, 
whereas  Uiis  should  hang  from  the  tester  down  the  head 


i84 


FURNITURE. 


part,  and  at  the  back  of  the  uprights,  not  be  wound  round 
them.  If  furniture  is  preferred,  it  should  never  be  of 
woollen. 

The  same  objections  might  be  made  to  covering  the 
floor  with  a  carpet  ;  but  the  draught  underneath  the  door 
and  the  ventilation  caused  by  the  open  chimney,  prevent 
the  carpet  from 
retaining  foul 
air.  For  sani- 
tary purposes, 
nothing  is  more 
unhealthy  than 
stopping  up  the 
chimney.  The 
ventilating  aper- 
ture of  a  bed- 
room should  be 
above  the  level 
of  the  head  of  a 
person  who  is 
lying  on  the  bed, 
consequently, 
the  bedstead 
should  not  be 
high. 

A  carpet  under 
a  bedstead  is  ob- 
jectionable ;  it 
receives  all  the 
dust  and  flue, 
Avhich,  not  being 
easily  remov- 
able, creates  a 
fine  nursery  for 
fleas.  Yet  it  is 
often  economical 


carpet,  excepting  in  places  where  a  person  would  stand,, 
so  that  the  floor  could  be  washed  once  a  week  with  sand 
and  water,  never  with  soap.  When  this  is  adopted,  the 
boards  should  be  laid  even  and  be  closely  joined,  and  the 
bed-side  carpets  selected  be  the  close-cut  pile,  which  are 
sold  erroneously  for  hearth-rugs.     Three  of  these  carpets 

round  a  bed- 
stead, and  a 
fourth  before  a 
looking  -  glass, 
make  a  room 
look  exceedingly 
well  at  a  small 
cost— say,  thirty- 
shillings,  not 
more.  A  piece 
of  Indian  mat- 
ting, well  bound 
at  the  two  ends,, 
is  better  than 
carpet  or  thin  oil- 
cloth for  laying 
down  before  the 
w  as  h-s  t  a  nd. 
Some  persons 
prefer  "  mitred  " 
carpets  of  Kid- 
derminster make 
joined  at  the 
corners,  and 
placed  round  the 
bedstead  in  one 
piece,  This  plan^ 
entails  the  losing 
half  a  square  of 


to  carpet  the  whole  of  a  room,  so  that  when  the  carpet  is 
somewhat  worn  it  may  be  turned,  that  which  was  at  the 
opposite  end  of  the  room  to  underneath  the  bedstead  ; 
but  to  keep  the  flue  from  penetrating,  there  should  be  a 
piece  of  floor-cloth  the  size  of  the  bedstead,  placed  under 
it  ;  and  this  looks  well,  can  be  wiped  with  a  damp  cloth 
every  day,  and  lasts  for  years.  It  is  most  certainly 
healthier  to  have  a  bedroom  entirely  uncovered  with 


material  at  each  corner,  or  nearly  a  yard  of  carpet ;  and 
besides,  a  servant  cannot  so  well  shake  carpets  of  such  a 
form.  The  great  objection  to  an  uncarpeted  floor  is, 
that  the  latt&r  is  constructed  too  often  of  green  wood,  and 
thus  shrinking  and  warping,  after  a  time  the  interstices 
require  filling  up  with  laths  of  wood. 

Swing-glasses  of  a  cheap  kind  are  a  source  of  vexation 
to  a  housekeeper,  from  their  tendency  to  come  loose  at 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


i8s 


the  screws,  so  that  the  glasses  swing  without  check.  Com- 
mon looking-glasses  have  for  their  backs  a  thin  veneer 
of  wood,  set  in  with  brads.  Those  of  a  better  kind  are 
made  with  backs  to  slide  in  like  the  sliding  lid  of 
a  box,  and  are  then  fixed  with 
a  screw.  It  is  best  to  give  a 
high  price,  and  have  the  frames 
of  the  glass  better  finished.  It 
is  true  that  at  first  the  screws 
appear  firm,  but  in  a  short  time 
a  slight  rattle  is  heard  between 
the  glass  and  the  wood  at  the 
back,  occasioned  by  the  nuts 
of  the  screws  falling  off.  It  may 
seem  easy  enough  to  put  these 
on  again,  and  it  certainly  is 
so  with  proper  tools  ;  but  these 
are  not  always  at  hand,  and 
the  work  requires  the  most  deli- 
cate handling,  to  prevent  the  nuts 
from  scratching,  or  the  finger 
tips  from  rubbing  off  the  quick- 
silver. Some  glasses  are  fastened 
in  such  a  way  that  only  a  cabinet-maker  can  remedy 
their  defects.  Many  schemes  have  been  adopted  for  the 
greater  perfection  of  this  fastening,  but  none  are  wholly 
successful  in  glasses  of  mode- 
rate cost  ;  but,  as  looking- 
glasses  are  rarely  purchased 
more  than  once  in  a  lifetime, 
the  price  for  a  good  article 
should  not  be  an  object.  Oval 
looking  -  glasses  have  one 
defect,  they  show  only  the 
face  and  head,  the  remaining 
part  of  the  figure  being  cut  oft"; 
therefore,  however  handsome 
they  look,  they  are  not  de- 
sirable for  persons  with  small 
means,  who  cannot  afford  a 
cheval  glass. 

There  are.  a  great  variety  of  toilette-tables,  from  the 
simple  table  with  one  drawer,  to  the  duchess  table  with 
many  drawers  and  with  swing-glass  fijicd  and  standing  on 
pedestals,   which  are    really 
small  nests  of  drawers.  Others 
have,  in  addition,  from  three 
to  five  drawers  below  the  top 
of  the  table  on  each  side  ;  this 
style    is   termed    knee  -  hole 
drawers,  and  is  most  useful. 

A  japanned  toilette-table 
with  one  drawer  can  be  had 
for  9s.  One  unpainted,  with- 
out drawers,  but  with  turned 
legs, oval-shaped  in  front,  and 
four  feet  long,  may  be  had 
for  the  same  price  ;  the  one 
requires  only  a  toilette-cloth 
over  the  top,  the  last  must 
have  pink  cambric  surround- 
ing it,  and  be  covered  again 
withbookmuslingathered  like 
a  full  skirt  round  the  table  ; 
or  with  dimity,  bordered  with 

one  stripe  of  coloured  bordering  taken  from  the  coloured 
striped  dimity.  This  is  a  cheap  and  excellent  method  of 
bordering  curtains  hung  before  a  recess  to  simulate  a 
wardrobe,  or  for  the  coverings  of  a  toilette-table.  Three 
yards  of  coloured  striped  dimity  cost  3s.,  and  from  this 
twenty-one  yards  of  bordering  can  be  rent. 

It  must  be  recollected  that,  inexpensive  as  these  tables 
and  coverings  appear  to  be,  they  are  ultimately  rendered 


Fig.  6. 


very  dear  by  the  cost  of  washing  the  coverings.  More- 
over, there  is  something  to  be  considered  in  their  great 
danger  of  taking  fire. 

A  mahogany  toilettc-tabL,  a  yard  long,  surrounded  by  a 
rim,  and  having  two  drawers,  can 
be  purchased  for  24s.  ;  one  four 
feet  long— and  this  is  of  ample 
size  for  any  ordinary  room — for 
38s. ;  but  with  an  increased  num- 
ber of  drawers,  seven  instead  of 
two,  and  arranged  on  each  side, 
to  leave  a  vacant  space  in  the 
centre,  thus  forming  a  knee-hole 
table,  it  will  cost  from  90s.  to  £j^ 
or  ^8.  Every  toilette-table  should 
move  on  casters ;  the  cheap  ones 
are  without  them,  and  their  addi- 
tion increases  the  expense,  unles& 
the  matter  be  arranged  between, 
the  intending  buyer  and  seller^ 
before  purchasing.  Marble  - 
topped  tables  are  not  desirable. 
Articles  of  glass  and  china  may 
be  placed  on  them  with  careless  hands,  and  in  a  hurry 
such  wares  are  often  broken. 

A  servant's  bed-room  should  have  as  few  articles  in  it  as 
are  consistent  with  comfort. 
A  bed  and  bedstead,  with, 
two  soft  mattresses,  a  pillow, 
three  blankets,  two  soft  un- 
bleached sheets  and  pillow- 
shp,  a  soft  and  inexpensive 
coloured  counterpane,  a  chest 
of  drawers,  a  looking-glass, 
wash-stand,  with  the  usual  re- 
quisites of  white  ware,  and  a 
chair,  are  all  that  is  needed. 
One  of  the  most  comfortable 
bedsteads  is  the  truckle  or 
cross  bedstead.  These  have 
gone  ver}' much  out  of  fashion^ 
but  they  are  portable,  inexpensive,  and  desirable  to  sleep- 
on.  The  next  in  point  of  comfort  is  the  ifon  bedstead,  be- 
cause the  interlacing  laths  are  flexible.     In  the  matter  of 

cleanliness,  wood  and  irott 
bedsteads  are  equal ;  the  latter 
do  not  prevent  bed  insects 
from  congregating,  but  the 
iron  is  easily  cleaned  and 
painted.  From  wooden  bed- 
steads insects  may  also  be 
wholly  extirpated  by  washing 
in  strong  brine  and  boiling 
water.  The  skirtings  and. 
cracks  in  the  walls,  doors,, 
and  window  -  frames,  alsa 
need  the  same  process- 
Figs.  4,  5,  6,  and  7,  are  pat- 
terns of  furnitur«  for  a  ser- 
vant's room. 

The  less  carpet  laid  on  the- 
floor  of  a  servant's  room,  the 
healthier  and  freer  from  dirt 
it  will  be.  Once  a  week,  the 
boards  should  be  washed 
with  salt  and  water,  in  winter  and  summer.  A  clock 
is  essential  in  the  bedroom,  but  it  should  be  an  eight- 
day  brass  clock,  which  is  inexpensive,  and  this  clock 
should  be  locked  in  a  box  having  a  glass  cover,  the 
box  being  placed  so  that  the  cover  opens  like  a  cup- 
board door.  An  alarum  clock  is  useless  ;  the  sleeper, 
after  a  morning  or  two,  gets  accustomed  to  the  sound, 
and  sleeps  on  regardless  of  her  excellent  friend. 


Fig-  7- 


i86 


DOMESTIC    MEDICINE. 


DOMESTIC     MEDICINE. 

ERUPTIVE   FEVERS. 

We  shall,  under  this  head,  treat  only  of  the  more  com- 
mon forms  of  eruptive  fevers,  such  as  scarlet  fever — or, 
as  it  is  the  fashion  now  to  call  it,  scarlatina — measles, 
small-pox,  and  typhoid  and  typhus  fevers.  These  diseases 
constitute  the  principal  epidemics,  and  cause  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  deaths  in  any  community,  especially  in 
large  towns.  At  the  moment  at  which  we  write,  scarlet 
fever  is  very  fatal  ;  it  is  causing  over  200  deaths  a  week 
in  London.     We  shall  treat  of  it  first. 

Scarlet  Fever,  or  Scarlatina,  used  for  a  long  time  to  be 
confounded  with  measles ;  but  it  is  a  very  distinct  disease 
in  its  symptoms  and  in  its  importance.  Sometimes  it 
occurs  in  such  mild  forms  as  to  be  of  no  consequence  ;  at 
other  times  it  is  a  very  serious  disease  indeed,  and  comes 
nearei;  to  a  plague  than  any  common  disease  we  have.  It 
is  not  only  serious  in  itself,  but  apt  to  be  followed,  after 
the  lapse  of  weeks,  by  dropsy,  rheumatism,  and  other 
consequences  that  are  in  themselves  dangerous.  All  we 
shall  do,  therefore,  is  to  point  out  the  general  character  of 
the  disease,  and  the  general  and  domestic  treatment  of 
the  patient.  We  take  it  for  granted  that  the  doctor  will  be 
called  in.  If  we  insert  a  few  more  specific  instructions,  it 
will  be  for  those  who  are  beyond  the  reach  of  medical  advice. 

Scarlet  fever  begins,  like  other  eruptive  fevers,  with 
symptoms  of  ailment — shiveriness,  sickness,  lassitude,  and 
headache.  In  addition  to  these  symptoms,  there  is  more 
or  less  of  sore  throat,  and  the  back  of  the  mouth  and 
throat  are  generally  reddish  in  colour.  The  soreness  of 
the  throat  is  a  very  characteristic  feature  of  scarlet  fever. 
On  the  second  day  of  the  disease  the  eruption  appears  in 
the  form  of  a  red  rash  ;  it  comes  on  nearly  everywhere  at 
about  the  same  time,  but  is  generally  visible  on  the  neck 
and  chest  before  it  shows  itself  on  the  face.  Like  the 
sore  throat  and  the  rash,  the  appearance  of  the  tongue  is 
very  characteristic  in  scarlet  fever  ;  it  is  covered  with 
a  white  fur,  through  which  appear  little  red  papillae  or 
points,  giving  the  appearance  described  as  the  "straw- 
berry tongue."  There  is  generally  a  good  deal  of  fever 
present,  the  temperature  of  the  skin  is  high,  and  the  higher 
it  is,  generally  speaking,  the  more  serious  is  the  case. 

Supposing  the  case  to  be  a  mild  one,  all  these  symptoms 
are  present  in  a  moderate  degree.  The  throat  is  not  very 
sore,  the  swelling  of  the  neck  is  not  very  great,  the  fever 
is  moderate,  and  the  amount  of  eruption  moderate.  It  is 
common  to  say  that  when  the  eruption  comes  well  out,  the 
patient  is  in  less  danger,  but  this  is  not  the  case.  The 
more  intense  and  extensive  the  eruption,  the  more  severe 
is  the  disease. 

The  worst  cases  of  scarlet  fever  are  those  in  which  the 
disease  begins  with  great  severity ;  as  when  it  sets  in  with 
delirium  or  convulsions,  when  the  throat  is  very  sore,  and 
there  is  great  and  quick  swelling  of  the  neck,  making 
swallowing  and  breathing  difficult,  and  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  very  high.  According  to  the  severity  of  the  disease 
is  likely  to  be  the  course  of  it.  The  very  mild  cases  go  on 
very  well.  About  the  fifth  day,  the  skin,  which  has  been 
the  seat  of  the  rash,  begins  to  peel  off.  This  process  is 
called  desquamation,  and  it  may  extend  over  several 
weeks,  during  which  the  pattent  must  be  considered  to 
need  care,  especially  protection  from  cold. 

But,  even  in  mild  cases,  recovery  is  apt  to  be  interrupted 
by  some  unsatisfactory  symptoms.  Of  these,  the  most 
common  is  swelling  of  the  eyelids  and  face  generally,  and 
other  parts  of  the  body,  accompanied  with  a  remarkable 
paleness  of  the  skin.  This  is  the  dropsy  after  scarlet 
fever,  and  it  occurs,  to  say  the  least,  as  frequently  after 
mild  attacks  as  after  severe  ones.  It  may  be  accompanied 
by  sickness  or  headache,  or,  still  worse,  by  convulsions. 
It  does  not  generally  happen  till  fifteen  or  twenty  days 
after  the  eruption,  and  may  be  a  month  after  it.     Coinci- 


dently  with  this  dropsy,  the  urine  may  become  scanty, 
and  darker  in  colour. 

Very  bad  cases  of  scarlet  fever  are  apt  to  terminate 
fatally,  at  a  very  early  period,  and  in  a  different  way. 
Breathing  becomes  loud  and  difficult,  there  is  a  heaviness 
and  stupor  about  the  mind,  and  a  tendency  to  wander  ; 
and  the  patient  may  die  in  two  or  three  days,  and  before 
the  appearance  of  much  eruption. 

A  child  with  scarlet  fever  should  be  kept  in  bed  ;  and, 
even  in  mild  cases,  if  the  weather  is  cold,  he  should  be 
kept  in  bed  for  a  considerable  time  after  the  eruption  has 
disappeared,  so  as  to  avoid  exposure  to  cold.  Even  when 
he  gets  up,  he  should  be  kept  in  a  comfortable  temperature, 
so  as  not  to  be  chilled.  The  throat  should  be  gargled 
with  warm  water.  A  little  sponge  mop,  dipped  in  pleasantly 
warm  water,  may  be  frequently  used  for  cleansing  it,  with 
great  relief  and  advantage.  A  very  good  mixture  for  the 
first  few  days  of  the  disease  is  the  following  : — 

Chlorate  of  potash...  i    drachm. 

Spirits  of  nitre        ...  ...         ...  i|  drachms. 

Simple  syrup  ...  4    drachms. 

Water  ...         ...  4    ounces 

Mix  one  table-spoonful  every  four  hours  in  as  much  water. 
For  children  below  four  years,  a  dessert-spoonful. 

If  dropsy  sets  in,  the  child  should  be  kept  warm  in  bed. 
Generally  speaking,  a  little  purging  is  good,  and  five  or 
ten  grains  of  the  compound  powder  of  jalap  may  be  given 
every  morning,  or  every  other  morning,  unless  there  is 
diarrhoea,  which  should  not  be  checked  ;  and  if  there  is 
not  much  fever,  the  following  mixture  may  be  given  : — 

Tincture  of  the  perchloride  of  iron       i  drachm. 

Simple  syrup 3  drachms. 

Distilled  water         6  ounces. 

One  table-spoonful  every  six  hours.  Children  under  four 
years,  a  dessert-spoonful,  or  two  tea-spoonfuls. 

In  very  bad  cases  of  scarlet  fever,  and  in  the  unavoidable 
absence  of  medical  advice,  keep  the  throat  clear  with  the 
mop,  as  advised  above,  and  give  the  following  mixture ; — 

Sesquicarbonate  of  ammonia  ...  36    grains. 

Simple  syrup  ...         ...         ...         ...       \  ounce. 

Water...         ...         ...         ...         ...     6    ounces. 

One  table-spoonful  every  three  hours.  Children  under 
four,  a  dessert-spoonful. 

To  Prevent  the  Spread  of  the  Disease. — When  scarlet 
fever  occurs  in  a  house,  the  child  affected  should  be  kept 
in  a  large  room,  and  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  family 
as  far  as  may  be.  The  patient's  chamber  should  be 
divested,  as  far  as  possible,  of  curtains,  clothing,  and 
articles  of  furniture  to  which  the  contagion  is  apt  to  stick. 
The  patient's  linen,  bed-clothes,  &c.,  as  used,  ought  to  be 
well  boiled,  or  expased  to  a  dry  heat,  200°  Fahrenheit.  A 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime  (one  pound  to  eight  gallons  of 
water)  ought  to  be  kept  in  the  room  in  plates  or  basins,  or 
in  cloths  hung  on  a  screen.  Another  measure  which  tends 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease  is  to  oil  the  patient's 
skin  well  and  daily,  while  it  is  peeling  off.  A  little  of  the 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime  should  be  mixed  with  the 
various  discharges  from  the  patient's  body. 

Measles. — The  next  very  common  eruptive  fever  which 
we  have  to  describe,  is  measles.  Few  complaints  are 
better  known  in  the  domestic  sphere,  because  it  affects 
nearly  every  one  once  in  their  lifetime,  generally  in  their 
childhood,  and,  also,  because  it  has  well-marked  and 
easily  recognised  symptoms. 

Supposing  measles  to  be  abroad,  it  may,  perhaps,  be 
suspected  that  a  child  is  going  to  have  them  if  it  has  a  hard 
croupy  cough,  fever,  loss  of  appetite  and  thirst,  and  if 
these  symptoms  are  accompanied  with  sneezing  and  red- 
looking  eyes,  and  other  signs  of  a  cold.  The  patient,  if 
old  enough,  may  complain  of  weight  and  heaviness,  and 
pain  in  the  forehead.     Sometimes  vomiting  occurs,  but 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


187 


not  so  often  as  in  scarlet  fever.  This  stage  may  last  from 
two  to  five  days.  Then,  at  the  end  of  from  two  to  five 
''lys  the  eruption  occurs,  first  on  the  forehead  and  neck, 
len  the  face,  and  then  gradually  in  from  twenty-four  to 
ihirty-si.K  hours,  extends  over  the  trunk.  It  consists  of 
little  red  points,  slightly  elevated,  which  run  into  each 
other  so  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  circular,  or  crescen- 
tic,  patches  of  eruption.  The  eruption  disappears  on 
pressure,  but  soon  returns  again.  When  the  eruption 
appears,  the  severity  of  the  symptoms  increases.  Often 
the  cough  is  much  relieved  by  the  appearance  of  the 
einiption,  and  on  the  second  day  of  it,  the  symptoms  begin 
to  abate.  By  the  close  of  the  third  or  fourth  day  after 
the  eruption,  it  has  well  nigh  disappeared  in  the  order  in 
which  it  came  out.  Simple  cases  soon  get  well;  but  a 
few  complications  may  arise,  and  a  few  consequences  may 
give  trouble,  such  as  eruptions  on  the  skin. 

The  most  serious  comphcation  likely  to  arise,  or  to 
attend  upon  an  attack  of  measles,  is  inflammation  of 
the  chest,  and  in  winter  this  is  most  likely  to  be  trouble- 
some and  even  dangerous.  The  symptoms  of  this  are  the 
continuance  of  cough  and  feverishness,  and  quick  breath- 
ing after  the  eruption  has  been  out  for  a  few  days,  by  which 
time,  in  simple  cases,  all  the  symptoms  should  he  under- 
going abatement.  Whether  the  inflammation  affects  the 
substance  of  the  lung,  or  only  the  bronchial  tubes,  is  a 
matter  that  can  only  be  determined  by  a  medical  man. 
Generally  speaking,  in  mild  weather  and  in  tolerably 
healthy  children,  measles  is  not  a  fatal  disease. 

Treatment. — The  domestic  treatment  of  measles,  con- 
sists in  keeping  the  patient  in  bed,  in  a  room  with  a 
comfortable  temperature,  and  in  administering  light  diet. 
If  the  case  is  mild,  that  is,  if  the  feverishness  is  not  great, 
and  the  breathing  is  but  little  quickened,  little  more  treat- 
nent  is  required.  The  following  mixture  would  tend  to 
.  ool  the  patient  and  relieve  the  hard  or  croupy  cough  : — 

Citrate  of  potash 2    scruples. 

Ipecacuanha  wine  ...         ...         ...     i^  drachms. 

Simple  syrup  3    drachms. 

Water  ...         ...         ...         ...     4    ounces. 

One  table-spoonful  to  be  taken  every  four  hours  by  a 
child  from  three  to  five  years  old.  More  or  less  to  older  or 
younger  children,  and  according  to  the  fever  and  hard- 
ness of  the  cough. 

If  the  case  is  at  all  severe,  a  doctor  should  be  called  in. 
Indeed,  in  any  case  of  measles  this  should  be  done  ;  for 
the  chest  is  apt  to  be  seriously  and  insidiously  affected, 
and  the  disease  is  apt  to  leave  "  dregs  "  as  they  are  called, 
or  consequences  which  require  judicious  treatment.  To 
prevent  the  disease  spreading,  the  same  measures  must  be 
adopted  as  in  the  case  of  scarlet  fever.  There  is  not 
quite  the  same  urgency,  inasmuch  as  the  disease  is  not 
generally  so  fatal. 

It  is  very  curious  that  scarlet  fever  and  measles  were 
confounded  until  comparatively  recently.  Our  tabulated 
description  will  sufficiently  indicate  the  difference  of  the 
diseases. 


SCARLET   FEVER. 

1.  In  the  early  symptoms, 
vomiting  is  a  prominent 
feature.  There  is  an  in- 
flamed state  of  the  throat. 

2.  The  eruption  occurs 
on  second  day  of  the  fever. 

3.  The  colour  of  the  erup- 
tion bright  scarlet.  The 
eruption  is  in  large  patches 
extensively  diffused. 

4.  The  skin  peels  off 
freely. 

5.  Dropsy  often  follows. 


MEASLES. 

1 .  In  the  early  symptoms, 
sneering,  cough,  and  other 
symptoms  of  a  cold  are  pro- 
minent. Throat  not  affected. 

2.  The  eruption  does  not 
generally  occur  so  soon  ; 
generally  on  the  fourth  day. 

3.  Eruption  is  darker,  and 
and  occurs  in  small  circular 
or  crescentic  patches. 

4.  Slight  casting  off  of 
skin. 

5.  Dropsydoes  not  follow. 


Vaccination  and  Smail-Pox. — We  shall  not  spend  much 


space  over  small-pox,  for  it  has  no  business  to  trouble 
anyone  now.  Vaccination  if  well  done,  and  repeated 
once  or  twice  in  the  course  of  life,  is  practically  a  complete 
protection  aj^ainst  this  most  horrible  disease.  The  law  of 
the  land,  in  the  shape  of  the  Compulsory  Vaccination  Act, 
wisely  requires  every  child  to  be  vaccinated  before  it  is 
three  months  old,  unless  a  certificate  of  its  unfitness  be 
produced  from  a  medical  man.  Some  dissatisfaction  has 
been  at  times  expressed  with  this  most  beneficent  law  ; 
but  most  unreasonably  so.  Vaccination  is  a  most  simple 
operation,  it  seldom  causes  much  inconvenience,  though 
now  and  then  in  children  disposed  to  have  skin  eruptions, 
it  occasions  one.  It  is  still  more  seldom,  or  never,  the 
medium  of  transmitting  serious  disease,  and  it  practically, 
as  we  have  said,  is  a  protection  against  one  of  the  most 
loathsome  and  deadly  diseases  to  which  the  body  is  subject. 
The  protective  power  of  vaccination  may  be  judged  of  by 
the  fact,  that  at  the  Small-Pox  Hospital  they  have  not 
had  a  case  of  small-pox  among  the  nurses  or  attendants 
for  a  period  of  twenty  years  or  more.  Every  nurse  on 
entering  the  hospital  is  re-vaccinated.  The  safety  of 
these  nurses,  not  after  the  vaccination,  but  after  the  re- 
vaccination,  shows  that  vaccination  only  needs  to  be 
repeated  to  be  a  perfect  protection  against  small-pox  even 
in  a  small-pox  hospital.  There  is  nothing  grander,  and 
yet  nothing  more  simple,  nothing  more  beneficent  in  the 
whole  history  of  medicine  than  vaccination,  and  nothing 
can  be  more  unreasonable  than  the  prejudice  which  it  is 
attempted  just  now  to  create  against  it.  If  it  occasionally 
gives  activity  to  an  eruptive  tendency  in  a  child,  this  is  of 
slight  importance,  compared  with  the  awful  eruption  of 
small-pox  from  which  the  child  is  saved,  involving  the 
risk,  be  it  remembered,  of  permanent  disfigurement,  of 
blindness,  and  other  consequences.  It  should  also  be 
explicitly  stated  that  small-pox  is  followed  by  eruptions 
much  more  frequently,  and  much  more  troublesome,  than 
in  the  case  of  vaccination.  As  regards  the  risk  of  the 
transmission  of  serious  disease  from  child  to  another,  it 
is  so  rare  as  never  to  have  been  seen  by  many  surgeons 
of  great  experience  ;  and  even  if  this  peril  has  to  be  in- 
curred, it  is  by  no  means  so  great  as  that  of  the  loathsome 
disease  from  which  it  saves.  Driven  from  every  other 
stronghold,  the  anti-vaccinationists  have  tried  to  show 
that  while  small-pox  has  been  prevented  by  vaccination 
other  diseases  have  in  consequence  become  more  rife. 
Well,  there  is  no  proof  of  this.  It  is  a  baseless  piece  of 
assumption,  and  even  if  there  was  any  ground  for  the  idea, 
most  people  would  prefer  anything  to  small-pox.  To 
object  to  be  saved  from  small-pox  because  you  may  incur 
some  other  disease,  would  be  about  as  reasonable  as  to 
refuse  to  be  saved  from  a  railway  collision,  because  you 
might  at  some  future  day  sprain  your  ankle  in  getting  out 
of  an  omnibus.  On  the  whole,  nothing  can  be  more  un- 
reasonable than  the  objection  to  be  vaccinated.  It  is  not 
only  unreasonable,  but  it  is  selfish,  for  an  unvaccinated 
person  is  apt  to  get  small-pox  and  may  then  convey  a 
dreadful  disease  to  others.  Twenty  persons  have  been 
known  to  get  the  small-pox  from  one  person  recovering 
from  it.  In  the  light  of  these  facts,  it  is  clear  that  all 
persons  should  submit  cheerfully,  nay,  thankfully,  to  the 
Compulsory  Vaccination  Act,  and  have  their  children  vac- 
cinated. Not  only  so,  all  wise  persons  will  be  revaccinated, 
at  least  once  in  their  lifetime,  and  have  their  children 
revaccinated  as  they  grow  up  to  maturity.  The  operation 
should  be  done  with  matter  in  a  moist  state  and  direct 
from  arm  to  arm.  Much  has  been  said  lately  about 
having  matter  direct  from  the  cow  ;  but  this  is  of  little 
consequence,  provided  that  matter  be  taken  from  a  healthy 
child.  At  the  surgeries  of  public  vaccinators,  parents 
can  judge  for  themselves  of  the  healthiness  of  children, 
but  this  does  not  lessen  the  responsibihty  of  vaccinators, 
who  must  consider  the  selection  of  good  and  safe  matter 
a  point  of  tiie  most  vital  importance. 


ANIMALS    KEPT    FOR    PROFIT. 


ANIMALS    KEPT    FOR     PROFIT.— CATTLE. 

I. — THE  VARIETIES  AND   BREEDING  OF  CATTLE, 

Before  entering  upon  the  general  management  of  cattle, 
it  will  be  well  to  describe  shortly  the  principal  breeds, 
pointing  out  their  special  merits  and  principal  defects,  as 
adapted  either  for  the  fattening  stall  or  the  dairy. 

The  Shorthorn  is  an  animal  of  magnificent  shape,  being 
very  large  and  full  in  the  body,  and  low  on  the  leg,  with 
fine  bones.  The  back  and  belly  should  form  nearly 
straight  lines  ;  indeed,  in  the  best  animals  the  body, 
when  viewed  sideways,  forms  nearly  a  parallelogram, 
whose  length  is  twice  its  breadth.  The  fore-quarters  are 
very  deep,  and  the  head  fine  and  small,  while  the  dis- 
position is  particularly  mild  and  gentle. 

The  Shorthorn  is  confessedly  the  most  valuable  breed 
of  cattle  we  have,  and  combines  all  the  useful  qualities 


The  Ayrshire  is  another  splendid  dairy  breed.  While 
the  Shorthorn  is  peculiar  for  the  qiiantity  of  the  milk, 
and  is  hence  adapted  to  town  supply,  the  Ayrshire  seems 
pre-eminently  suited  iox  the  production  of  butter  and 
cheese,  the  milk  being  not  only  plentiful,  but  of  a  richer 
quality.  It  docs  not,  however,  fatten  so  well  as  the  Short- 
horn when  dried. 

The  Ayrshire  cow  is  under  the  middle  size,  but  of 
singularly  handsome  proportions.  The  head  is  small 
and  fine,  rather  long  and  narrow  at  the  muzzle,  which  is 
black  ;  the  horns  are  small  and  short,  the  eye  very  clear 
and  lively.  The  neck  is  somewhat  long  and  slender,  the 
fore-quarters  light,  and  the  limbs  fine  and  delicate- 
looking  ;  the  back,  however,  is  very  broad  over  the  hips, 
and  the  carcase  rather  deep.  The  udder  is  large  and 
well-shaped,  as  might  be  expected.  The  usual  colour  is 
sandy-red,  distributed  in  patches,  mingled  with  white. 


SHORTHORN     COW. 


in  a  greater  proportion  than  any  other  animal.  It  seems 
originally  to  have  been  founded  upon  a  rather  coarse  breed, 
still  known  as  the  Yorkshire,  and  celebrated  for  its  m-ilking 
qualities  beyond  the  memory  of  man,  but  comparatively 
faulty  in  the  carcase.  The  pedigree  of  this  breed  is  now 
three-quarters  of  a  century  old,  and  hence  a  well-bred 
animal  stamps  its  own  valuable  qualities  with  remarkable 
certainty  upon  its  progeny,  so  that  the  purchaser,  for  in- 
stance, of  a  good  bull,  obtains  an  actual  return  for  his 
money  in  the  greater  weight  and  better  quality  of  meat 
throughout  a  numerous  offspring.  Every  breed  almost 
has  been  crossed  and  more  or  less  influenced  by  the 
Shorthorn,  and  always  with  advantage. 

Of  late  some  breeders  have  paid  more  attention  to  the 
fattening  than  the  milking  qualities  of  the  Shorthorn,  and 
hence  the  coarser  variety,  known  as  the  Yorkshire,  is 
generally  preferred  by  London  dairymen.  These  latter 
cows  have  been  known  to  give  sixteen  quarts  of  milk 
per  day ;  but  even  the  improved  Shorthorn  cow  will 
generally  yield  sixteen  quarts  daily,  many  of  them  much 
more.  Lately  the  Yorkshire  cows  have  been  crossed  with 
improved  Shorthorn  bulls,  and  the  result  is  a  cow  which 
can  hardly  be  equalled  where  a  large  quantity  of  milk  is 
desired,  while  it  fattens  well  when  dried.  It  is  this  latter 
property  which  helps  to  make  the  breed  so  valuable,  as 
not  only  do  the  calves  become  fit  for  the  butcher  at  an 
early  age,  but  the  cow  herself  fetches  a  good  sum  when' 
finally  dried  and  fattened  off. 


The  principal  drawback  to  this  breed  is  the  rather 
small  size,  which  involves  more  labour  for  the  same 
produce.  Hence  this  is  essentially  a  con7itry  dairy  cowy 
but  is  extending  more  and  more  as  its  merits  become 
known.  Singularly  enough,  however,  it  does  not  always 
thrive  in  the  rich  pastures  of  England,  but  in  some  cases 
the-yield  of  milk  diminishes,  and  the  animal  lays  in  fat 
instead.  In  other  situations  it  answers  well,  but  it  is  best 
to  try  one  or  two  animals  before  venturing  on  a  herd. 

Ayrshire  cattle  can  be  readily  procured  at  any  of  the 
fairs  in  the  south-west  counties  of  Scotland. 

The  Alderney,  a  Channel  Island  cow,  does  not,  as  is 
popularly  supposed,  yield  any  extraordinary  quantity  of 
milk,  but  is  remarkable  for  its  very  rich  quality.  Hence, 
an  Alderney  cow  is  often  kept  in  dairies  to  enrich  the  pro- 
duce of  the  stock.  It  is  a  small  animal,  of  very  angular 
form,  as  generally  met  with,  looking,  in  fact,  as  if  starved,, 
from  the  great  projection  of  the  bones.  When  dried,  how- 
ever, it  often  fattens  well.  On  the  whole,  this  cannot  be 
considered  a  very  profitable  cow,  the  return  of  milk  not 
being  commensurate  in  quality  with  its  great  appetite ;. 
hence,  very  many  purchasers  of  this  celebrated  breed 
have  been  greatly  disappointed.  Its  place  is  rather  to 
supply  the  gentleman's  table  with  the  very  richest  quality 
of  dairy  produce,  where  pecuniary  profit  is  not  so  much 
desired. 

The  Alderney  cow  is  generally  very  hollow  behind,  with 
high  shoulders,  and  a  very  thin  neck,  and  is  also  remark- 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


189 


able  for  very  long  and  thick  hair.  The  colour  is  generally 
white  and  fawn  colour.  The  (juernsey  animals  are  often 
thought  to  be  rather  superior ;  but  this  is  a  doubtful  point. 
Probably  the  very  choicest  stock  is  that  of  Mr.  Dauncey, 
in  Bucks,  who  has  done  much  to  improve  the  breed. 
Many  of  the  animals  in  his  herd  have  very  few  of  the 
usual  defects,  but  are  models  of  symmetry;  while  their 
milking  qualities  also  have  been  improved. 

Alderney  cattle  are  very  easily  obtainable  at  South- 
ampton. 

A  more  profitable  animal  in  most  circumstances  is  the 
■'Breton,  or  Brittany  cow,  which  has  rapidly  grown  in 
popularity  since  its  introduction  a  few  years  ago.  This 
breed  is  very  small  —  even  diminutive — rarely  standing 
more  than  forty-two  inches  high  at  the  shoulder,  and 
often  eight  or  ten  inches  less  ;  but  it  is  remarkable  for 
its  symmetry,  hardihood,  very  great  milk-producing  quali- 


The  Suffolk  is  a  polled  or  hornless  breed,  long  cele- 
brated for  its  milking  quahtics.  The  hips  are  very  high 
and  prominent,  and  the  loins  usually  inclined  to  be 
narrow  ;  but  this  fault  might  be  easily  remedied  by  a 
little  careful  selection  in  breeding.  The  best  milkers  are 
very  spare  animals,  with  light  and  narrow  heads.  As  a 
fattening  beast,  however,  the  Suffolk  is  inferior,  though 
the  meat  is  of  very  good  quality.  When  dried,  the  co^w 
fattens,  perhaps,  we  might  say,  tolerably  well  ;  but  her 
great  merit  is  as  a  milker.  One  animal  has  been  known 
to  yield  thirty-two  quarts  per  day,  and  twenty-four  quarts 
is  not  an  unusual  quantity.  The  quality  of  the  milk  is 
not,  of  course,  equal  to  that  of  some  breeds  which  yield 
less ;  but  is  very  good,  and  makes  excellent  butter,  though 
it  is  said  to  be  inferior  for  cheese. 

There  is  a  Welsh  breed  of  black  cattle,  which  often 
produces  very  good  milkers. 


AYRSHIRE     COW. 


ties  relative  to  its  size,  and  peculiar  aptitude  for  laying  on 
flesh  with  very  moderate,  or  even  coarse,  feeding.  The 
head  is  short,  sharp,  and  fine ;  the  muzzle  small,  with 
beautifully  cut  nostrils  ;  eye  quick  and  lively  ;  ears  small 
and  neat  ;  and  horns  slender,  curving  at  first  upwards 
and  downwards,  the  points  afterwards  turning  into  each 
other.  The  slenderness  of  the  horns  is  a  great  point,  and 
is  always  looked  for  as  an  indication  of  good  blood.  The 
neck  is  slender,  the  back  straight,  loins  long  and  of  good 
width,  with  hip  bones  rather  prominent.  The  limbs 
should  be  short,  straight,  and  slender.  The  udder  of 
this  species  is  large  in  proportion,  with  the  "milk-vein" 
well  developed. 

The  colour  of  the  Brittany  cow  is  usually  white  and 
black,  or  all  black,  but  sometimes  yellow  and  red.  In 
France,  according  to  Professor  Gamgee,  a  mixture  of  red 
and  white  is  most  valued  ;  but  if  other  points  are  good, 
the  colour  is  purely  matter  of  fancy.  Take  it  altogether, 
this  cow  is  just  the  one  for  a  lady's  dairy,  and  almost  fit 
to  be  a  lady's  pet,  being  small,  gentle,  pretty,  hardy,  and 
productive.  For  the  cottager  it  is  equally  adapted,  having 
somewhat  of  the  ability  of  the  ass  to  forage  for  itself.  The 
milk  is  not  only  plentiful,  but  of  great  richness.  The 
small  size  is  the  principal  drawback  to  its  perfection,  as 
it  makes  it  unsuitable  for  large  dairies  ;  but  in  cases 
where  this  objection  does  not  apply,  it  may  fairly  be 
said  that  the  breed  can  hardly  be  surpassed  for  milking 
purposes. 


The  Kerry  cow  is  also  well  known  for  its  milking  quali- 
ties. It  is  rather  small,  but  hardy,  and  has  very  much 
of  the  foraging  abilities  of  the  Breton.  The  cow  varies 
greatly,  and  so  do  its  distinguishing  points  of  excellence. 
In  fact,  many  of  the  Irish  cattle  have  lately  been  crossed 
with  the  Shorthorn  breed,  and  it  is  very  doubtful  if  dis- 
tinctness of  race  can  be  established.  The  Kerry  cow 
adds  to  its  other  merits  that  of  being  cheap.  It  can  be 
easily  obtained  at  almost  any  town  where  Irish  cattle 
are  imported. 

The  cows  we  have  described  in  this  paper  are  especially 
good  for  dairy  purposes,  and  as  such  are  especially  valu- 
able to  the  cottage  farmer  who  has  not  sufficient  fodder 
available  for  fattening  cattle  for  the  butcher  ;  while  even 
those  fanners  who  have  space  to  maintain  a  large  stock, 
often  find  it  convenient  to  keep  some  cows  especially  for 
milking.  In  our  next  paper  we  shall  pass  on  to  a  con- 
sideration of  the  cattle  that  are  best  adapted  for  fattening 
purposes;  and  having  thus  noticed  all  the  principal  breeds 
of  cattle  kept  in  this  country,  we  shall  proceed  to  give 
such  practical  directions  for  their  keeping  and  manage- 
ment as  the  farmer  may  be  able  to  carry  out  for  himself, 
without  having  the  trouble  to  call  in  professional  as- 
sistance. It  must  be  understood  that  our  papers  are  not 
at  all  intended  to  supersede  professional  medical  ad\Mce ; 
but  in  country  places  this  is  not  always  accessible  at  once, 
and  we  may  at  least  indicate  the  best  course  to  be  taken 
until  it  can  be  procured. 


igo 


HOME   GARDENING. 


ODDS  AND   ENDS. 

Polishing  Paste. — Half  a  pound  of  mottled  soap  cut 
into  pieces,  mixed  with  half  a  pound  of  rotten-stone  in 
powder  :  put  them  into  a  saucepan  with  enough  of  cold 
water  to  cover  the  mixture  (about  three  .pints) ;  boil  slowly 
till  dissolved  to  a  paste. 

Cement  for  unending  Broken  Vessels. — To  half  a  pint  of 
milk  put  a  sufficient  quantity  of  vinegar  in  order  to  curdle 
it  ;  separate  the  curd  from  the  whey,  and  mix  the  whey 
with  the  whites  of  four  eggs,  beating  the  whole  well  to- 
gether ;  when  mixed,  add  a  little  quick-lime  through  a 
sieve,  until  it  acquires  the  consistency  of  a  paste.  With 
this  cement  broken  vessels  or  cracks  can  be  repaired  ;  it 
dries  quickly,  and  resists  the  action  of  fire  and  water. 

To  mend  China. — Mix  together  equal  parts  of  fine  glue, 
white  of  eggs,  and  white  lead,  and  with  it  anoint  the  edges 
of  the  article  to  be  mended  ;  press  them  together,  and 
when  hard  and  dry  scrape  off  as  much  of  the  cement  as 
sticks  about  the  joint.  The  juice  of  garlic  is  another  good 
cement,  and  leaves  no  mark  where  it  has  been  used. 

Waterproof  Boots. — I  have  had  three  pairs  of  boots 
for  the  last  six  years  (no  shoes),  and  I  think  I  shall  not 
require  any  more  for  the  next  six  years  to  come.  The 
reason  is,  that  1  treat  them  in  the  following  manner : — I 
put  a  pound  of  tallow  and  half  a  pound  of  rosin  in  a  pot 
on  the  fire :  when  melted  and  mixed,  I  warm  the  boots 
and  apply  the  hot  stuff  with  a  painter's  brush,  until 
neither  the  sole  nor  the  upper  leather  will  suck  in  any 
more.  If  it  is  desired  that  the  boots  should  immediately 
take  a  polish,  melt  an  ounce  of  wax  with  a  tea-spoonful 
of  lamp-black.  A  day  after  the  boots  have  been  treated 
with  tallow  and  rosin,  rub  over  them  this  wax  in  turpen- 
tine, but  not  before  the  fire.  The  exterior  will  then  have 
a  coat  of  wax  alone,  and  will  shine  like  a  mirror.  Tallow, 
or  any  other  grease  becomes  rancid  and  rots  the  stitching 
as  well  as  leather  ;  but  the  rosin  gives  it  an  antiseptic 
quality  which  preserves  the  whole.  Boots  and  shoes 
should  be  so  large  as  to  admit  of  wearing  cork  soles. 

Moths. — If  furs  or  apparel  be  enclosed  in  a  box  with  a 
little  oil  of  turpentine,  they  will  remain  free  from  the 
larvEe  of  moths. 

American  Receipt  for  Corn  Bread. — Take  half  a  pint, 
^ood  measure^  of  white    Indian   meal,  which    should  be 
rather   coarsely  ground.     Mix  it   thoroughly   in   a   large 
bowl,  with  one  pint  of  fresh  milk,  and  do  not  imagine, 
because  it  seems  so  thin,  that  I  have  made  a  mistake,  or 
suspect  the  printer,  but  do  as  you  are  bid.     Put  in  what 
salt  is  necessary,  and  into  the  batter  break  one  fresh  t.g^., 
and  with  a  kitchen  fork  beat  the  whole  together  quickly 
and   thoroughly.       Have  your  oven  pretty  hot,   but  not 
scorching.     Into  a  splay-sided  round  tin  pan,  of  say  four  j 
inches  diameter  at   the  bottom,  and  two  and  a  half  to  i 
three  inches  deep,  pour  your  batter  (which  will  about  half  ! 
fill  the  pan),  and  put  it  into  the  oven  instantly.     It  ought  ! 
to  bake,  if  the  oven  is  properly  regulated,  in  about  half  an 
hour.     It  must  be  perfectly  done  to  be  good.     It  is  to  be 
eaten  hot,  before  the  upper  crust  falls,  and  buttered  to  { 
taste.  I 

To  erase  Stains  of  Ink,  Grease.,  &^c.—P>.  very  weak  I 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid  will  readily  take  ink-stains  from  [ 
the  hands,  but  must  on  no  account  be  used  with  textile 
fabrics.     For  the  latter,  the  best  preparation  we  have  tried  j 
is  Perry's  ink-eraser,  which  can  safely  be  recommended.  ' 
The  same  manufacturer  has  also  produced  a  preparation 
for  removing  grease  stains,  cleaning  gloves,  and  similar 
operations,  which  may  thus  be  readily  and  satisfactorily 
done  at  home. 

Shoes. — However  worn  and  full  of  holes  the  soles  may 
be,  if  the  upper  leathers  are  whole,  or  soundly  mended, 
and  the  stitching  firm,  the  soles  may  be  covered  with 
gutta-percha,  and  at  a  very  small  expense  the  shoes  will 
be  fitted  for  a  new  term  of  service.    We  have  seen  shoes, 


in  appearance  not  worth  carrying  home,  made  quite  sound 
and  respectable,  and  to  serve  many  months  in  constant 
wear,  by  being  thus  soled  for  the  outlay  of  a  few  pence. 
Thin  shoes  that  have  been  worn  only  in-doors,  and  which 
are  laid  aside  on  account  of  the  tops  being  shabby,  per- 
haps worn  out,  while  the  sewing  is  sound,  may  be  made 
very  tidy  by  covering  with  woollen  cloth,  or  with  a  bit  of 
thick  knitting,  or  platted  list,  stitched  on  as  close  as  pos- 
sible to  the  regular  seam.  I  have  seen  a  pair  of  boots 
covered  with  black  jean  so  neatly  that  without  very  close 
inspection  they  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  new  boots 
bought  of  a  regular  maker.  This  is  surely  better  than 
wearing  them  in  slatternly  holes  till  they  drop  off  the  feet 
and  are  thrown  away  as  good  for  nothing. 


HOME   GARDENING. 


ROTATION  CROPPING  [continued). 

November. —  i.  The  strawberries  in  this  compartment 
will  be  greatly  improved  by  having  a  moderate  layer  of 
well-rotted  stable  dung  carefully  put  down  between  the 
rows.     The  raspberries  will  likewise  be  benefited  by  being 
treated  in  a  siriiilar  manner,  and  in  both  cases  the  manure 
may  be  slightly  pointed  in — that  is  to  say,  turned  into  the 
soil  with  a  fork.     The  former  will  require  no  further  care 
than   the   removal   of   any   runners    that    have   hitherto 
escaped  your  notice,  taking  care  to  avoid  cutting  away 
any  leaves,  while  the  latter  need  merely  have  the  old  canes 
removed  for  the  present.     2.  This  being  all  under  winter 
crops  in  a  state  of  progression,  it  is  only  necessary^  to 
say  that  where   two    or   more  varieties  of  broccoli    are 
planted,  notice  should  be  taken  of  the  periods  at  which 
each  one  comes  into  use,  as  a  guide  for  a  future  season. 
In  the  event  of  very  severe  weather  setting  in,  it  would  be 
advisable  to  have  all  the  Cape  broccoli  that  are  ready  for 
use  cut  and  suspended  in  a  damp  cellar  or  outhouse,  as  by 
this  means  you  may  keep  them  for  several  days,  whereas 
if  they  were  left  exposed  in  the  open  ground  a  sharp  frost 
would  render  them  useless  in  as  many  hours.     3.  Now  is 
the  time  to  force  any  sea-kale  you  may  have  to  spare,  but 
not  otherwise,  for,  remember,  the  plants  or  stools  you  take 
up  for  that  purpose  will  be  of  no  further  use  for  out-door 
purposes.     The  way  to  accomplish  this,  is  to  take  up  a 
few,  plant  them  in  deep  pots,  and  remove  them  to  a  warm 
place,  where  light  can  be  entirely  excluded.     This  can  be 
easily  managed  by  putting  an  inverted  flower-pot  over  that 
in  which  the  plants  are  inserted.     This  method,  of  course, 
will  produce  a  much  earlier  supply,  but  we  prefer  the  old 
mode  of  covering  each  plant  with  an  inverted  pot,  and 
these   receptacles,  ground   and   all,   with    some   kind   of 
fermenting  material — such,  for  instance,  as  a  mixture  of 
dung  and  leaves,  or  old  dung  from  a  half-spent  melon  or 
cucumber  frame.     4.  But  very  little  attention  need  be  paid 
to  celery  in  this  compartment  during  the  present  month, 
with  the  exception  of  earthing  up  the  later  kinds  as  they 
may  seem  to  require  it.     It  will  be  found  a  good  plan  to 
level  down  and  afterwards  fork  over  the  ridges  on  which 
the  early  celery  has  been  grown  as  soon  as  it  is  at  liberty, 
to    give    frosts    an    opportunity   of   pulverising    it,    and 
thereby  prepare  it  for  a  future  crop.     5.  As  the  removal 
of  the  peas  will  afford  the  broccoli  planted  between  them 
more  room  to  grow,  we  may  naturally  expect  that  they 
will  begin  to  look  considerably  better,   both  as  regards 
uniformity  and  compactness.     The  only  attention  requisite 
just  at  present,  therefore,  is  to  clear  the  plants  of  dead  and 
dying  leaves,  and   of  vermin   where    prevalent.      6.  As 
cabbage  plants  will  occupy  the  greater  portion  of  this 
plot,  the  work  required  will  necessarily  be  chiefly  that 
of  searching  for  and  destroying  slugs,  eiiher  by  picking 
them    off    by    hand   or   dusting    the    plants    with    lime, 
earthing  them   up  from  time  to  time  as  required,  and 
mai.uring  and  digging  the   remaining  portion   as    soon 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


191 


as  it  can  be  conveniently  cleared.  7.  By  this  time  you 
will  have  taken  up  and  stored  away  the  carrots,  and  thus 
rendered  the  space  previously  occupied  by  them  ready  for 
the  reception  of  some  other  crap.  Should  this  position 
be  suitable  for  peas,  a  row  or  two  might  be  put  in  with 
advantage,  about  the  sixteenth  of  the  month.  In  any 
case,  let  the  ground  be  ridged  up  as  soon  as  possible,  so 
that  it  may  be  well  pulverised  by  the  time  you  mean  to 
make  use  of  it.  Any  beets,  celery,  or  parsnips  may  be 
taken  up  before  severe  weather  sets  in,  and  stored  away 
in  a  cool  place  ;  but  they  must  be  covered  over  with  earth 
or  silver  sand — the  latter  is  preferable.  8.  Endive, 
lettuce,  and  turnips  occupying  tlie  main  portion  of  this 
department,  there  will  be  a  good  deal  of  care  required, 
inasmuch  as  the  endive  will  need  blanching  by  covering 
over  with  an  inverted  flower-saucer  or  a  board,  for  want 
of  a  better  contrivance.  The  lettuce  will  require  tying-up 
slightly,  while  the  turnips  will  merely  want  thinning  out 
and  keeping  free  fr«m  weeds. 

HYACINTHS 

cultivated  in  the  open  air,  require  soil  of  a  light  and 
rich  nature — such,  for  instance,  as  a  mixture  of  one-third 
sandy  loam  and  two-thirds  well-decomposed  manure  ;  and 
therefore,  where  the  bed  or  border  is  of  a  damp  and  heavy 
description,  it  will  be  necessary  to  add  at  least  a  third  of 
silver  sand,  or  light  mould,  to  overcome  the  injurious 
effects  of  cold,  clayey  soil,  or  otherwise  the  bulbs  would  be 
sure  to"  get  mouldy,  if  not  rotten.  As  it  is  most  important 
that  the  soil  be  fresh  and  sweet,  the  moment  bedding 
plants  are  done  with  see  that  the  ground  be  properly 
ridged  up,  so  as  to  permit  the  air  to  pulverise  it 
thoroughly  prior  to  the  bulbs  being  planted.  The  said 
bulbs  should  be  planted  four  inches  deep,  and  from  seven 
to  eight  inches  asunder  in  every  direction  ;  and  as  soon  as 
they  give  indication  of  having  made  good  root,  let  them 
have  a  liberal  supply  of  moisture,  but  not  before. 

From  the  middle  of  October  to  the  end  of  November  is 
the  best  time  to  plant  in  the  open  air,  as,  if  put  in  earlier 
in  the  season,  they  are  very  apt  to  receive  injury  from  frost 
and  wet. 

Those  who  contemplate  rearing  this  much-admired 
flower  in  pots  should  plant  them  singly,  in  pots  four  inches 
in  diameter,  and  six  inches  deep.  Our  reason  for  advising 
this  method  is  because,  where  several  are  planted  together 
in  a  large  pot,  one  or  two  may  fail,  and  thereby  spoil  the 
effect ;  whereas,  if  they  are  grown  singly,  it  is  easy  enough 
to  mass  perfect  and  healthy  ones  together  without  any  risk 
of  a  failure,  for  the  turning  out  or  transplanting  will  in  no 
way  injure  them. 

As  soon  as  you  have  potted  as  many  as  you  are  likely  to 
require,  place  them  in  a  dry  and  level  place,  and  cover 
them  with  a  six  or  eight  inch  layer  of  cocoa-nut  fibre, 
tanners'  bark,  sand,  or  decayed  leaves,  and  over  this  lay  a 
bast  mat,  or  something  of  the  kind  to  keep  the  rain  off. 
They  will  require  no  water  for  eight  or  ten  weeks,  as  the 
soil  on  which  they  stand  contains  sufficient  moisture  to 
serve  them  until  uncovered  at  the  expiration  of  that  time, 
•  when  they  will  have  thrown  out  an  ample  supply  of  roots, 
and  may  then  be  gradually  supplied  with  water.  Such  of 
the  bulbs  as  show  their  flower  truss  through  this  temporary 
covering  should  be  at  once  selected,  and  placed  in  a  shady 
spot  for  a  day  or  two  ;  but  if  required  for  forcing  into 
bloom  by  Christmas,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove  them 
to  a  forcing  pit,  where  they  should  be  plunged  up  to  the 
rims  in  a  bottom  heat  of  from  seventy  to  seventy-five 
degrees.  Many  persons  who  attempt  to  force  these  bulbs 
fail,  simply  because  they  do  not  place  them  on  a  hard 
substance,  and  thereby  prevent  the  roots  shooting  through 
the  pots  into  the  forcing  material,  and  also  because  they 
do  not  shade  them  until  the  leaves  have  assumed  a  bright 
green  hue.  Where  the  stems  have  been  too  much 
forced  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove  them  to  a  cooler 


temperature  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  should  the  flower 
truss  grow  squatty,  or  close  to  the  foliage,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  increase  the  top  heat,  and  place  an  inverted  flower- 
pot over  the  plant ;  but  as  soon  as  the  truss  shows  signs 
of  flowering  properly,  the  said  pot  may  be  raised  out  of  the 
bottom  heat,  and  have  an  ample  supply  of  fresh  air  and 
moisture.  These  plants,  after  remaining  on  the  surface  of 
the  bed  for  two  or  three  days,  should  be  removed  to  the 
greenhouse,  or,  for  want  of  that,  the  sitting-room.  If  you 
do  not  want  to  force  the  plants  into  bloom  before  March, 
you  need  merely  keep  them  in  a  dark  place  until  such  time 
as  they  have  made  good  roots,  without  which  fine  blooms 
cannot  be  expected. 

To  rear  these  bulbs  successfully  in  glasses  it  will  be 
necessary  to  fill  the  receptacles  with  rain  water,  just  high 
enough  to  touch  the  base  or  bottom  of  the  bulbs,  and  no 
more  ;  and,  having  done  so,  remove  them  to  a  dark  cup- 
boar-d,  or  cellar,  where  light  can  be  entirely  excluded,  and 
there  let  them  remain  for  four  or  five  weeks.  At  the 
expiration  of  that  time  they  may  be  removed  to  the  green- 
house or  sitting-room,  where  an  ample  supply  of  light  can 
be  ensured,  and  a  sudden  change  of  temperature  guarded 
against.  So  long  as  the  roots  are  kept  in  the  dark,  there 
will  be  no  necessity  to  change  the  water ;  but  as  soon  as 
they  are  exposed  to  the  light  it  will  be  advisable  to  remove 
one  half  the  water  once  a  week,  and  fill  up  the  glasses 
with  fresh  without  disturbing  the  roots.  A  little  guano 
added  to  the  water  will  tend  to  strengthen  the  plants,  and 
thus  improve  their  blooms.  As  a  preventive  against  their 
growing  spindly,  and  producing  meagre  trusses  of  flower, 
the  room  in  which  they  are  kept  must  not  be  too  warm. 


HOUSEHOLD   AMUSEMENTS.— IV. 

NOVELTIES  IN  TOYS  AND   TRICKS. 

Every  winter  season  brings  with  it  a  new  series  of 
ingenious  contrivances  for  the  entertainment  of  long 
evenings  and  dull  hours,  and  in  the  present  paper  we 
propose  to  notice  some  of  the  novelties  which  have  been 
lately  brought  before  the  public. 

The  Siamese  Link  is  probably  by  this  time  known  to 
most  of  our  readers.  It  is  a  very  simple  contrivance,  but 
a  fruitful  source  of  merriment  on  its  first  introduction  into 
a  juvenile  or  other  company.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  "  Siamese  Twins,"  lately  exhibited  in  London.  It 
consists  of  a  hollow  tube,  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  formed  of  narrow  rushes  interlaced 
together.  This  is  handed  to  one  of  the  party  to  insert  a 
finger  in  one  end,  and  a  second  person  in  the  company  is 
afterwards  requested  to  do  the  same  in  the  other.  The 
person  who  has  the  link  should  see  that  each  finger  is 
inserted  well  down  into  the  end,  to  ensure  a  firm  grip. 
The  individuals  attached  by  the  link  are  then  told  thai, 
they  may  release  themselves,  which  each,  of  course, 
attempts  to  do  by  withdrawing  the  finger.  But  this  effort 
causes  the  link  to  become  elongated,  and  consequently 
narrows  its  diameter  in  proportion  ;  the  more  tightly  it  is 
pulled  the  narrower  it  becomes,  and  the  firmer  is  the  hold 
it  keeps.  Nor  can  it  be  detached  by  any  amount  of 
pulling,  even  with  the  other  hands.  The  secret  of  release 
is  compression  of  the  link  lengthwise,  which  brmgs  its 
diameter  to  the  greatest  possible  width,  and  consequently 
affords  sufficient  opening  for  first  one  and  then  the  other 
finger  to  become  detached.  When  a  lady  and  a  gentle- 
man have  been  prevailed  on  to  try  the  experiment  together, 
the  trick  is  very  amusing  to  the  company,  as  well  as  to 
themselves.  When  children  are  trying  the  Imk,  two 
fingers  may  be  inserted  in  each  end. 

The  Chameleon  r^y).— This  is  something  like  the 
"gyroscopic  top,"  which  was  brought  out  a  few  years  ago, 
but  is  much  more  elaborate  and  amusing.  The  top  is 
wound  and  spun  in  the  same  way,  but  the  revolving  disc 


19- 


HOUSEHOLD  AMUSEMENTS. 


comprises  a  series  of  colours,  which,  passing  rapidly- 
round,  appear  to  form  continuous  circles,  varied  in  hue 
according  to  the  pleasure  of  the  operator.  Besides  this 
arrangement,  the  apparatus  includes  a  number  of  pieces 
of  wire,  bent  in  various  shapes,  and  when  one  6f  these  is 
inserted  into  the  disc,  it  appears,  as  it  revolves  with  it,  to 
form  a  glass,  an  egg,  a  cup  and  saucer,  the  human  face, 
&c.,  according  to  the  shape  of  the  wire.  To  make  a 
further  change,  a  smaller  disc  is  attached  to  one  of  these 
wires,  which  is  fixed  into  the  socket  of  the  top,  and  this 
disc  being  touched  with  the  finger  while  spinning  round, 
produces  a  second  series  of  brilliant  colours.  The  most 
novel  feature  in  these  tops  is  the  elegant  and  perfect 
shapes  which  the  simple  pieces  of  wire  are  made  to 
assume  by  their  revolutions.  Of  course,  these  appear- 
ances are  owing  to  the  well-known  law  of  optics,  that  the 
retina  of  the  eye  retains,  for  something  like  the  twelfth 
part,  of  a  second,  an  image  produced  upon  it ;  and  the 
rapidly  succeeding  positions  of  the  wire  consequently 
produce  upon  the  eye  the  impression  of  an  unbroken 
figure.  Schoolboys  are  familiar  with  an  illustration  of 
the  same  law  in  the  stick  lighted  at  one  end  and  twirled 
round  by  a  string,  which  gives  the  appearance  of  a  com- 
plete fiery  circle.  The  chameleon  top  is  sold  by  Perry 
and  Co.,  37,  Red  Lion  Square,  and  3,  Cheapside. 

The  London  Stereoscopic  Company,  of  54,  Cheapside, 
and  Regent  Street,  have  an- 
nually issued  a  budgst  of 
novelties  at  Christmas  time, 
some  of  which — such  as  the 
Wheel  of  Life  and  the 
Magic  Wand^ — ^have  ac- 
quired a  wide  popularity. 
Their  series  for  the  present 
season  is  likely  to  prove 
at  least  as  attractive  as 
any  former  issue.  Among 
them  are  one  or  two  so 
extremely  ingenious  as  to 
afford  much  amusement  and 
speculation,  even  in  well- 
informed  circles,  and  to 
defy  the  detection  of  or- 
dinary   observers   in   their 

modus  operandi.  The  chief  of  these  is  called 
the  Scientific  Mystery.  The  apparatus  consists,  first, 
of  twelve  separate  blocks  or  tablets  enclosed  in  three 
sliding  cases,  some  of  these  blocks  having  upon  them 
photographs  of  the  Royal  Family,  and  others,  figures, 
letters,  and  conundrums.  The  person  performing  hands 
these  cases  to  the  company,  with  permission  to  select  from 
them  any  of  the  blocks  they  contain,  and  arrange  them 
in  what  order  they  may  please,  while  he  retires  from  the 
room,  returning  them  to  their  cases  when  they  have  done. 
Thus,  with  the  lettered  blocks  they  may  form  words  ;  with 
the  figured  tablets,  a  row  of  numerals  ;  with  the  portraits, 
a  re-arrangement  into  compartments  according  to  fancy  ; 
and  from  the  conundrums  they  may  select  any  question  or 
questions  to  be  answered.  Having  arranged  the  blocks 
and  shut  up  the  cases,  they  invite  the  performer  to  return, 
and  then  challenge  him  to  inform  them  exactly  what  has 
been  done.  He  must  repeat  the  figures,  spell  the  word, 
name  the  order  of  the  portraits,  or  give  the  right  answers 
to  conundrums,  without  seeing  any  of  the  blocks.  The 
task  would  appear  imp>ossible,  but  he  is  provided  with  a 
method  of  performing  it  with  ease.  He  holds  a  paper 
tube,  in  which  is  the  figure  of  a  magician,  whom  he  is 
supposed  to  consult  ;  and,  by  simply  looking  at  the  outside 
of  the  cases  through  this  tube,  to  the  astonishment  of  the 
company,  he  repeats  the  figures,  or  answers  the  questions, 
exactly.     The  mode  in  Avhich  he  is  enabled  to  do  this 


would  necessarily  vanish  ;  but  we  must  commend  the 
entire  invention  as  one  of  the  most  ingenious  which  have 
ever  been  brought  before  our  notice,  and  it  cannot  fail  to 
have  a  great  success. 

Among  the  other  novelties  issued  by  the  Company  are 
the  following  : — 

The  Obedient  Ba/i.— This  is  made  of  boxwood,  with  a 
hole  drilled  through  the  centre,  and  the  operator  is  pro- 
vided with  a  cord,  to  each  end  of  which  a  handle  is 
attached.  One  handle  is  passed  through  the  aperture  in 
the  ball,  drawing  the  cord  with  it  ;  and  the  performer, 
taking  a  handle  in  each  hand,  holds  the  line  perpendicu- 
larly, but  lets  it  hang  rather  slack.  The  ball  then  runs 
freely  down  to  the  bottom.  But  the  apparatus  is  so  con- 
trived that  if  he  tightens  the  cord  by  stretching  it  as  he 
grasps  the  handles,  the  ball  will  be  made  to  obey  his  com- 
mands in  its  descent.  Thus,  "  go  down  half  way,"  "  three- 
quarters,"  and  the  like,  is  answered  in  each  case  by  the 
precise  degree  of  movement  demanded. 

The  Magic  Bottles. — Two  small  bottles  are  placed  before 
the  company,  and  appear  to  possess  the  remarkable  pro- 
perty that  it  is  impossible  to  upset  them.  Do  what  you 
will  with  them,  incline  them,  or  even  lay  them  flat  on  the 
table,  and  they  rise  to  the  perpendicular  immediately  you 
release  your  hold.  But,  in  performing  the  trick,  while  the 
company     are     examining  one,  you   take  up  the   other, 

breathe  gently  upon  it,  and 
then,  to  the  general  sur- 
I^rise,  it  will  so  far  lose  its 
first  qualities  as  to  remain 
a-tilt  on  the  extreme  edge  of 
the  bottom,  inclining,  in 
fact,  upon  the  table  at  an 
angle,  as  when  a  glass  of 
wine  is  poured  from  a  bot- 
tle. You  then  offer  your 
bottle  to  another  person, 
who  also  breathes  upon  it 
as  you  have  done,  but  with- 
out the  same  effect  The 
bottle  steadfastly  persists 
in  the  upright  course 
it  at  first  adopted,  and  all 
his  efforts  to  change  it  are 
without  success.  You  can,  if  you  please,  perform  this 
rather  surprising  trick  with  both  the  bottles. 

Then  there  are  the  Invisible  Gift  and  the  Vanishing 
Coin.  The  former  is  a  way  of  making  a  present — say  a 
"tip"  to  a  schoolboy — and  puzzling  him  greatly  as  to  how 
to  reach  it,  although  he  has  it  actually  in  his  hand.  It  is 
enclosed  in  a  little  box,  which,  finding  the  lid,  he  presently 
opens,  but  perceives  that  he  is  then  no  nearer  the  discovery 
than  before.  When  ycu  have  shown  him  how  to  get  at  it, 
he  thinks  it  the  simplest  thing  in  the  world.  In  the  tnck 
called  the  "vanishing  coin,"  a  penny  piece  appears  to  pass 
through  a  box  with  a  soHd  bottom. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  spoil  the  fun  of  Christmas 
parties,  but  rather  to  increase  it,  by  pointing  out  novelties 
adapted  to  introduction  among  them,  leaving  our  readers 
to  puzzle  out  the  mysteries  attending  them  for  themselves. 
The  "  Scientific  Mystery  "  and  the  other  novelties  just 
enumerated  are  comprised  in  a  guinea  box  sent  out  by  the 
Stereoscopic  Company,  which  also  includes  "  Scientific 
Experiments  for  Juveniles,"  the  "Coruscating  Metallic 
Wheel,"  and  a  Permanent  Photograph  in  Crystal  of 
any  subject  that  may  be  chosen,  the  latter  forming  a 
paper-weight.  Either  of  these  articles  may  be  had 
separately,  at  prices  ranging  from  one  shilling  upwards. 
Of  the  Coruscating  Wheel,  we  may  add  that  it  is  de- 
signed to  illustrate  the  various  colours  and  corusca- 
tions of  metals  in  combustion,  and  that  it  has  been  prepared 


THE     CHAMEiEOS     TOP, 


involves  scientific  principles,  to  which  we  are  not  at  present  I  for  the  Stereoscopic  Company  by  the  Messrs.  Brock,  the 
at  liberty  to  allude,  as  the  wonder  created  by  the  trick  1  pyrotechnists  to  the  Crystal  Palace, 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


193 


HOUSEHOLD    DECORATIVE    ART. 

VI.— PAPER   FLOWER   MAKING. 

The  art  of  paper  flower  making  is  an  elegant  one,  and 
capable  of  very  high  perfection.  It  has  also  this  merit, 
that,  unlike  many  accomplishments,  the  very  earliest 
attempts  of  amateurs  are  at  least  pretty,  even  if  unfit  to 
decorate  the  drawing-room.  Paper  flowers,  when  entirely 
.made  by  hand,  arc  not  very  expensive.     The  component 


white  paper  models  of  every  size  of  petal  which  it  bears. 
Mark  on  every  sized  petal  you  take  as  a  pattern  how 
many  of  that  size  the  flower  contains.  Then  cut  them 
out  in  paper  of  corresponding  colour,  and  make  them 
up,  as  closely  imitating  the  real  flower  as  you  possibly 
can. 

At  first  it  will  be  well  to  make  up  a  few  flowers  from  the 
outlined  patterns  we  shall  give.  If  these  are  practised 
through  the  winter  months,  the  learner  will  be  able  by  the 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  I 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  II. 


Fig.  3- 


parts  for  forming  most  of  the  flowers  can  be  purchased 
prepared,  and  in  that  case,  of  course,  become  more  costly. 
A  little  skill  is  needed  to  put  them  together  rightly,  they 
do  not  cost  a  third  what  the  finished  flowers  do. 

A  rose  is  one  of  those  flowers  the  parts  of  which  cannot 
be  had  ready  to  purchase,  and  is  not  a  difficult  flower  to 
make,  and  therefore  we  will  first  give  our  readers  direc- 
tions to  construct  it. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  object  of  the  paper 
flower  maker  is  to  imitate  nature  as  closely  as  possit)le  ; 
therefore  the  learner  should  observe  flowers  well.  When- 
ever it  is  possible,  obtain  a  fine  specimen  of  whatever 
flower  you  desire  to  copy  from  the  garden  or  conservatory. 
Examine  it  well,  and  then  pick  it  to  pieces.     Cut  out  in 

VOL.  I. 


summer  to  copy  from  nature,  and  keep  by  her  her  own 
patterns  taken  from  the  flowers  of  her  own  garden. 

To  make  paper  flowers  a  few  tools  will  be  required.  A 
pair  of  wooden  goffers,  which  will  form  bowls  of  four 
different  sizes,  and  resemble  the  illustration.  Fig.  i  ;  a 
pair  of  steel  pincers.  Fig.  2  ;  a  fine  pair  of  scissors,  with 
long  points  ;  some  cement  ;  a  reel  of  very  fine  green 
flower-wire,  and  some  strong  wire  for  the  stems. 

It  is  easier  for  a  beginner  to  fill  a  basket  than  a  vase, 
because  in  a  basket  the  flowers  are  closer  packed  and  less 
critically  observed.  Rather  stiff  stems  suit  best  for  a 
basket ;  but  for  a  vase  the  finer  and  more  flexible  wire  is 
needed.  The  stems  are  not  seen  in  a  basket,  and  may  be 
made  stronger.    Choose  plain  wire,  uncovered.   Either  for 

13 


194 


HOUSEHOLD    DECORATIVE   ART. 


a  vase  or  basket  artificial  moss  will  be  needed  ;  for  the 
latter  about  half  a  pound.  Fill  a  basket-well  closely,  and 
heaped  up  with  a  rise  in  the  centre.  A  vase  must  be  filled 
nearly  to  the  top.  This  is  to  hold  the  flowers  in  their 
places.  The  moss  must  be  well  pulled  out,  and  should  be 
two  parts  green  and  one  part  brown. 

French  tissue-paper  must  be  used  for  flowers.  Common 
tissue  will  not  crimp  or  goffer  well,  nor  is  it  sufficiently 
transparent  and  bright  hued.  The  French  paper  seems 
dear — from  2d.  to  6d.  a  small  sheet — but  many  roses  can 
be  made  out  of  sixpennyworth  of  the  paper.  The  pink 
sheets  are  about  6d.  each.  You  can  also  buy  variegated 
sheets  of  pink,  yellow,  buff",  and  red  and  yellow-streaked 
sheets,  made  up  admirably  for  roses,  and  tulips,  and 
crocuses,  imitating  nature  very  closely. 

A  large  square  pincushion,  with  only  a  calico  cover,  is 
necessary. 

To  make  the  Cement. — Take  an  ounce  of  gum  traga- 
canth,  and  a  little  bit  of  alum  the  size  of  two  peas.  Put 
this  in  a  wide-mouthed  small  bottle,  or  small  pomatum- 
pot.  Mix  a  little  flour  and  cold  water.  Pour  it  on  the 
gum,  and  let  it  stand  in  the  oven  till  dissolved,  assisting  it  if 
necessary  by  kneading  it  with  a  piece  of  wood.  Melt  it  to 
a  strong  jelly  that  will  not  harden  for  a  few  weeks.  One 
of  the  flower  wires,  eight  inches  long,  is  the  best  thing  to 
use  for  applying  the  cement. 

To  make  a  Cabbage  Rose,  three  sheets  of  three  different 
shades  of  deep  pink  paper  are  needed,  and  one  of  green  ; 
also  a  very  little  cotton  wool,  and  a  reel  of  green  sewing 
silk. 

There  are  five  different-sized  leaves  used  for  a  cabbage- 
rose,  and  a  square  piece.  Take  a  little  piece  of  wool,  and 
covering  it  with  the  square  of  paper,  make  it  into  a  little 
ball,  and  tie  it  round.  You  will  need  two  more  of  these. 
Then  begin  to  cut  out  the  petals.  Fold  the  paper  so  as  to 
cut  eight  each  time.  If  the  paper  is  folded  too  thick  it  can 
never  be  cut  well,  but  on  the  contrary  the  scissors  are 
spoiled.  Out  of  the  darkest  shade  cut  Figs.  3  and  4, 
nine  of  each,  and  nine  of  Fig.  5  in  the  middle  shade. 
These  petals  are  to  be  crimped,  which  is  done  by  laying 
one  at  a  time  on  the  cushion,  and  also  bring  them  down 
lengthways  with  the  pincers,  which  are  held  between  the 
fingers,  bringing  the  prongs  nearly  together,  and  pinching 
up  the  paper  between  them,  so  as  to  make  the  irregular 
crisp-looking  creases  noticed  in  the  heart  of  a  rose.  The 
marks  must  be  veiy  strong,  and  the  leaves  quite  crimped 
up,  working  the  strokes  from  A  to  B,  Fig.  6,  which 
represents  Fig.  6  when  crimped.  The  pincers  are  held  in 
the  right  hand,  and  the  petal  on  the  cushion  by  the  left. 

Stick  together  with  cement  by  their  narrow  ends  three 
petals  of  Fig.  4,  three  of  Fig.  5,  and  three  of  Fig.  6,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  8.  Make  two  more  groups  in  the  same 
way,  which  Avill  use  up  all  the  petals  you  have. 

Cut  out  in  the  middle  shade  of  paper  nine  petals  like 
Fig.  10.  Lay  each  separately  on  the  cushion,  and  with 
the  second-sized  goffer  rub  it  gently,  pressing  it  in  the 
middle  till  it  curls  all  round  the  bowl  of  the  goffer  ;  then 
curl  it  still  smaller  with  the  third-sized  goff"er,  and  turn 
back  the  extreme  edges  very  slightly  with  the  point  of  the 
pincers.  Put  three  of  these  leaves  on  the  outside  of  each 
of  the  three  groups  of  leaves.  Then  with  the  cement  fix 
;?ne  of  each  of  the  three  groups  of  leaves  upon  one  of  the 
ihree  balls  shown  full  size  in  Fig.  g.  Cut  off"  next  three 
more  petals  of  Fig.  3,  three  of  Fig.  4,  and  three  of 
Fig.  5,  and  crimp  them  as  you  did  the  first.  Cement 
these  together  in  three  little  groups,  one  of  Fig.  3,  one 
Fig.  4,  and  one  Fig.  5.  Then  tie  the  three  little  balls, 
with  the  three  groups  of  leaves  upon  them,  to  the  top  of  a 
wire  stem,  eight  inches  long.  Be  sure  it  is  tied  on  very 
firmly.  If  the  top  of  the  wire  has  a  tiny  crook  made,  it 
wiU  be  more  secure.  Tie  the  balls  so  that  the  groups  of 
leaves  attached  form  a  close  and  well-shaped  heart  for  the 
rose.     The  balls  must  be  entirely  hidden  by  the  petals. 


Then  in  the  three  spaces  between  these  three  groups 
cement  the  three  little  groups  of  three  petals  which  you 
have  just  crimped.  Next  cut  out  twenty-four  petals  like 
Fig.  10.  Golfer  them  on  the  cushion,  using  the  largest 
and  the  second  goffer  to  sixteen  of  them,  and  the  third 
goff"er  to  the  other  eight.  Curl  them  all  back  at  the  edges 
with  the  point  of  the  pincers.  Hold  the  rose  in  your  hand 
downwards,  and  put  on,  by  touching  the  lower  point  of 
each  leaf  with  cement,  the  eight  leaves  first,  and  then  the 
other  sixteen  of  the  twenty-four,  laying  them  regularly  all 
round,  one  a  little  over  the  other.  Now  leave  the  rose  to 
dry,  having  finislied  by  cementing  the  base  well. 

The  reason  why  it  is  best  to  cut  out  a  few  petals  at 
a  time  and  place  them  on,  and  then  return  to  the  task  of 
making  more  petals,  is  because,  if  the  first  leaves  are  yet 
wet  when  the  next  are  applied,  they  will  all  come  off"  in 
patches  before  the  flower  is  finished,  and  spoil  it. 

The  calyx  must  be  added  as  soon  as  the  rose  is  dry. 
The  easiest  and  best  way  is  to  buy  rose  calyxes  by  the 
dozen.  If,  however,  the  amateur  wishes  to  make  them 
herself,  she  must  purchase  a  sheet  of  bright  pale-green 
paper,  not  tissue,  and  cut  out  the  calyx  like  Fig.  11,  keep- 
ing the  spikes  as  sharp  and  natural  as  possible.  It  must 
then  be  covered  thickly  with  cement  and  left  to  dry. 
Afterwards  it  must  be  united  by  fastening  the  side  A  B  to 
C  Dby  the  little  bit  seen  projecting  from  A  to  B.  Let  this 
dry.  Then  thoroughly  cement  the  inside,  put  in  a  very 
little  wool,  enough  to  fill  the  cup  of  the  calyx,  and  slip  it 
up  the  wire  with  the  part  from  A  to  C  meeting  the  swell 
of  the  petals  to  which  the  cement  is  attached.  If  the 
petals  drop  too  much,  the  spires  of  the  calyx  may  be 
fastened  to  them  with  a  touch  of  cement  to  support  them. 
Cut  a  long  strip  of  green  tissue-paper,  half  an  inch 
wide,  and  very  even.  Gum  it  slightly  from  A  to  R,  and 
attach  this  to  the  calyx.  Hold  the  wire  stem  in  one  hand, 
and  by  passing  it  nimbly  through  the  fingers  of  the  other 
hand  roll  the  paper  tightly  and  smoothly  all  down  the 
stalk.  Leave  the  flower  upside  down,  to  dry  completely. 
It  is  best  to  place  it  in  a  box  till  the  next  day.  Then  with 
the  points  of  the  goffers  set  and  turn  the  rose  petals  and 
curl  them  any  way  you  like,  to  imitate  nature  as  closely  as 
possible.  If  the  flower  is  for  a  basket,  use  it  as  it  is.  For 
a  vase,  it  had  better  be  made  into  a  sprig,  by  adding  a  hud 
with  a  leaf  to  it,  tying  the  stems  of  these  to  the  rose  stem 
with  the  green  silk,  or  fine  wire,  and  covering  it  again 
with  paper.  Then  lower  down  on  the  rose  stem  add 
another  leaf  in  the  same  way,  and  again  cover  that 
join  with  green  paper.  Bend  the  stems  gracefully  and 
naturally,  and  bend  the  leaves  also. 

Leaves  are  never  made  in  the  paper.  They  must  be 
bought,  which  they  can  be  for  the  purpose,  in  dozens  or 
half-dozens,  and  are  made  of  muslin.  Vary  them  in  colour 
as  much  as  possible. 

These  roses  may  be  made  in  any  shade  of  pink,  from  a 
pale  tint  to  a  deep  rose  colour.  Yellow  roses  can  also  be 
formed  from  the  same  pattern,  but  are  better  cut  a  mere 
shade  smaller  in  every  petal.  The  yellow  need  three 
shades — the  lightest  for  the  petals  Figs.  3  and  4 ;  the 
middle  for  Figs.  5  and  8  ;  and  the  darkest  for  Fig.  iq 
For  a  damask  rose  cut  the  patterns  visibly  smaller. 

To  cut  the  patterns,  first  trace  the  diagrams  from  the 
Household  Guide  on  any  thin  paper;  cut  them  out,  and 
cut  thin  card  patterns  from  them.  Having  made  a  set  for 
the  pink  cabbage-roses,  mark  them  in  ink  "  cabbage  rose." 
Cut  another  set,  and  make  them  slightly  smaller,  and  label 
them  "  yellow  rose."  Then  another  set,  cutting  them  away 
all  round  the  edge  decidedly  smaller,  and  label  "  damask 
rose."  If  you  also  put  on  them  how  many  petals  of  each 
are  wanted,  you  have  your  patterns  ready  for  use. 

The  yellow  and  the  damask  rose  are  both  made  with 
this  difference  to  the  cabbage-rose,  that  in  the  centre  of 
each  there  is  a  heart  of  stamens  and  pistils,  and  the  petals 
made  into  little  groups  as  before  described,  are  attached 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


J95 


to  this  instead  of  to  three  balls.  The  way  of  making 
these  centres  will  soon  be  given.  When  the  damask-rose 
petals  are  cut  out,  they  must  be  all  of  the  deepest  and 
brightest  red  paper,  and  of  one  colour.  Before  crimping 
or  goffering  them,  mix  some  powder  carmine  with  a  little 
gum  in  a  saucer,  and  with  a  camel's-hair  brush  of  medium 
size  paint  them  well,  the  three  first  sizes  entirely  on  the 
right  side,  and  the  two  largest  half  way  down ;  after  which 
they  must  be  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly. 


COOKING. 

MUSHROOMS  AND   PICKLES. 

Broiled  Mushrooms  are  best  done  in  a  dish,  in  the  oven 
of  a  cooking-stove,  or  before  a  brisk  fire  in  an  American 
oven.  On  the  gridiron,  they  are  difficult  to  keep  from 
breaking  and  losing  their  juice  before  they  are  done 
enough.  Select  mushrooms  completely  opened,  free 
from  grit  and  maggots,  and  yet  nearly  arrived  at  ma- 
turity. "  Respecting  these,  ]\Ir.  Alexander  Forsyth  says, 
"The  small  mushrooms  so  much  prized  in  noblemen's 
families  for  bottling,  are  by  no  means  thrifty  as  food  for 
working  people,  bearing  as  they  do  the  same  relation  to 
full-grown  mushrooms  that  well-fed  veal  does  to  beef 
When  the  gill  of  the  mushroom  has  got  its  rich  colour 
and  its  delicious  odour,  and  whilst  the  curtain  hangs 
round  the  outer  edge  like  a  fringe,  the  mushroom  is  in 
perfection,  and  all  that  it  then  requires  is  heat  enough  to 
cook  it,  and  a  little  salt  to  eat  it  with  ;  and  with  such  a 
sauce  as  this,  dry  bread  or  boiled  potatoes  are  able  to 
do  the  work  of  a  rich  meal  at  a  very  small  cost.  If  you 
look  at  some  fields  in  autumn,  the  crop  of  mushrooms 
reminds  you  of  the  manna  that  the  people  gathered  every 
morning  ;  and,  at  the  present  high  prices  of  flesh-meat, 
a  good  dish  of  savoury  mushrooms  would  be  to  many  a 
poor  person  as  if  the  windows  of  heaven  had  indeed  been 
opened  to  them.  The  common  field-mushroom  is  easily 
known  by  its  flesh-coloured  gill  and  its  sweet  smell.  The 
Scotch  bonnets  {Agaricus  oreades)  are  easily  told  ;  and 
although  they  look  a  little  coarse,  they  are  quite  safe  to 
be  eaten."  Peel  off  the  upper  thin  skin  from  your  mush- 
rooms, remove  the  stalks,  and  lay  them  in  your  dish  flat 
on  their  backs.  On  each  lay,  according  to  their  size, 
several  little  bits  of  butter  as  big  as  hazel-nuts,  dust 
slightly  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  set  into  the  oven.  As 
soon  as  the  gills  drop  and  their  juice  runs  from  them  (in 
from  seven  to  fifteen  minutes)  they  are  done  enough  ;  serve 
in  the  dish  in  which  they  are  cooked.  If  the  oven  is  fierce 
you  may  cover  that  dish  with  another  on  setting  in. 

Stewed  Mushrooms. — Mushrooms  in  any  eatable  stage 
make  good  stews  ;  we  prefer  a  mixture  for  the  sake  of  the 
catchup  from  the  elderlics,  and  of  the  pleasant  fleshiness 
of  the  younger  samples,  amongst  which  a  fair  proportion 
of  buttons  may  be  admitted.  Prepare  as  before,  removing 
the  stalks  from  the  advanced  mushrooms  only.  Put  them 
in  a  saucepan  with  a  little  good  broth  and  its  floating  fat, 
a  bit  of  butter,  and  a  parsimonious  sprinkling  of  pepper 
and  salt.  Set  them  on  the  fire  ;  when  they  begin  to  warm, 
close  down  the  lid  to  keep  in  the  steam  ;  give  a  toss  and  a 
shake  from  time  to  time.  In  about  ten  minutes  they  will 
be  tender  and  juicy  ;  serve  garnished  with  buttered  toast 
in  small  squares  or  triangles. 

Mushroom  Catchup  {Practical  and  Good).  —  The 
quantity  of  catchup  yielded  by  mushrooms,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  salt  to  make  it  with,  depend  entirely  on  the 
weather  :  if  rainy,  they  will  be  full  of  juice;  if  dry,  they 
may  contain  very  little.  Over  half  a  bushd  of  mush- 
rooms throw,  say,  three  handfuls  of  salt,  and  break  them 
up  with  a  wooden  spoon  ;  taste  them  the  second  day  to 
know  if  they  are  salt  enough.  If  you  have  more  mush- 
rooms come  in,  you  may  add  them  to  the  first  from 
tune  to  time.      Leave  them  in  salt  two,  three,  and  four 


days,  frequently  stirring,  i.e.,  three  or  four  times  a 
day.  Then  squeeze  them  through  a  cloth,  so  as  to  get  all 
the  liquor  from  them.  Boil  this  liquor  half  an  hour 
When  you  set  it  on  the  fire,  add  for  each  half-bushel  of 
mushrooms  two  ounces  of  bruised  ginger,  the  same  each 
of  whole  pepper  and  allspice,  four  ounces  of  cloves  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  of  mace,  six  shalots,  and  two  or  three 
cloves  of  garlic,  both  chopped  small.  The  object  of  these 
last  is  to  give  a  relish  without  their  being  actually  tasted  ; 
some  cooks  overdose  their  catchup  with  cloves,  but  if  it  is 
to  taste  of  nothing  but  spice,  the  mushrooms,  in  point  of 
fact,  might  be  omitted.  After  the  half-hour's  boiling 
strain  off  the  spice,  and  let  the  catchup  stand  to  settle ;  when 
cool,  bottle  it  off  into  bottles  containing  half  a  pint  at  the 
very  most,  and  seal  the  <;orks  in  the  way  to  be  shortly 
indicated.  When  you  arc  able  to  gather  mushrooms  your- 
self, do  not  pull  them  up  by  the  root,  but  cut  them  off  just 
above  it  with  a  very  sharp  knife,  for  two  reasons  :  first, 
the  mould  adhering  to  the  root  will  fall  amongst  the  gills 
of  your  mushrooms,  and  render  them  too  gritty  for  eating 
— you  cannot  cleanse  them  from  that  grit.  Secondly,  mush- 
rooms mostly  grow  in  clusters,  especially  when  cultivated  ; 
by  pulling  up  a  mushroom  you  disturb  the  roots  of  the 
whole  cluster,  and  prevent  the  development  of  several  that 
would  otherwise  come  on ;  whereas,  by  cutting,  there  is  no 
disturbance  of  the  roots,  and  the  successional  mushrooms 
follow  in  due  course.  Do  not  throw  mushrooms  pell-mell 
into  a  basket,  but  deposit  them  in  regular  layers  with 
the  top  downwards  and  the  gills  and  stalk  uppermost  ; 
they  will  carry  much  better  so,  and  make  fresher-looking 
specimens. 

Mushroom  Toast. — Peel  off  the  thin  upper  skin  from 
your  mushrooms,  and  cut  short  the  stalks.  Set  them  on 
the  fire  in  hot  vinegar  and  water.  As  soon  as  they  have 
boiled  up  once  or  twice,  take  them  out,  let  drain,  set  them 
on  the  fire  in  a  saucepan  with  a  lump  of  butter,  toss  them 
well  in  it,  dust  in  flour,  moisten  sparingly  with  good  stock 
broth,  season  with  pepper,  salt,  chopped  parsley,  and  a 
morsel  of  garlic.  When  the  stew  boils  take  it  off  the  fire, 
thicken  with  egg-yolks  and  a  teaspoonful  of  vinegar. 
Pour  the  whole  over  a  large  round  of  buttered  toast,  and 
serve  hot. 

Pickled  Mushrooms. — Housekeepers  often  complain  of 
the  difficulty  of  keeping  pickled  mushrooms,  especially 
middle-sized  ones  (not  buttons),  from  moulding ;  never- 
theless, while  the  season  lasts,  it  is  convenient  to  lay  in 
a  stock  of  both,  using  the  larger  mushrooms  first,  and 
reserving  the  pickled  buttons.  Procure  either  of  them  as 
fresh  as  may  be  ;  cut  off  the  root  only  of  the  stalks  of  the 
buttons,  and  wipe  off  with  a  cloth  any  soil  that  may 
adhere  to  them.  Set  on  the  fire  enough  vinegar  to  cover 
them,  with  salt  and  spices  ;  as  with  catchup,  the  latter 
must  not  be  in  excess,  or  they  will  completely  extinguish 
the  mushroom  flavour.  When  the  vinegar  approaches 
boiling,  throw  in  the  buttons,  and  let  them  boil  two  or 
three  minutes  ;  then  take  them  out,  put  them  in  small, 
war7ned,  wide-mouthed  bottles,  pour  the  hot  spiced 
vinegar  over  them,  and  cork  them  provisionally.  Next 
day  fill  up  with  some  of  the  reserved  vinegar,  till  it  will  all 
but  touch  the  bottom  of  the  cork  ;  the  second  day  do  the 
same,  if  there  is  any  vacancy,  so  as  to  leave  as  little  air  in 
the  bottles  as  possible.  Then  cork  down  for  good  and  all, 
and  hermetically  seal  the  tops  of  the  corks.  When  a 
bottle  is  once  opened  it  should  be  speedily  consumed  ; 
you  may  therefore,  without  wastefulness,  liberally  dose 
your  mushroom  sauce  with  buttons.  For  open  mush- 
rooms, which  should  not  be  too  forward  (pink  or  liver- 
coloured  rather  than  black),  peel  off  the  thin  outer  skin, 
remove  the  stalk,  cut  the  top  into  convenient  sized  pieces, 
put  them  into  warmed,  open-mouthed  bottles,  and  pour 
over  them  hot  vinegar,  salted  and  spiced.  Then  treat  as 
above. 

Wax  for    sealing  Pickle-jars   and  Bottles.  —  In   an 


196 


COOKING. 


earthen  vessel,  over  a  gentle  fire,  mix  two  pounds  of  resin 
with  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  yellow  bees-wax  or  a  couple 
of  ounces  of  tallow,  to  soften  the  composition  ;  a  tallow 
dip  answers  perfectly,  as  it  is  better  the  wax  should  be  a 
little  too  soft  than  a  little  too  brittle.  When  well  com- 
bined let  it  cool  so  as  to  be  only  just  liquid,  when  you 
may  dip  the  necks  of  the  bottles  in  it  up  to  the  rim  round 
the  neck.  It  maybe  coloured  with  yellow  ochre,  red  lead, 
washerwoman's  blue  ball,  or  ivory  black.  Great  care  is 
requisite  not  to  dip  the  bottles  in  the  wax  until  it  has 
cooled  sufficiently,  for  if  too  hot  it  will  cause  the  necks 
of  the  bottles  to  split. 

Pickled  IValnu/s.— The  great  point  with  these  is  to 
gather  the  green  nuts  at  the  exact  time,  neither  too  soon 
nor  too  late.  A  few  sunshiny  days,  by  solidifying  the 
carbon  imbibed  by  the  tree,  will  make  all  the  difference. 
If  the  nuts  are  gathered  too  young  they  will  melt  in  the 
pickle  :  if  too  old,  the  shells  will  be  formed,  and  will  resist 
the  dissolving  action  of  the  vinegar  for  years.  The  test  of 
their  fitness  is  when  a  large  pin  (not  a  needle)  can  without 
difficulty  be  thrust  through  the  walnuts  in  any  direction  ; 
if  it  cannot,  they  are  too  forward.  Of  the  two,  it  is 
better  to  be  a  little  before  time  than  a  little  after 
time.  In  the  former  case,  the  walnuts  are  good  so  long 
as  they  last  ;  in  the  latter,  they  are  often  quite  useless. 
After  gathering,  wipe  the  green  walnuts,  one  by  one, 
with  a  coarse  cloth  which  you  are  not  afraid  of  staining. 
Lay  them  in  the  sun,  or  at  a  distance  from  a  slow  fire,  two 
or  three  hours  to  dry,  turning  them  occasionally.  This 
will  cause  them  to  absorb  the  pickle  more  readily.  Then 
put  them  into  a  brine  of  salt  and  water,  strong  enough  to 
float  an  egg,  remembering  that  a  stale  egg  floats  in  weaker 
brine  than  a  fresh  one.  Turn  them  about  in  this  brine 
once  a  day,  with  a  v/ooden  spoon,  and  let  them  remain 
there  several  days,  or  a  week,  till  they  are  quite  black  all 
over.  When  their  complexion  is  what  could  be  wished, 
take  them  out  of  the  brine,  put  them,  in  single  layers,  in 
sieves,  or  on  coarse  sackcloth,  to  dry  and  drain  in  the 
sun ;  turn  them  once  or  twice,  handling  tliem  gently. 
When  tolerably  dry,  arrange  them  in  the  pickle-jars, 
or  wide-mouthed  bottles,  in  which  they  are  to  be  kept. 
Put  the  requisite  quantity  of  vinegar  to  cover  them  in  a 
well-tinned  saucepan,  with  the  approved  spices — whole 
pepper,  bruised  ginger,  cloves,  mace,  &c.  When  wanted 
very  hot,  capsicums  and  scraped  horse-radish  are  added, 
but  they  destroy  the  natural  flavour  of  the  pickle.  Set  the 
saucepan  on  the  fire,  and  as  soon  as  the  vinegar  begins 
to  boil,  take  it  off.  When  nearly  cool  pour  it  over  the 
walnuts,  giving  to  each  jar  its  share  of  spice,  and  covering 
them  completely.  When  cold,  tie  down  the  jars  with 
moistened  bladder,  or  cork  the  bottles,  and  dip  their 
heads  and  necks  in  the  mixture  of  resin,  &c.,  for  sealing 
thern  hermetically,  already  given.  If  a  few  pickled 
walnuts  are  wanted  for  speedy  use,  pierce  each  one 
throughout  with  a  needle,  crosswise  and  lengthwise, 
before  putting  them  into  the  jar,  and  pour  the  vinegar 
and  spice  over  them  /lol,  after  warming  the  jar  to  pre- 
vent it  cracking.  Walnuts  not  only  make  a  pleasant 
pickle  to  be  eaten  with  cold  roast  meat,  but  a  little  bit, 
say  the  quarter  of  a  walnut,  crushed  smooth,  with  a  des- 
sert-spoonful of  the  vinegar,  greatly  relieves  a  hash  of 
mutton,  beef,  goose,  duck,  or  wild  fowl,  besides  improving 
the  colour  of  the  gravy. 

Pickled  Onions. — With  pickles,  as  with  every  other 
object  in  life,  it  is  well  to  make  up  your  mind  what  you 
wish  for.  Some  like  pickled  onions  soft,  some  hard 
and  nutty  ;  they  are  pretty  when  white,  and  bottled  in 
colourless  vinegar,  but  often  taste  of  nothing  but  of  that 
and^hot  spice ;  in  brown  vinegar,  with  less  fiery  condiments, 
you  can  taste  as  well  as  see  that  you  are  eating  pickled 
onions.  Gather  the  onions  dry ;  expose  them  to  sun  and  air 
for  a  fortnight  or  so.  Peel  them  without  too  much  waste. 
For  soft  pickled  onions  (brown),  throw  them  into  boiling 


salt  and  water ;  after  another  boil  up  take  them  off  the 
fire,  and  let  stand  till  nearly  cool.  Drain  well  on  a  napkin, 
put  them  in  jars  or  bottles,  and  pour  over  them  hot 
vinegar  with  spice  boiled  in  it.  When  they  are  cold,  it 
will  be  well  to  fill  up  with  vinegar  if  required,  and  cork 
or  tie  down  close. 

For  hard,  hot,  white  pickled  onions,  after  peeling,  salt 
them,  and  leave  them  there  two  or  three  days.  Take  out, 
drain,  pack  in  bottles,  and  pour  over  them  white  vinegar 
or  pyroligneous  acid,  in  which  plenty  of  capsicums  have 
been  steeped. 

Pickled  Red  Cabbage. — Cut  the  cabbage,  leaving  k  with 
a  stalk,  in  dry  weather  ;  remove  all  the  outer  leaves,  till 
there  is  nothing  remaining  except  the  central  hard  ball 
which  you  mean  to  pickle.  Hang  the  cabbages  singly,  if 
there  be  more  than  one,  by  the  stalks,  in  a  current  of  air 
in  the  shade.  A  draughty  passage  answers  well.  At  the 
end  of  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks,  take  down  the  cabbages, 
and  shred  them  with  a  carving-knife  to  the  proper  thin- 
ness, into  a  shallow  earthen  vessel.  Some  housekeepers 
then  sprinkle  the  cabbage  with  plenty  of  salt,  and  leave  it 
in  it  several  days.  The  result  is  that  the  salt  draws  out  a 
good  deal  of  the  sap  of  the  cabbage  (and  with  it  the  natu- 
ral flavour),  leaving  room  in  the  sap- vessels  for  the  vinegar 
to  replace  it.  It  is  not  this  salt,  but  the  vinegar  and 
spices,  which  make  the  pickle  keep.  We  ourselves  do 
not  salt  pickled  red  cabbage,  but  put  a  little  salt  into  the 
vinegar  instead.  Pack  the  shredded  (and  salted)  cabbage 
in  the  jars  as  tightly  as  possible.  Boil  the  spices  in  the 
vinegar,  and  pour  them  over  the  cabbage  hot.  A  small 
quantity  of  cabbage  for  immediate  use  may  be  boiled 
in  the  vinegar  three  or  four  minutes.  Those  who  like  red 
cabbage  firm  in  substance,  should  pour  the  vinegar  over 
it  cold. 

Pickled  French  Beans. — These,  which  we  consider  among 
the  poorest  of  pickles,  more  frequently  appear  in  company 
as  mixed  pickles,  than  alone.  They  are  associated  with 
cauliflower  sprigs,  radish  pods,  gherkins,  small  green  cap- 
sicums, and  others.  Gather  them  young,  leaving  a  bit  of 
the  stalk,  and  not  pinching  off  the  pointed  end.  Salt  them 
in  brine,  drain  them,  pack  them  in  their  jar  with  bruised 
ginger  and  other  spices,  and  pour  scalding  hot  vinegar 
over  them.  Those  who  have  gardens  do  well,  towards 
the  close  of  summer,  to  keep  an  otnniuvi-gatliej-um 
pickle-pot  containing  vinegar,  in  which  to  throw  any  of 
the  articles  which  make  up  mixed  pickle,  as  they  become 
fit.  When  the  collection  is  large  enough  to  fill  a  jar,  it 
can  be  packed  therein  in  approved  disorder ;  hot  vinegar, 
with  or  without  spice  (for  several  pickles,  as  tarragon, 
nasturtiums,  and  capsicums,  require  no  spice),  can  be 
poured  over  the  medley,  and  the  jar  made  air-tight  for 
future  use.  Note  that  when  a  mixed  pickle  jar  is  opened, 
the  cauliflower  and  the  pTench  beans  are  sure  to  be  left 
the  last. 

Pickled  Radish  Pods. — In  most  gardens  a  few  radishes 
remain  which  have  grown  too  big  and  sticky  to  eat.  Let 
them  stand,  if  not  for  seed  at  least  for  pickle.  Gather  the 
pods  when  the  seeds  within  them  are  full  grown  but  soft 
— i.e.y  in  the  condition  of  green  peas.  Pour  over  them 
scalding  salt  and  water,  and  let  them  stand  in  it  till 
cold  ;  then  take  out,  and  drain.  When  drained,  pack 
them  in  their  bottle,  and  pour  over  them  hot  spiced 
vinegar.  Tie  down  the  cover  provisionally.  In  a  few 
days  a  good  deal  of  vinegar  will  have  been  absorbed  by 
the  pods,  and  must  be  replaced  by  more.  When  there  is 
no  more  shrinking  of  the  vinegar,  the  jar  may  be  corked 
or  tied  down  for  good. 

In  our  next  paper  we  shall  go  on  with  the  subject  of 
pickles  and  preserves,  and  having  thus  come  to  an  end 
of  our  recipes  in  plain  cookery,  we  shall  go  on  to  the 
more  advanced  branches  of  the  art,  commencing  with  a 
Hst  and  description  of  the  implements  which  are  most 
necessary  in  a  kitchen. 


CASSELL»S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


'97 


HINTS   ON   CARVING. 

Goose. — A  goose,  Fig.  20,  is  a  very  awkward  bird  to 
carve,  because  the  joints  are  difficult  to  separate.  The 
carving  of  an  old  goose  is  certainly  a  tough  job  enough, 
and  is  very  apt,  unless  carefully  managed,  to  endanger 


but  as  many  people  object  to  the  flavour  of  these,  each 
person  should  be  asked  whether  or  no  he  desires  "  sea- 
soning"— which  is  preferable  to  the  term  stuffing — and  the 
carver  should  help  a  little,  along  with  the  meat,  to  those  who 
like  it.  The  seasoning,  or  stuffing,  is  found  by  cutting 
open  what  is  called  the  apron,  at  C,  from  c  to  E,  at  the 


Fig.  21. 


Fig.  22. 


Fig.  23. 


Fig.  24. 


Fig.r 


tlie  cleanliness  of  the  table  linen.  However,  if  the  bird 
1)0  young,  there   is  no  very  great  difficulty  likely  to  occur, 

I  ad  to  attain  the  art  of  carving  a  goose  nicely  is  very 
desirable,  for  it  is  a  bird  that  literally  goes  twice  as  far 
when  ably  cut  up  as  when  awkwardly  served.  To  com- 
Tncnce,  insert  the  fork  a  little  on  one  side  of  the  breast, 

ind  cut  off  thin  slices  from  end  to  end  of  the  bird  at 
ihe  dotted  lines  marked  from  A  to  R,  treating  both  sides 
alike.      It  is  usual  to  stuff  geese  with  sage  and  onions, 


dotted  line.  Next  take  off  the  wings  and  legs,  as  in  a 
fowl,  inserting  the  knife  at  E  for  the  wing,  feeling  the 
joint,  pressing  it  down  very  firmly,  and  when  the  knife  is 
felt  in  the  centre  of  the  joint,  turning  it  over  outwards  with 
some  strength.  As  soon  as  it  snaps  apart  cut  forward 
with  one  slice,  and  take  the  wing  completely  off.  The 
knife  is  inserted  at  F  for  removing  the  leg.  Cut  the  leg 
in  half  again,  and  serve  the  pieces  separately,  perhaps 
with  a  slice  or  two  of  the  breast,  according  to  the  size  of 


THE    HOUSE. 


the  bird,  and  the  consequent  sufficiency  or  otherwise  of 
the  portion  tendered.  The  breast  and  back  are  then  cut 
in  half  through  the  side  bones,  as  in  a  fowl,  the  breast- 
bone removed,  and  the  back  served  whole.  It  is  seldom 
necessary  to  cut  up  a  goose  entirely  the  first  day.  In  that 
case  the  carving  can  be  finished  in  the  kitchen,  previous 
to  making  a  hash  of  the  bird.  Many  people  who  are  not 
particular  about  the  look  of  the  bird,  always  make  a  prac- 
tice of  having  it  cut  up  before  coming  to  table. 

SucJiing  Pig. — A  sucking  pig  is  a  very  common  dish  in 
the  country.  Unless  the  family  is  very  small,  it  is  usual 
to  serve  two,  which  are  placed  on  one  dish,  the  heads  pre- 
viously cut  off  and  laid  at  the  ends,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  23. 
Turn  the  pig  upright  with  the  fork,  and  hold  it  so.  To 
take  off  the  leg,  set  the  knife  in  upright  at  A,  Fig.  22,  and 
divide  the  joint,  and  then  cut  it  off.  Make  a  slanting 
slice  under  the  shoulder,  as  shown  at  B,  and  cut  boldly 
through  the  joint  when  you  meet  it.  Cut  right  through 
the  back  and  ribs  in  slanting  strokes  at  c  C  C.  The  ear 
and  the  jaw  are  considered  delicacies.  The  ears  are  sent 
to  table  already  cut  off,  and  will  be  observed  garnishing 
the  dish  in  Fig.  23. 

A  Saddle  0/ Muttoii. — A  saddle  of  mutton  is  a  dish  not 
unfrequently  set  on  table  where  there  is  a  large  family,  or 
on  festive  occasions,  for  it  isaparticularly  handsome  joint. 
It  is  simply  two  entire  loins  undivided,  and  is  considered 
by  many  people  to  be  the  choicest  part  of  the  meat.  A 
saddle  of  mutton  is  sent  to  table  in  two  different  ways — 
either  with  the  tail  dressed  whole,  or  with  it  split  in 
half,  each  half  curled  diverse  ways  over  one  of  the 
kidneys,  and  fastened  in  that  position  by  means  of 
a  very  small  skewer.  This  fashion  our  illustration. 
Fig.  21,  represents.  Carve  thin  slices  from  end  to  end 
of  the  centre  of  the  saddle,  beginning  a  little  distance 
from  the  tail,  as  shown  in  the  dotted  lines  from  A  to  D. 
Cut  quite  down  to  the  bone.  Make  three  or  four  slices, 
each  with  a  single  movement  of  the  hand,  drawing  the 
knife  quietly  along  the  joint,  feeling  the  bone  with  the 
point.  In  making  the  last  slice,  slope  the  knife  slightly  to 
the  right  side,  and  cut  right  through  all  the  previous  slices, 
completely  detaching  them.  The  slanting  slices  from  c 
to  D,  and  the  cross  ones  from  E  to  F,  may  then  be  taken, 
and  furnish  a  palatable  mixture  of  fat  and  lean.  Each 
guest  should  be  consulted  as  to  whether  he  or  she  desires 
the  kidney,  and  when  the  answer  is  obtained  in  the 
affirmative,  a  slice  of  the  kidney  is  to  be  served  with  the 
meat.  Saddle  of  mutton  is  not  cut  so  thin  as  beef,  but 
moderately  thick. 

Fore  Quarter  of  Lamb. — This  joint  is  open  to  much  the 
same  remarks  as  a  saddle  of  mutton,  being  esteemed  fit 
for  a  guest  dish,  and  also  suitable  for  a  numerous  party. 
But  it  requires  quite  different  carving.  It  is  simply  a  breast 
and  shoulder  in  one.  When  placed  on  table  the  carver's 
first  duty  is  to  remove  the  shoulder,  which  is  not  at  all 
difficnlt.  The  fork  is  inserted  at  A,  Fig.  24  ;  the  dish  is 
so  placed  that  F  is  next  you,  I  points  directly  to  the  other 
side  of  the  table,  J  is  on  your  right  hand,  and  K  on  your 
kft.  Then,  with  your  fork  at  A,  take  the  knife,  hold  it  at 
B,  and  boldly  slice  away  right  round  to  C,  raising  the 
shoulder,  as  you  cut  it  from  the  breast,  and  as  it  severs  in 
the  process,  with  the  fork.  Go  on  cutting  from  C  to  D, 
and  D  to  E.  You  keep  your  knife  v/ith  the  point  as  far 
down  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  and  take  a  circular  cut, 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  line,  and  by  this  means  the 
shoulder  will  be  quite  cut  off  when  3/ou  have  completed 
the  circle,  or  at  best  a  slight  cut  will  cjuite  sever  it.  The 
moment  this  is  done  take  a  lemon  or  Seville  orange,  cut  in 
half  and  sprinkled  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  placed  in  a 
plate  ready,  and  squeeze  it  under  the  shoulder,  which  you 
support  still  by  the  fork,  an  inch  or  so  above  the  breast, 
sloping  and  touching  it  on  the  lower  side  ;  put  in  a  slice 
of  butter,  and  let  the  shoulder  rest  on  the  breast,  removing 
the  fork.     Allow  a  couple  of  minutes  to  melt  the  butter. 


Me^while  a  fresh  hot  dish  is  brought.  Transfer  the 
shoulder  to  this,  and  send  it  to  the  other  end  of  the  table, 
or  to  some  other  person  to  be  served  as  a  separate  joint. 
The  breast  is  now  carved  as  a  breast,  and  the  shoulder  as 
a  shoulder,  in  the  ordinary  way. 

A  Leg  of  Pork. — Pork  is  a  favourite  dish  with  very 
many,  and  a  leg  of  pork  frequently  appears  on  the  family 
board,  though  it  is  not  generally  esteemed  a  dish  for  a 
formal  occasion.  It  must  be  placed  on  the  table  with  the 
back  upwards,  and  the  crackling  taken  off  in  a  large  coat 
before  any  attempt  is  made  to  cut  the  meat.  Unless  the 
joint  is  sufficiently  cooked,  it  will  not  be  easy  to  displace 
the  hard  and  savoury  skin.  Cut  the  joint  in  rather  thick 
slices  across  the  back  at  the  dotted  lines  marked  A  to  B  in 
Fig.  26.  Slices  of  the  crackling — which,  if  properly  scored 
before  cooking,  are  easily  made  by  placing  the  point  of 
the  knife  in  the  cuts,  and  snapping  it  asunder — should  be 
tendered  with  each  serving  of  meat,  if  desired. 

Tongue. — Tongue  should  be  helped  in  very  thin,  even 
slices.  It  is  first  cut  through  downwards,  a  little  way  from 
the  tip,  where  a  good  thickness  is  attained,  at  the  line 
marked  from  A  to  B,  Fig.  25.  With  each  serving  cut  a  slice 
from  the  root,  D  to  E,  and  a  little  of  the  fat  and  kernels 
which  will  be  found  underneath,  between  E  and  F.  The 
tip,  c,  is  by  many  considered  a  delicacy. 

Bacott,  when  it  is  a  large  piece,  is  generally  cut  the 
narrow  way,  very  thin  indeed,  straight  down  from  the  top 
to  the  dish,  like  the  cut  in  the  tongue,  but  beginning 
from  the  very  end  of  the  bacon,  not  serving  the  first  slice, 
but  laying  that  aside  on  the  dish.  Small  pieces  of  bacon 
are  usually  cut  lengthways. 


THE   HOUSE. 


LIFE  ASSURANCE  {continued). 
In  continuation  of  the  suggestions  in  our  last  article  on 
this  subject,  as  to  the  means  to  be  adopted  by  an  intend- 
ing applicant  to  a  life  assurance  company,  to  ascertain 
the  position  of  the  office,  we  ought  perhaps  to  point  ou* 
the  danger  of  trusting  to  any  empirical  tests  of  soundness, 
such,  for  instance,  that  the  accumulated  fund  of  a  life 
assurance  society  should  be  at  least  eight  times  the 
amount  of  the  annual  premiums,  or  one-fourth  of  the  sum 
assured.  If  such  a  requirement  were  to  be  made  an 
inflexible  condition,  how,  we  would  ask,  could  any  com- 
pany commence  business  at  all  ? 

The  fact  is,  the  widely  varying  circumstances  which 
tend  to  modify  the  conditions  of  the  numerous  totally 
differently  constituted  companies,  render  it  impossible  to 
lay  down  any  general  test  of  solvency  of  this  kind,  and  all 
attempts  at  generalising  upon  results — which,  as  actuaries 
well  know,  can  only  be  deduced  by  laborious  computa- 
tions, based  upon  well-defined  mathematical  processes,  to 
which  there  is  no  royal  road — are,  as  a  rule,  mischievous, 
as  tending  very  much  to  mislead  the  public,  though  at  the 
same  time,  it  is  at  once  the  duty  and  the  interest  of  every 
assurance  office  to  give  every  possible  facility  to  persons 
anxious  to  insure,  for  ascertaining  the  actual  position  of 
their  affairs,  and  the  system  on  which  their  business  is 
conducted. 

We  have  hitherto  referred  only  to  life  assurance  as  a 
means  of  family  provision ;  the  system  is,  however,  equally 
adapted  to  securing  debts,  by  assurances  effected  by  credi- 
tors on  the  lives  of  their  debtors,  as  well  as  by  partners  in 
mercantile  firms,  who,  by  taking  out  policies  on  the  lives 
of  each  other,  may  prevent  the  frequently  inconvenient 
necessity  of  withdrawing  capital  from  the  firm,  in  the  event 
of  the  death  of  one  or  other  of  its  members. 

It  is  usual  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  particularly  in 
Devon  and  Cornwall,  for  leases  of  property  to  be  granted 
depending  on  the  duration  of  one  or  more  lives,  subject  to 
certain  fines  for  the  substitution  of  a  new  life  as  an  old  one 
fails.     These  fines  may  be  advantageously  provided  for  by 


I.    l.'a  I   Jjc.'.-  ^     •   ■ 

J.   iiadt.le  of  Murir: 


b.    Jung-Ji. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


199 


assurance,  and  when  the  lease  is  dependent  upon  the 
joint  life  and  the  life  of  the  survivqr  of  two,  three,  or  more 
lives,  the  annual  premium  is  comparatively  very  small ; 
and  generally  it  may  be  said  that  recourse  may  be  had  to 
life  assurance  in  the  numerous  legal  complications  that 
arise  in  connection  with  commercial  affairs. 

No  assurance  is  allowed  by  law  to  be  effected  by  one 
person  on  the  life  of  another,  unless  the  person  proposing 
the  assurance  has  a  pecuniary  interest  in  the  life  of  the 
assured.  This  enactment  was  instituted  by  the  legislature 
during  the  reign  of  George  111.,  with  the  view  to  prevent 
gaming  or  wagering  assurances,  which  had  become  very 
prevalent  at  that  period,  and  it  is  manifestly  highly  unwise 
to  place  the  temptation  in  the  hands  of  any  one  of  having 
a  direct  money  interest  in  the  death  of  another. 

We  may  here  mention  that  in  order  to  encourage  life 
assurance  by  all  legitimate  means,  it  is  provided  by  the 
Income  Tax  Acts  that  any  person  who  has  effected  an 
assurance  on  his  own  life,  or  on  the  life  of  his  wife,  is 
entitled  to  deduct  from  any  profits  or  gains  in  respect  of 
which  he  may  be  liable  to  be  assessed,  under  Schedules  D 
and  E  of  the  said  Acts,  the  amount  of  annual  premiums 
paid  by  him  for  such  assurance,  to  the  extent  of  one-sixth 
part  of  the  whole  amount  of  his  profits  or  gains.  The 
amount  of  premiums,  however,  must  be  paid  to  the  office 
in  full,  and  the  return  claimed  from  the  Government, 

Policies  of  life  assurance  are  exempted  from  payment 
under  the  Succession  Duty  Act,  .which  duty  can  be  con- 
veniently provided  for  by  assurance. 

If  the  information  on  the  points  referred  to  in  our  last 
paper  be  clearly  furnished  by  the  printed  returns  of  the 
office,  an  intelligent  person  should  have  no  great  difficulty 
— we  will  not  go  so  far  as  to  say,  in  satisfying  himself  as 
to  the  financial  stability  of  the  company,  but  at  least  in 
forming  a  tolerably  safe  estimate  as  to  its  position  and 
standing ;  and  if  he  mistrust  his  own  judgment  in  a  matter 
which  may  be  of  so  much  ultimate  importance  to  his 
furare  interests,  he  Avould  do  well  to  consult  some  friend 
who  has  made  himself  acquainted  with  matters  connected 
with  the  business  of  life  assurance,  instead  of  being  induced, 
probably  by  an  interested  agent,  blindly  to  entrust  his 
savings  to  a  society  which  may  not  merit  his  confidence. 

However  little  satisfactory  our  advice  in  this  matter 
may  appear  to  be,  it  is,  we  fear,  all  we  can  suggest  for  the 
protection  of  the  interests  of  an  intending  applicant  for 
assurance,  until  the  Government  shall  have  been  induced 
to  take  steps  to  assist  him  in  the  matter  by  some  stringent 
legislation  on  the  subject  ;  and  as  it  is  a  matter  of  such 
general  interest  and  vital  importance  to  the  public,  it  is 
earnestly  to  be  hoped  that  some  such  alteration  in  the  law- 
may  be  effected  at  a  not  very  distant  period,  which  will 
have  the  effect  not  only  of  giving  security  and  confidence 
to  intending  assurers,  but  also  of  improving  the  position 
of  all  honestly  conducted  insurance  offices. 

Some  companies  supplement  their  ordinary  business 
by  the  grant  of  Endowmettts  to  Childrcti  and  of  Life 
Amiuitics. 

Endowments  to  children  are  sums  payable  on  a  child 
attaining  a  certain  age,  as  may  be  agreed  upon,  and  are 
useful  for  educational  purposes,  for  providing  marriage 
settlement  for  girls,  and  fees  for  the  apprenticeship  of 
boys,  as  well  as  the  premiums  required  for  young  men 
who  intend  to  enter  the  legal  ar  medical  profession  ;  also 
to  provide  business  capital,  sums  for  the  purchase  of  com- 
missions in  the  army,  and  for  a  variety  of  purposes  of  a 
like  nature.* 

Endowments  may  be  contracted  for  to  be  paid  in  a 
single  sum,  or  by  an  annual  premium  payable  up  to  the 
specified  age  ;  and  it  is  sometimes  arranged  that  the 
premiums  shall  be  returned  if  the  child  die  before  attaining 
the  age  fixed  upon.  This  is  not,  however,  a  favourite 
species  of  business  with  Life  Assurance  Companies,  and 
probably  for  this  reason,  that  the  chance  of  death  among 


the  young  lives  with  which  this  class  of  business  usually 
has  to  deal  is  very  small,  and  the  company  is  almost 
certain  to  have  to  pay  the  amount  at  the  date  fixed  upon. 
The  profits  of  the  company  accordingly  must  depend 
almost  entirely  upon  the  interest  realised  on  the  payments 
received,  and  60  make  it  worth  while,  therefore,  to  enter 
into  these  transactions,  a  company  must  not  only  assume 
a  sufficiently  remunerative  rate  of  interest,  but  must  make 
a  consideralole  addition  for  profit  to  the  net  rate,  so  that 
an  intelligent  purchaser  would  be  able  easily  to  see  that  he 
might  accordingly  do  better  with  his  money  by  investing 
it  himself,  a>id  hence  the  disinclination  of  many  offices  to 
quote  terms  for  this  description  of  contract,  which,  how- 
ever, some  companies  do  nevertheless  enter  into. 

In  a  table  of  rates  for  Endowments  now  before  us,  we 
find  that  the  consideration  required  for  an  endowment  of 
^100,  payable  on  a  child  aged  one  year  attaining  twenty- 
one,  would  be  a  single  sum  of  ^42  lis.  iid.,  or  an  annual 
premium  of  ^3  5s.  lod.  Upon  reference  to  a  table  of 
compound  interest,  the  force  of  our  remarks  will  be  at 
once  apparent,  and  the  intending  purchaser  of  the  endow- 
ment in  question  will  see  that  he  has  to  pay  very  dearly 
for  his  bargain. 

Life  annuities  are  not  now  granted  by  many  life 
assurance  companies,  as  they  have  not  been  usually  found 
to  be  profitable,  owing  to  the  fact  of  the  annuitants 
exceeding  the  expectation  of  life  according  to  the  tables, 
due  possibly  to  the  benefit  of  selection  by  the  purchaser 
of  the  annuity  against  the  company.  Instances  are  known 
in  which  speculators  have  selected  healthy  lives  of  advanced 
age  belonging  to  families  remarkable  for  longevity,  on 
which  large  amounts  of  annuities  have  been  purchased 
from  the  Government  to  the  manifest  detriment  of  the 
public  purse,  and  possibly  the  same  influence  may  have 
been  at  work  in  the  case  of  assurance  companies,  which, 
moreover,  cannot  attempt  to  compete  with  the  Govern- 
ment, whose  rates  are  computed  entirely  without  view  to 
profit,  and  with  the  object  only  of  converting  permanent 
annuities — namely,  those  derivable  from  the  public  funds 
— into  terminable  annuities  depending  upon  life,  and  so 
to  some  small  extent  diminishing  the  National  Debt  of 
the  country.  Attempts  have  been  made  by  the  Govern- 
ment to  check  this  system  of  speculation  by  declining 
to  grant  any  annuity  on  the  life  of  a  nominee  above  the 
age  of  sixty-five,  unless  the  nominee  shall  have  bona  fide 
a  bc7ieficial  interest  in  such  annuity. 

Government  annuities  for  amounts  not  exceeding  ;^50 
may  be  advantageously  purchased  through  the  Post-office 
Savings  Banks,  and  life  assurances  for  sums  of  not  less 
tlian  £10  or  more  than  ^100  may  be  effected  through  the 
same  medium.     (See  British  Postal  Guide.) 

The  effect  of  this  benefit  of  selection  against  the  company 
has  been  that  the  grant  of  life  annuities  by  joint-->tock 
companies  has  proved  for  the  most  part  a  losing  financial 
speculation,  and  has  accordingly  been,  in  a  very  great 
measure,  confined  to  a  class  of  companies  in  need  of  ready 
money  to  carry  on  and  extend  their  more  legitimate 
business,  which  the  sums  paid  for  the  purchase  of  these 
annuities  very  satisfactorily  supply.  That  there  is  this 
anxiety  to  add  to  their  resources  is  apparent  from  the  fact 
that  the  rates  quoted  for  annuities  by  some  of  these  com- 
panies are  not  only  temptingly  high,  but  are  in  excess  of 
those  offered  by  the  Government,  and  for  the  reason  just 
given  it  is  highly  improbable  that  any  trading  company 
can  fairly  compete  with  the  Government  in  the  sale  of 
life  annuities. 

The  principal  object  of  all  life  assurance  being  for  the 
purpose  of  a  family  provision,  it  becomes  important  that 
as  soon  as  a  policy  is  effected,  the  proper  legal  steps  should 
be  taken  to  secure  the  proceeds  to  the  widow  of  the  assured, 
or  to  trustees  for  the  benefit  of  the  children,  or  otherwise, 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 
A  policy  of  assurance  may  cither  be  bequeathed  by 


THE    HOUSE. 


will,  which  in  that  case,  if  not  already  made,  should  at 
once  be  executed— and  a  marriage,  it  should  be  observed, 
renders  a  new  will  necessary,  a  fact  often  lost  sight  of — or 
the  policy  can  be  assigned  to  trustees,  to  be  received  by 
them  and  applied  for  the  benefit  of  the  widow  and 
children  according  to  the  wishes  and  intentions  of  the 
assured.  The  advantage  of  this  course  over  the  other  is 
that  a  duly  executed  legal  settlement  by  a  person  in 
perfectly  solvent  circumstances  would  be  good  against 
creditors  in  case  of  bankruptcy. 

The  great  importance  of  having  wills  and  marriage 
settlements,  and  indeed  all  documents  of  a  like  nature, 
drawn  out  in  a  strictly  legal  manner,  makes  it  our  duty  to 
counsel  our  readers — bearing  in  mind  the  old  adage,  that 
"  he  that  is  his  own  lawyer,  has  a  fool  for  his  client" — to 
apply  to  a  respectable  solicitor  in  all  matters  of  this  kind, 
and  to  act  entirely  under  his  advice.  A  few  pounds 
expended  in  securing  good  legal  advice  may  save  much 
expense,  anxiety,  and  even  litigation  at  a  future  period. 
(See  article  on  the  law  of  will-making  at  page  90  of  the 
Household  Guide.) 

Policies  of  assurance  can  be  mortgaged,  like  other  pro- 
perty, for  securing  temporary  advances  of  money,  or  can 
be  made  the  subject  of  absolute  sale  ;  in  both  cases  by 
proper  legal  deeds.  In  case  of  any  such  dealing  with 
policies,  it  is  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  interests 
of  the  parties  concerned,  that  due  notice  in  writing  should 
be  given  to  the  office  of  the  charge  affecting  the  security. 
Upon  a  claim  arising  under  a  life  policy,  it  is  usual  to 
require  evidence  of  age  to  be  furnished,  if  not  previously 
admitted  on  the  policy,  which  it  is  now  very  usual  to  do 
when  that  document  is  issued  ;  also  a  certificate  of  burial, 
or  the  registrar's  certificate  of  death.  Upon  receipt  of 
these  documents  at  the  office,  the  claim  is  allowed,  and 
is  payable  generally  three  months  thereafter.  In  the 
meantime,  the  title  to  the  policy  has  to  be  established. 

The  claim  may  be  made  under  probate  of  will,  or 
letters  of  administration,  if  the  assured  die  intestate,  or 
by  mortgage  deed,  or  by  deed  of  absolute  assignment, 
one  or  other  of  which  documents  has  to  be  left  at  the 
office  for  inspection,  and  if  found  satisfactory,  a  form  of 
receipt,  to  be  endorsed  on  the  policy,  is  furnished  ready 
for  execution  by  the  holder  thereof,  on  the  day  the  claim 
becomes  payable. 

Having  now  done  our  best  to  explain  some  of  the  more 
prominent  features  of  life  assurance,  it  only  remains  for 
us  to  add  a  few  words  of  earnest  recommendation  to  our 
readers  not  to  delay  taking  advantage  of  the  benefits 
which  are  offered  by  the  many  highly  respectable  and 
prosperous  companies  of  the  day,  to  all  persons  in  pos- 
session of  incomes  ceasing  with  their  lives.  We  must 
repeat  that  there  is  no  other  possible  method  by  which 
those  so  circumstanced — and  such  form  the  great  bulk  of 
the  population  of  this  country — can  make  a  similar  pro- 
vision for  those  who  are  dear  to  them,  and  who,  in  the 
course  of  nature,  they  may  pre-decease.  Although  it  is 
very  true  that  we  act,  many  of  us,  as  if  we  really  did  be- 
lieve that  "  all  men  think  all  men  mortal  but  themselves," 
we  must  in  our  hearts  know  that  the  day  of  reckoning 
must  come  for  us  all.  The  first  annual  premium  once 
paid,  remember,  the  sum  assured  is  secured  at  death, 
whenever  that  event  may  happen. 

The  earlier  our  assurance  and  testamentary  arrange- 
ments are  made,  the  better  for  those  we  leave  behind  us 
— and  we  die  no  sooner  for  duly  settling  our  affairs — the 
premium  increasing  so  much  with  the  age,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  fact  that  the  health  of  the  strongest  may  fail,  and 
the  advantages  of  life  assurance  are  reserved,  for  the  most 
part,  for  the  healthy,  or,  at  all  events,  for  those  who  are 
not  seriously  out  of  health. 

It  is  often  objected  by  those  who  wish  to  find  excuses 
for  deferring  what  is  so  obviously  an  undoubted  high  moral 
duty,  that  they  can  do  better  by  investing  their  savings  in 


a  bank,  friendly  society,  or  building  club.  Undoubtedly,, 
all  provident  investments  of  this  class  are  highly  com- 
mendable and  advantageous  in  their  way,  but  they  do  not» 
cannot,  compare  with  the  system  we  have  been  advocat- 
ing, which  provides  a  constantly  increasing  sum,  payable 
on  the  death  of  a  strong  man,  if  he  be  struck  down  by 
disease  or  accident  at  any  moment. 

We  greatly  doubt  if  any  better  investment  can  be  made,, 
even  if  the  life  assured  survive  to  extreme  old  age,  for  he 
obtains  his  compensation  in  the  operation  of  the  bonus 
system,  by  which  large  sums  are  certain  to  be  allotted  to 
a  policy  in  any  first-class  office,  and  no  individual  can  so 
well  invest  from  year  to  year  the  small  amounts  which  are 
paid  as  premiums  of  assurance,  at  a  high  rate  of  compound 
interest,  as  life  assurance  companies  are  enabled  to  do  for 
them.  Besides,  in  all  ordinary  investment  the  temptation 
is  constantly  hkely  to  arise  to  defer  setting  the  money 
aside  for  some  reason  or  other,  which  may  appear  a  good 
one  at  the  time,  owing  to  the  pressure  of  some  temporary 
pecuniary  difficulty  or  otherwise,  while  the  payment  of  a 
life  assurance  premium  is  about  the  last  thing  a  man  is 
likely  to  defer,  knowing  that  if  he  does  so  he  relinquishes 
all  benefit  from  his  policy,  and  he  knows  that  the  antici- 
pated provision  for  his  family  is  gone  for  ever,  and  the 
whole  of  his  payments — except  the  comparatively  small 
proportion  thereof  that  he  may  receive  back  as  the  sur- 
render value  of  his  policy — are  altogether  sacrificed.  He 
will  accordingly  make  the  greatest  effort  to  keep  up  his 
payments,  and  the  feeling  of  satisfaction  in  having  made 
due  provision  for  his  widow  and  orphans  will  sustain  him 
in  what  may  be  often  a  severe  effort  of  self-denial,  and  will 
be  a  constant  source  of  gratification  to  a  man  who  feels 
— and  who  should  not  ? — that  it  is  no  less  his  moral  duty 
to  provide  for  those  of  his  own  house  after  his  death 
than  during  his  life. 

It  may,  perhaps,  hardly  be  considered  part  of  our  work 
to  criticise  the  existing  machinery  of  any  assurance  offices, 
that  being  a  matter  rather  for  the  offices  themselves  than 
for  the  public  outside.  Still,  when  an  office  becomes  em- 
barrassed, people  very  naturally  call  in  question  arrange- 
ments, the  advisabihty  of  which,  if  the  office  had  remained 
in  a  satisfactory  state,  would  never  have  been  disputed. 
It  is  too  often  found  on  examination  that  the  working 
expenses  are  enormously  high,  and  that  a  large  proportion 
of  the  expense  is  owing  to  the  practice  of  maintaining 
agents  at  high  salaries  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
and  giving  them  a  large  percentage  on  any  business  they 
may  bring  in.  It  would  be  well  if  assurance  offices,  in- 
stead of  inducing  people  to  seek  for  information  from  an 
interested  agent,  would  publish,  as  clearly  as  possible, 
through  the  various  channels  of  communication  with  the 
public,  such  information  as  may  enable  the  ordinary 
reader,  with  the  aid  of  such  remarks  as  Ave  have  made 
upon  this  subject,  to  form  some  rehable  judgment  for 
himself  on  their  stability.  That  they  should  be  able  to 
do  this  for  themselves  is,  of  course,  most  important,  and 
the  more  intelligible  and  straightforward  the  accounts 
given  by  assurance  offices  of  their  position  and  method 
of  working,  either  in  their  own  circulars  or  in  their 
advertisements  in  the  widely  circulated  newspapers  and 
magazines,  the  more  ready  will  intending  assurers  be  to 
have  recourse  to  this  method  of  acquainting  themselves 
with  the  representations  made.  Considering  the  important 
benefit  of  life  assurance  to  the  public  at  large,  it  is  most 
desirable  that  the  clearest  possible  understanding  should 
exist  upon  the  subject. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  papers  which  we  have 
just  brought  to  a  conclusion,  we  have  only  dealt  with  life 
assurance.  In  future  numbers  of  the  Household  Guide. 
it  is  our  intention  to  go  fully  into  the  subject  of  insurance 
againstall  kinds  of  risks,  whether  by  fire,  rail,  or  accidents, 
the  importance  of  which  topics  we  feel  sure  our  readers 
will  fully  realise. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


20 1 


DOMESTIC   SURGERY. 

BUNIONS,  AND  AFFECTIONS  OF  THE  FEET  AND  LEGS. 
Bunion  is  a  painful  deformity  of  the  joint  of  the  great 
toe,  due  to  the  wearing  of  narrow  and  ill-made  boots,  by 
which  the  toes  are  crushed  together,  and  the  great  toe 
bent  out  of  its  proper  position.  If  the  affection  is  quite 
recent,  and  no  alteration  has  been  caused  in  the  joint 
by  the  pressure,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  wear  wide  boots, 
and,  in  addition,  to  place  a  small 
piece  of  cotton  wool  between  the 
great  toe  and  that  one  next,  in  order 
to  restore  the  foot  to  its  natural  con- 
dition. Circular  bunion-plaisters  of 
either  leather  or  felt  are  very  service- 
able in  such  cases,  as  also  with  corns, 
in  taking  off  the  pressure  of  the  boot. 
If,  however,  the  pressure  upon  the 
joint  has  been  of  long  continuance, 
the  joint  will  be  found  to  have  be- 
come more  or  less  chronically  in- 
flamed and  swollen,  and  if  so,  the 
application  of  the  tincture  of  iodine 
to  the  skin  for  some  time  may  be 
necessary  in  addition  to  the  plaister, 
in  order  to  restore  the  healthy  state 
of  the  part.  Occasionally  acute  in- 
flammation of  the  part  affected  is  set 
up,  even  running  on  to  the  forma- 
tion of  abscess,  and  as  this  may  be 
serious  as  regards  the  whole  foot,  the 
advice  of  a  surgeon  should,  without 
delay,  be  obtained.  Of  corns  we  have 
already  spoken  in  our  articles  on  the 
Management  of  the  Skin,  p.  124. 

Ingrowing   Toe-natl  is  another  re- 
sult of  sacrificing  health  and  comfort 
to  fashion,  in  the  form  of  tight  boots. 
The  great  toe-nail,  when  healthy,  is  very  slightly  curved, 
and  is  broad  and  thin,  and  this  condition  may  be  main- 
tained by  carefully  cutting   the  nail   from  time  to  time 
straight    across,   provided    sufficiently  wide    boots    are 


the  nail  on  each  side  should  be  removed,  without  going 
down  to  the  matrix,  or  "quick."  In  many  persons  this 
occasional  removal  of  a  slip  of  nail  is  a  necessary  and 
painless  operation,  though  some  prefer  to  scrape  away  the 
centre  of  the  nail,  so  as  to  thin  it  until  it  bends  readily, 
which  in  our  experience  is  both  a  painful  and  useless 
operation.  A  better  plan  is  to  let  the  nail  grow  long  and 
to  cut  a  notch  in  the  centre  of  it — as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration, Fig.  26 — when  the  growth  takes  place  chiefly  at 
this  spot,  and  the  edges  do  not  appear 
to  encroach  so  rapidly  upon  the  soft 
tissues.  When  the  irritation  has  been 
allowed  to  go  to  the  extent  which  we 
have  shown  in  the  illustration,  the 
advice  of  a  surgeon  should  be  imme- 
diately sought,  as  it  may  possibly  be 
necessary  to  remove  part  of  the  nail 
in  its  whole  length — an  excessively 
painful  operation,  for  which  the  ad- 
ministration of  chloroform,  or  some 
other  anaesthetic,  will  be  found  neces- 
sary. 

Flat  Foot  occurs  very  generally  in 
young  persons  who  have  had  their 
strength  overtaxed  in  carrying  weights 
— for  example,  among  nursemaids  and 
errand-boys — though  it  may  occur 
later  in  life,  as  is  seen  in  the  case  of 
soldiers  and  policemen,  and  others 
who  are  on  their  feet  during  many 
consecutive  hours.  The  sufferer  finds 
the  feet  remarkably  tender  and  painful 
after  walking,  and  if  it  be  neglected  the 
distortion  becomes  so  confirmed  as  to 
render  him  quite  lame.  In  a  flat-footed 
person,  if  he  be  made  to  stand  up  with 
bare  feet,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  arch 
of  the  foot  has  been  more  or  less  broken 
down,  as  sho\vn  in  Fig.  27,  so  that  instead  of  the  weight 
of  the  body  coming  upon  the  extremities  of  the  arch — the 
heel  and  the  ball  of  the  great  toe — the  centre  bones  ha\'e 
fallen  down  and  touch  the  -ground,  and  hence  the  pain. 


Fig.  26. 


Fig.  27. 


habitually  worn.  When,  however,  the  toes  are  crushed 
together,  the  nail  of  the  great  toe  becomes  more  curved 
■  iian  natural,  and  presses  into  the  tender  skin  on  each  side, 
ad  if  the  slight  inconvenience  at  first  experienced  does 
ot  warn  the  sufferer  to  seek  relief,  he  will  find  matters 
..ipidly  going  from  bad  to  worse,  inflammation  being 
set  up  on  each  side,  and  exuberant  painful  granulations 
springing  up  and  overlapping  the  edges  of  the  nail,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  26,  In  the  early  stage  of  this  disorder, 
when  the  nail  first  begins  to  excite  irritation,  the  immediate 
abandonment  of  narrow  boots  and  the  careful  insertion  of 
a  small  pledget  of  cotton  wool  in  the  groove  on  each  side  ' 
of  the  nail  will  generally  effect  a  cure  ;  but  if  this  is  not  ■ 
enough,  with  a  sharp  pair  of  nail-scissors  a  small  slip  of 


The  great  object  of  treatment  is  to  support  the  bones  of 
the  foot  until  the  ligaments  which  have  become  relaxed 
shall  have  again  become  braced  up.  With  this  object  fn 
view,  the  sufferer  should  avoid  much  walking,  and  especially 
the  carrying  of  heavy  weights,  and  should  have  his  loot 
carefully  bandaged,  as  shown  in  a  preceding  paper.  In 
order  to  restore  the  arch  of  the  foot,  the  best  plan  is  to 
have  a  piece  of  cork  fitted  to  the  inside  of  the  boot  so  as 
to  press  up  the  fallen  bones  as  much  as  the  patient  can 
bear  without  pain.  After  a  time,  as  the  foot  improves, 
this  can  be  increased  in  thickness,  and  so  eventually  the 
arch  of  the  foot  will  be  restored.  When  this  has  been 
done,  a  metal  spring  in  the  "  waist"  of  the  boot  is  usefal 
in  preventing  a  return  of  the  complaint. 


HOUSEHOLD   AMUSEMENTS. 


Weak  Ankles  are  common  accompaniments  of  "  flat 
foot,"  or  may  exist  alone.  The  sufferer  is  found  to  "  tread 
over  "  considerably  in  walking,  and  is  often  conscious  that 
the  ankles  yield  during  walking,  the  foot  having  a  tendency 
to  turn  on  its  side.  The  best  remedy  is  well-made  lace-up 
boots,  with  the  sides  made  stiffer  than  usual,  those  with 
elastic  sides  giving  no  efficient  support.  In  children  where 
•there  is  often  enlargement  of  the  ankle-bones,  bathing 
with  Tidman's  sea-salt  and  water,  or  sea-water,  and  the 
administration  of  cod-liver  oil  are  very  useful  remedies. 

Bow  Legs  are  common  in  "rickety"  children  who  have 
been  put  upon  their  feet  too  soon,  and  are,  therefore,  more 
common  among  the  poorer  classes  than  among  those  who 
have  attendants  to  carry  them  when  young.  The  earthy 
material  of  the  bones  of  these  children  being  deficient  in 
quantity,  their  legs  bend  with  the  weight  of  the  body,  and 
if  not  attended  to  the  deformity  will  be  permanent.  The 
great  point  is  to  improve  the  little  patient's  health  by 
sufficient  and  proper  food,  and  particularly  by  supplying 
it  with  genuine  and  unadulterated  milk  and  wheaten 
bread,  both  of  which  articles  of  diet  contain  the  earthy 
salts  necessary  for  the  formation  of  bone.  Fresh  air  and, 
if  possible,  the  sea-side,  are  very  advisable  if  they  can  be 
proctwed,  and  the  medical  treatment  must  be  carefully 
carried  out  under  the  direction  of  a  competent  adviser. 
As  regards  the  use  of  apparatus  for  the  treatment  of  this 
and  every  other  form  of  deformity,  the  parent  should  be 
guided  by  the  advice  of  a  surgeon,  and  not  by  that  of  a 
self-interested  instrument-maker.  Many  slight  cases  of 
bow-legs  do  perfectly  well  without  any  apparatus  at  all, 
and  in  most  cases  a  simple  lath  on  the  inside  of  the  leg, 
with  broad  webbing  straps  and  buckles,  is  as  efficacious 
for  the  treatment,  and  better,  because  lighter,  for  the 
child,  than  complicated  and  expensive  steel  and  leather 
supports. 

Knock  Knees  occur  generally  in  youths  who  have  some- 
what overgrown  their  strength,  and  particularly  in  those 
who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  walking  or  running  a  good 
deal.  The  ligaments  of  the  knee-joints  become  weakened 
and  gradually  yield,  and  the  lad  finds  that  his  knees  are 
apt  to  touch  in  walking,  causing  the  trousers  to  we'ar  out 
on  the  insides  of  the  legs,  and  giving  to  the  individual  a 
very  ungainly  appearance,  with  more  or  less  pain  in  the 
knees  themselves.  The  patient's  health  should  be  im- 
proved, and  he  should  avoid  walking  ;  but  if  able  to 
obtain  horse  exercise  may  avail  himself  of  it  with  advan- 
tage, as  it  will  tend  to  bow  the  knees  out,  as  is  seen  in  an 
exaggerated  form  in  grooms  and  jockeys.  With  the  same 
object  in  view,  he  may  sleep  with  a  pillow  between  his 
knees,  and  with  the  ankles  fastened  together  by  a  silk 
handkerchief.  A  simple  alteration  in  the  sole  of  the 
boot  is  very  useful  in  slight  cases  of  this  kind.  It 
consists  in  having  the  heels  of  the  boots  prolonged  on 
the  inner  side  along  the  "  waist "  of  the  boot,  the  effect 
of  which  is  to  throw  the  foot  slightly  on  one  side,  and  thus 
counteract  the  in-bowing  of  the  knees  ;'the  boots  should 
be  strong  lace-up  ones,  so  as  to  well  support  the  ankles, 
which  might  otherwise  yield.  In  severe  cases  of  knock 
knee,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  patient  to  be  confined  to 
the  sofa,  and  wear  proper  apparatus  under  the  direction 
of  a  surgeon. 

Housemaid's  Knee  is,  as  its  name  implies,  an  affection 
common  among  domestic  servants  who  kneel  to  scrub 
floors,  &c.  The  little  bag,  or  "  bursa,"  beneath  the  skin  of 
the  knee  and  in  front  of  the  knee-cap  is  apt  to  get  inflamed 
and  swollen  from  the  pressure  it  sustains,  and  is  then 
often  very  painful,  and  the  part  looks  red  and  swollen. 
Hot  fomentations  and  poulticing,  with  rest  for  a  day  or 
two,  will  generally  effect  a  cure ;  but  if  not,  and  the  part 
throbs,  the  advice  of  a  surgeon  should  be  at  once  obtained, 
as  possibly  an  abscess  may  have  formed.  In  some  cases 
there  is  no  pain  or  heat,  but  a  swelling  is  formed  in  front 
of  the  knee   (as  seen  in  Fig.    28),   which  gives  incon- 


venience in  kneeling.  This  will  often  subside  by  avoiding 
the  practice  which  has  given  rise  to  it,  and  by  painting 
the  skin  over  it  daily  with  tincture  of  iodine  ;  but  if  it 
does  not  disappear  it  should  be  shown  to  a  medical  man. 
In  all  cases  the  sufferer  should  provide  herself  with  a  soft 
pad  of  carpet,  or  matting,  to  kneel  upon,  and  should 
entirely  eschew  the  use  of  a  crinoline  when  so  occupied, 
since  the  wires  are  frequent  causes  of  injury  to  the 
knees. 

Hip  Disease  is  only  mentioned  here  because  its  onset  is 
so  insidious  as  often  to  be  overlooked  until  the  disease 
has  made  considerable  progress ;  and  as  treatinent,  to  be 
efficacious,  must  be  early,  it  is  important  that  parents 
should  have  their  attention  called  to  the  first  symptoms  of 
the  disorder.  The  disease  generally  occurs  in  weakly 
children,  and  may  date  from  a  fall  which  gave  rise  to  no 
special  symptoms  at  the  time.  The  child  is  noticed  to 
have  a  slight  limp,  and  complains  very  probably  of  pain 
in  the  knee  and  not  in  the  hip  itself,  unless  that  part  is 
touched.  These  symptoms  are  quite  sufficient  to  justify 
recourse  to  the  surgeon,  whose  directions  should  be  strictly 
caiTied  out  for  many  weeks,  or  even  months,  if  necessary 
to  effect  a  cure. 


HOUSEHOLD  AMUSEMENTS.— V. 
FORFEITS  [continued). 
Forfeits  are  in  such  general  demand  during  the  season 
when  round  and  merry  games  are  in  vogue,  that  we  add  a 
few  more  to  the  list  given  in  a  previous  paper.  Before 
doing  so,  however,  we  may  be  allowed  to  remind  our 
readers  that  the  spirit  in  which  forfeit  games  should  be 
conducted  is  to  extract  as  much  harmless  fun  from  them 
as  possible,  avoiding  everj'thing  rough  and  unseemly,  or 
in  which  a  mind  exceptionally  sensitive  can  find  a  cause 
of  offence.  With  those  which  are  simply  boisterous  in 
character,  or  have  any  element  calculated  to  cause  a 
feeling  of  annoyance  or  pain,  we  have  nothing  to  do.  But 
at  the  same  time,  all  who  enter  on  games  of  this  kind 
should  be  prepared  to  give  as  well  as  to  receive  amuse- 
ment. 

We  will  continue  first  our  list  of  forfeits  suited  to  a 
gentleman. 

1 .  To  go  round  the  Room  Blindfolded,  and  kiss  all  the 
Ladies. — The  company,  of  course,  are  seated,  but  as  soon 
as  the  gentleman  is  blindfolded  they  change  positions, 
with  as  little  commotion  as  possible.  He  consequently 
finds,  in  his  progress,  that  he  as  often  attempts  to  kiss  one 
of  his  own  as  one  of  the  opposite  sex  ;  or  a  lady  may 
reverse  the  position  of  her  chair,  so  that  the  gentleman 
kisses  the  back  of  her  head. 

2.  To  choose  One  of  Three  Signs. — To  do  this,  he  is 
to  stand  with  his  face  to  the  wall,  while  any  lady  present 
makes  three  signs  behind  him — of  a  kiss,  of  a  pinch,  and 
of  a  box  on  the  ear.  He  is  then  asked  whether  he  chooses 
the  first,  the  second,  or  the  third,  not  knowing  the  order 
in  which  they  have  been  made,  and  receives  the  corre- 
sponding action. 

3.  To  imitate  any  Animal  that  may  be  named. — If  the 
company  call  upon  him  to  imitate  a  goat,  a  donkey,  &c., 
he  must  do  it  ;  but  if  the  forfeit  happens  to  fall  upon 
any  one  who,  from  age  or  other  reasons,  may  be  excused 
from  such  performance,  "a  man"  is  named  as  the  animal, 
and  a  bow  will  suffice. 

4.  To  kiss  a  Lady  thro7igh  the  Back  of  a  Chair. — He 
must  wait,  with  his  visage  inserted  in  the  chair-back,  until 
some  lady  comes  to  his  rescue  ;  but  if  the  chair  be  of  a 
fancy  pattern,  she  may  dodge  him  through  the  framework 
before  giving  him  his  release. 

5.  To  blow  the  Candle  out. — He  is  blindfolded,  and 
the  candle  held  near  his  face,  until  he  happens  to  give 
a  puff  in  the  right  direction. 

6.  To  perform  the  Clown's  Pantomime. — This  consists 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


ao3 


in  rubbing  the  forehead  with  one  hand  while  you  strike 
the  breast  with  the  other,  standing  up  in  the  room  for  the 
performance.  If  correct  time  is  not  kept,  in  the  judgment 
of  the  company,  another  forfeit  is  to  be  paid. 

To  the  forfeits  for  a  lady  given  in  the  previous  paper 
may  be  added — 

1.  To  kiss  a  Gentleman  "  Rabbit  Fashion" — This  is 
usually  a  source  of  great  amusement  to  the  rest  of  the 
party.  The  lady  has  the  privilege  of  choosing  any  gentle- 
man present.  A  piece  is  broken  off  a  reel  of  cotton,  and 
the  lady  takes  one  end  of  the  piece  in  her  mouth,  while 
the  gentleman  takes  the  other  in  the  same  way.  They 
then  both  nibble  the  cotton  until  the  kiss  ensues,  as  a 
matter  of  course.  If  the  gentleman  is  sufficiently  gallant, 
he  will  perform  the  chief  part  of  the  "  nibbling"  process. 
The  company  may  exercise  their  discretion  as  to  the  length 
of  the  cotton, 

2.  To  sing  a  Song,  or  play  a  Piece  of  Music. — This  is 
given  either  to  elicit  the  musiqal  capabilities  of  a  lady  who 
may  be  shy,  or  to  make  an  agreeable  interlude  in  the 
round  of  other  forfeits.  If  the  lady  called  upon  can  really 
do  neither,  another  forfeit  is  allotted  to  her. 

3.  Ask  a  (Question  to  which  "  Ves"  must  be  the  Answer. 
— This  is  a  great  puzzle  to  any  one  who  is  not  in  the  secret. 
The  unfortunate  forfeiter  may  ask  all  kinds  of  questions, 
without  eliciting  the  answer  required  for  her  release. 
But  if  she  simply  inquires,  "What  does  y-e-s  spell?" 
there  cannot  be  any  other  reply. 

4.  To  kiss  the  Gcntlanan  you  love  best  in  the  Company, 
luithout  any  one  knowiiig  it. — There  is  only  one  way  of 
paying  this  penalty,  and  that  is,  to  kiss  every  gentleman 
in  the  room,  leaving  them  to  settle  the  question  as  to 
"  loving  best "  amongst  them. 

5.  To  put  yourself  through  the  Keyhole. — This  is  one  of 
those  quibbles  upon  words,  for  which  persons  called  upon 
to  pay  forfeits  should  watch,  as  they  are  often  in  use. 
Wg  give  this  as  an  example.  The  forfeit  is  paid  by 
writing  "  yourself"  upon  a  piece  of  paper,  and  passing 
that  through  the  keyhole, 

6.  To  kiss  each  Co7'ner  of  the  Room. — When  this  forfeit 
is  declared,  a  gentleman  stations  himself  in  each  corner, 
and  the  lady  has  to  pay  an  unexpected  penalty. 

7.  To  spell  "  Constantinople." — This  must  be  done  in 
the  old  schoolmistress's  fashion — "  C-o-n,  Con,  with  a  Con, 
s-t-a-n,  Stan,  with  a  stan,"  &c. ;  but,  after  the  third  syllable, 
the  company  attempt  to  embarrass  the  speller  by  crying 
out,  "No!  No!"  as  if  a  mistake  had  been  made.  To 
this,  the  proper  reply  is,  "Thank  you ;"  the  fourth  syllable 
is  then  spelt,  and  the  fifth  completes  the  task. 

8.  To  forju  a  Rifle  Corps. — The  lady  goes  to  one  end 
of  the  room,  and  calls  up  a  gentleman,  who  stands  oppo- 
site to  her.  The  gentleman  then  calls  a  lady,  who  stands 
at  his  side  ;  and  she  in  turn  names  a  gentleman,  who 
places  himself  opposite  to  her.  So  the  calling  goes  on, 
until  all  present  are  included.  If  the  number  of  ladies 
and  of  gentlemen  present  is  unequal,  the  more  mirth  is 
created  by  the  last  persons  called  standing  opposite  one 
of  their  own  sex.  When  all  are  called,  the  word  is  given 
by  the  first  gentleman  in  the  rank,  "  Present  arms."  All 
then  join  hands  with  the  persons  opposite  ;  and  the  next 
command  is  "Salute,"  which  is  done  in  osculatory  fashion. 

We  conclude  our  list  of  forfeits  with  a  few  contrived  to 
include  more  than  one  member  of  the  company. 

I.  Either  a  lady  or  a  gentleman  may  be  called  upon  to 
"sit  on  the  Stool  of  Repentance."  He  or  she  must  then 
sit  in  the  centre  of  the  room,  while  one  of  the  party  goes 
round  to  inquire,  in  a  whisper,  of  each  person  present, 
what  the  repentant  individual  "looks  like."  The  reply 
may  be  "wise,"  "silly,"  "pitiable,"  "beautiful,"  &c., 
according  to  circumstances.  The  answers  are  repeated 
openly  to  the  forfeiter,  with  the  question  after  each,  "  Who 
said  that  ?"  If  the  right  name  is  guessed,  as  is  often  the 
case,  the  person  who   made  the  particular  observation 


must  then  sit  on  the  "  stool "  in  turn,  and  so  on  until  the 
company  are  satisfied  with  the  round. 

2.  A  lady  is  required  to  "  be  Postman."  She  is  to  go 
outside  the  room,  and  rap  on  the  door,  when  one  of  the 
company  inquires,  "  Who's  there  ?"    The  answer  is,  "  The 

postman,  with  a  letter  for ,"  any  gentleman  she  likes 

to  name.  "  How  many  seals  ?"  Whatever  the  answer 
may  be,  the  gentleman  may  exact  so  many  kisses  ;  and  he 
in  turn  remains  outside,  and  declares  he  has  a  letter  for  a 
lady.  So  the  forfeit  proceeds,  a  lady  calling  a  gentleman, 
and  a  gentleman  a  lady,  until  the  company  have  all  been 
called,  but  no  person  present  is  bound  to  answer  twice. 

3.  When  the  calling  of  forfeits  has  been  continued  long 
enough,  and  several  remain,  which  it  is  desired  to  clear  off 
together,  the  forfeiters  may  be  called  upon  to  perform  a 
"  Musical  Medley."  Each  one  must  then  sing  some  verse 
or  stanza  of  a  song,  no  two  choosing  the  same  melody, 
but  all  commencing  and  singing  together.  The  effect  is 
generally  so  grotesque  as  to  produce  shouts  of  laughter. 


ODDS  AND   ENDS. 


To  loosest  Glass  Stoppers. — A  very  common  source 
of  trouble  and  vexation  is  the  fixed  stopper  of  a  smelling- 
bottle,  or  of  a  decanter  ;  and  as  in  the  case  of  all  frequent 
evils  many  methods  have  been  devised  for  its  remedy. 
Some  of  these  methods  we  shall  enumerate,  i.  Hold  the 
bottle  or  decanter  firmly  in  the  hand,  or  between  the 
knees,  and  gently  tap  the  stopper  on  alternate  sides, 
using  for  the  purpose  a  small  piece  of  wood,  and  directing 
the  strokes  upward.  2.  Plunge  the  neck  of  the  vessel 
into  hot  water,  taking  care  that  the  water  is  not  hot 
enough  to  split  the  glass.  If  after  some  immersion  the 
stopper  is  still  fixed,  recur  to  the  first  process.  3.  Pass  a 
piece  of  list  round  the  neck  of  the  vessel,  which  must  be 
held  fast  while  two  persons  draw  the  list  backwards  and 
forwards.  This  will  warm  the  glass,  and  often  enable  the 
hand  to  turn  the  stopper.  4.  Warm  the  neck  of  the 
vessel  before  the  fire,  and  when  it  is  nearly  hot,  the 
stopper  can  be  generally  moved.  5.  Put  a  few  drops  of 
oil  round  the  stopper  where  it  enters  the  glass  vessel, 
which  may  then  be  warrhed  before  the  fire.  Next  take 
the  decanter  or  bottle,  and  employ  the  process  No.  i,  de- 
scribed above.  If  it  continues  fixed,  add  another  drop  of  oil 
to  the  stopper,  and  place  the  vessel  again  before  the  fire. 
Then  repeat  the  tapping  with  the  wood.  If  the  stopper 
continues  still  immovable,  give  it  more  oil,  warm  it  afresh, 
and  rub  it  anew,  until  it  gives  way,  which  it  is  almost  sure 
to  do  in  the  end.  6.  Take  a  steel  pen  or  a  needle,  and 
run  it  round  the  top  of  the  stopper  in  the  angle  formed  by 
it  and  the  bottle.  Then  hold  the  vessel  in  your  left 
hand,  and  give  it  a  steady  twist  towards  you  with  the 
right,  and  it  will  very  often  be  eftectual,  as  the  adhesion 
is  frequently  caused  by  the  solidification  of  matter  only  at 
the  point  nearest  the  air.  If  this  does  not  succeed,  try 
process  No,  5,  which  will  be  facilitated  by  it.  By  com- 
bining the  two  methods  numbered  5  and  6,  we  have 
extracted  stoppers  which  had  been  long  fixed,  and  given 
up  in  despair  after  trying  the  usual  plans.  Broken 
stoppers  are  best  left  to  professional  hands. 

Liquid  Glue  and  Cement.— Take  of  crushed  orange- 
shellac  four  ounces,  of  rectified  spirit  of  wine  (strong),  or 
rectified  wood  naphtha,  three  ounces.  The  rectified  spirit 
of  wine  makes  a  far  superior  composition,  but  the  other  is 
good  enough  for  all  ordinary  work.  Dissolve  the  shellac 
in  the  spirit,  in  a  corked  bottle  in  a  warm  place  ;  frequent 
shaking  will  assist  it  in  dissolving,  and  it  should  also  be 
shaken  before  use.  This  composition  may  be  used  as  a 
varnish  for  unpainted  wood. 

Perpetual  Paste.— Take  one  ounce  of  gum  tragacanlh 
or  gum  dragon ;  pick  it  clean,  and  put  it  into  a  wide- 
mouthed  vessel  of  glass  or  white  ware  capable  of  con- 


204 


ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PLEASURE. 


taining  a  quart.  Add  as  much  corrosive  sublimate  as 
will  lie  on  a  fourpenny-piece.  Then  pour  on  a  pint  and 
a  half  of  clean  soft  water,  cold.  Cover  the  vessel  and 
leave  it  till  next  day,  when  the  gum  will  be  dissolved,  and 
Avill  nearly  fill  the  vessel.  Stir  the  mass  well  with  a  piece 
of  stick — not  with  metal,  because  the  corrosive  sublimate 
will  blacken  it.  Repeat  the  stirring  several  times  during 
the  day,  when  it  must  be  left,  and  it  will  form  a  thick 
white  jelly.  It  must  be  kept  closely  covered,  and  under 
lock  and  key,  as  the  corrosive  sublimate  is  poisonous. 
It  will  keep  for  any  length  of  time  if  the  air  is  excluded, 
and  if  it  is  not  put  into  a  vessel  of  metal.  For  paper 
and  many  other  things  it  forms  a  strong  and  colourless 
cement ;  and  since  it  may  be  always  at  hand,  it  may  tend 
to  induce  persons  to  do  a  number  of  small  useful  jobs, 
which  would  be  neglected  if  paste  had  to  be  made.  If 
the  above  rules  are  followed,  especially  about  not  allowing 
continued  exposure  to  the  air,  and  not  keeping  it  in  metal, 
it  will  be  very  slow  to  spoil. 

Blue  Wash  for  Walls. — Take  two  quarts  of  lime,  a 
pound  of  blue  vitriol,  and  half  a  pound  of  glue. 
Thoroughly  melt  the  glue  in  a  quart  of  soft  water.  Re- 
duce the  vitriol  to  powder  in  a  mortar,  and  put  it  into  a 
wooden  pail.  When  the  glue-water  is  about  cold,  pour  it 
on  the  vitriol,  and  mix  the  two  well  with  a  stick.  Then 
stir  in  the  lime  by  degrees.  Try  the  colour  by  dipping 
into  it  a  piece  of  white  paper,  which,  when  dry,  will  show 
the  tint.  If  too  dark,  add  more  lime  ;  and  if  too  light, 
add  more  powdered  vitriol.  The  proper  consistency  can 
be  secured  by  means  of  soft  water.  It  is  used  like 
whitewash. 


ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PLEASURE. 

IV. — THE  DOG  :    FEEDING  AND  GENERAL  MANAGEMENT. 

When  it  has  been  determined  to  keep  a  dog,  it  is  very 
much  better  to  procure  a  fine  pup  than  to  purchase  a  full- 
grown  animal.  It  will  involve  some  trouble,  certainly ;  for 
bad  habits  will  have  to  be  checked  and  corrected,  more 
attention  will  be  needed,  and  there  will  be  the  possibility 
of  having  to  nurse  it  through  the  distemper  ;  but  in  no 
other  way  can  the  full  pleasure  of  the  connection  be  ob- 
tained, and  the  full  affection  of  the  noble  creature  be 
secured.  Moreover,  the  pleasure  of  training  a  young  dog 
is  very  great  to  both  parties,  and  it  is  much  more  satisfac- 
tory to  possess  an  animal  whose  habits  you  have  formed, 
whose  disposition  you  know,  and  whose  fidelity  to  you 
may  be  implicitly  trusted.  Such  a  dog  is  also  much  less 
liable  to  be  lost  or  stolen. 

The  animal's  lodging  is  a  matter  of  no  small  import- 
ance, but  is  very  seldom  ordered  as  it  should  be ;  too 
often  any  old  box  is  made  to  do  duty,  and  the  conse- 
quence is  a  weakly  constitution,  if  not  actual  disease. 
The  best  material  is  deal  or  pine,  which  has  a  very  strong 
resinous  smell,  and  contains  well-marked  veins  of  turpen- 
tine, over  all  its  surface.  The  wood  ought  to  be  a  full 
inch  thick,  and  be  well  and  tightly  joined  in  the  well- 
known  shape,  but  with  what  is  very  seldom  seen,  the 
gable  roof  projecting,  at  the  very  least,  six  inches,  both 
at  the  sides  and  back,  while  the  front  should  project 
a  foot  or  more,  in  order  to  throw  off  the  rain.  Of 
course,  if  the  kennel  is  to  stand  under  a  shed,  this 
will  not  be  necessary  ;  but  it  is  highly  needful  in  the 
open  air.  The  whole  should  be  well  painted,  and,  in 
very  wet  weather,  it  is  well  to  throw  a  large  tarpaulin 
over  all.  Many  people  seem  to  think  the  dog  can  with- 
stand any  weather  with  impunity,  and  if  left  at  full  liberty, 
it  might  perhaps  be  so  ;  but  when  chained  up,  it  is  posi- 
tive cruelty  not  to  afford  the  faithful  guardian  comfortable 
shelter.  For  the  same  reason,  the  kennel  should  stand  on 
four  small  blocks  or  bricks,  to  raise  it  from  the  ground 
and  keep  it  dry. 

Sliould  the  dog  become  infested  with  fleas  or  other  ver- 


min, several  bucketfuls  of  boiling  water  should  be  dashed 
into  the  kennel,  to  sluice  it  thoroughly,  and,  when  dry, 
it  should  be  painted  over  with  turpentine  or  paraffin. 
The  animal  itself  should  have  powdered  sulphur  well 
dredged  and  rubbed  into  its  coat,  which  will  usually  eradi- 
cate insects  ;  powdered  camphor  will  do  the  same. 
Another  method  much  approved  of,  is  a  good  washing 
with  soap  and  warm  water,  followed  by  careful  combing  ; 
or  a  little  benzine  introduced  to  the  skin  of  the  animal 
wherever  the  fleas  congregate,  will  drive  them  out,  and 
if  it  touches  them,  will  kill  them.  Tobacco  water  has 
been  often  recommended,  but  should  never  be  used,  as  it 
always  makes  the  dog  sick,  and  spoils  the  appearance  of 
the  coat.  There  will,  however,  be  little  trouble  from  ver- 
min, if  the  kennel  is  made  of  resinous  wood,  and  deal 
shavings  are  given  for  the  bed.  It  is  also  worth  remark- 
ing that  the  discovery  of  any  such  annoyance  need  not 
occasion  the  commotion  in  a  household  which  "it  often 
does.  It  is  to  be  removed,  certainly  ;  but  the  species, 
both  of  fleas  and  lice,  which  infest  the  dog,  will  not  live 
more  than  a  few  hours  upon  a  human  being,  and,  conse- 
quently, need  not  be  dreaded. 

Feeding. — If  few  dogs  are  properly  housed,  still  fewer  are 
properly  fed.  Some  people  seem  to  think  they  can  live 
with  hardly  any  food  at  all ;  others,  on  the  contrary,  think 
that  nothing  can  be  too  good  for  them.  Ladies'  pets  are,  as 
a  rule,  worst  treated  of  all,  if  the  health  of  the  animal,  and 
not  the  fancy  of  the  mistress,  is  the  point  to  be  con- 
sidered. They  get  their  share  of  every  meal,  and  no 
exercise  after  it.  When  their  over-loaded  stomachs  at 
last  reject  further  additions,  their  appetites  are  coaxed 
with  every  delicacy,  until  at  last  the  poor  beasts  either 
go  to  the  dog  doctor,  or  perish  in  their  misery. 

Dogs  are  carnivorous  animals,  and  in  a  state  of  nature 
they  would  have  tohuntdown  their  prey  with  severe  exertion. 
It  should  also  be  remembered  that  their  digestive  system  is 
very  easily  deranged.  We  play  all  sorts  of  tricks  with  otir 
stomachs  ;  our  poor  dog  cannot.  Bad  feeding  is  the  sole 
cause  of  the  strong  and  offensive  odour  so  often  com- 
plained of  in  the  parlour  ;  a  properly  fed  dog  is  never  a 
nuisance  in  this  way.  When,  therefore,  a  few  simple  rules 
will  preserve  his  health  and  make  him  a  credit  to  all  con- 
cerned, it  is  surely  worth  while  to  observe  them. 

And  first,  a  dog  should  only  have  one  daily  allowance. 
It  may  be  added,  that  no  dog  can  possibly  remain  in 
health  if  present  at  every  meal  with  an  ordinary  family. 
The  head  of  the  house  may  forbid  anything  to  be  given 
him,  but  it  is  of  no  avail,  bits  will  find  their  way  to  his 
jaws.  Indeed,  what  else  is  he  there  for  ?  if  he  is  to  have 
nothing,  he  might  as  well  be  outside  the  door.  The  fact 
is,  if  he  is  in  the  room,  he  will  have  something  ;  who  can 
resist  the  poor  beggar's  pleading  eyes  ?  who  can  withstand 
that  touching  wag  of  his  tail,  as  he  goes  round  the  table  ? 
and  the  result  is,  that  while  each  thinks  he  has  given  him 
nothing  at  all,  the  dog  has  really  eaten  as  much  in  pro- 
portion as  any  one  at  the  table.  Probably,  too,  it  has  been 
chiefly  meat,  which  a  house  dog  should  very  rarely  have. 
No  :  if  our  dog  is  to  be  kept  in  health,  with  a  glossy  coat 
and  entirely  inoffensive  presence,  we  must  make  one  con- 
dition, that,  whatever  else  be  his  privileges,  he  be  rigor- 
ously excluded  at  meal-times. 

What,  then,  should  be  his  food  ?  That  will  depend  upon 
what  he  is.  For  house  dogs,  the  food  should  be  almost 
entirely  vegetable.  Oatmeal  is  good ;  so  is  coarse  biscuit, 
so  is  boiled  rice  soaked  in  gravy.  A  good  plan  is  to  let 
the  staple  food  consist  of  oatmeal,  or  biscuit,  and  once  a 
week,  or  even  once  a  fortnight,  to  boil  a  piece  of  liver  of 
the  size  the  dog  will  eat,  and  let  that  be  his  food  for  one 
day  only,  giving  him  rice  boiled  in  the  liquor  for  the  next. 
It  is  best  given  in  the  evening,  when  he  can  have  a  good 
sleep  after  to  digest  his  repast ;  but  whatever  time  is  fixed 
should  be  kept  with  the  utmost  punctuality.  At  first,  it  is 
best  for  a  few  days  to  put  more  than  enough  before  the 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


205 


animal,  and  watch  him  carefully.  For  a  while  you  will 
see  that  he  evidently  "means  business;"  steadily  and 
briskly  he  keeps  to  work,  giving  no  attention  to  anything 
but  his  food.  At  last  he  raises  himself,  and  either  walks 
away,  or,  if  he  again  stoops,  is  evidently  picking  over  or 
playing  with  his  food.  That  is  the  signal  to  stop,  and 
after  a  few  days,  if  he  is  full  grown,  you  will  know  what 
he  requires,  and  need  take  no  further  notice.  He  should, 
in  fact,  have  quite  enough  to  satisfy  his  hunger,  but  not 
more. 

Pointers  or  other  sporting  dogs  need  very  different  diet 
when  in  work.  They  should  have  meat  every  day,  and 
if  worked  hard  it  ought  to  be  raw,  while  the  animal  should 
have  as  much  as  it  will  eat  at  a  single  meal.  Pointers  are 
often  nndcr-fcd.  They  ought  to  be  put  on  full  working 
diet  at  least  a  fortnight  before  commencement,  in  order  to 
get  up  their  strength,  for  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose 
that  one  feed  of  meat  will  at  once  create  strength  for  the 
work  of  the  day.  When  the  season  is  over,  their  meat 
should  either  be  boiled,  or,  if  kept  about  the  house,  a 
partially  vegetable  diet  should  gradually  be  substituted. 

Horse  flesh,  unless  known  to  be  of  good  quality  and  fresh, 
should  never  be  given,  as  it  is  apt  to  cause  diseases  of  the 
skin.    Pot  liquor  also  should  never  be  given  to  dogs ;  it 
often  purges  them,  and,  if  salt,  sometimes  makes  the  hair 
come  off.     Paunch  is  the  best  animal 
food  for  a  house  dog,  and  may  be  given 
boiled  like  tripe.     Liver  must  be  used 
with  discretion,  as  it  is  a  laxative,  hence 
we  recommend  it  to  be  followed  by  rice 
with  the  liquor,  rice  having  a  contrary 
effect.     Sporting  dogs  do  best  with  the 
coarse  parts  of  beef,  or  liver ;  but  for  all 
dogs,  warm,  choice  meat  is  most  in- 
jurious:   it   causes   rank  odours,  foul 
teeth,  and  various  digestive    diseases. 
It  should   always    be   given  perfectly 
cold.      The  food   is   best  thrown   on 
the  bare  earth,  as  for  feeding  poultry. 
Dogs  thus   fed  always   preserve  their   teeth  whiter  and 
cleaner   than    those  to   whom  it  is    given  on  plates  or 
dishes.     Throw  the  dog's   allowance,   therefore,   on  the 
ground  ;  it  will  be  better  for  him,  and  he  will  enjoy  it 
more.    Every  possible  consideration  confirms  our  demand, 
that  dogs  of  all  kinds,  from  the  lady's  pet  to  the  mastiff, 
should  be  fed  out  of  cioors.     Keep  them  from  the  kitchen 
for  the  same  reason  as  you  do  from  the  dining-room. 

A  word  is  necessary  with  regard  to  bones.  A  dog 
should  not  have  more  than  at  most  one  a  day,  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  there  be  scarcely  any  meat  upon  it. 
Dogs  naturally  prefer  some  bones  and  parts  of  bones  to 
others.  Rib  and  marrow  bones  are  dangerous,  although 
the  latter  may  be  safely  given  if  split  open  before  thrown 
down,  as  dogs  will  seldom  gnaw  them  when  their  marrow 
is  gone.  P'ish  and  fowl  bones  are  often  dangerous,  and 
it  is  not  worth  while  to  chance  losing  a  valuable  dog  by 
bone-splinters  causing  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  or 
sticking  in  the  throat. 

So  much  for  your  dog's  diet  ;  if  you  would  have  him 
thrive,  you  must  also  see  that  he  has  exercise.  He  was 
made  to  be  a  most  active  animal,  and  it  is  cruel  to  keep 
him  always  chained  to  his  kennel.  Let  him  have  a  good 
walk  out  whenever  possible,  and  as  often  as  you  can,  let 
it  be  \i\'Ci\.  you;  you  will  then  be  identified  with  his  greatest 
pleasure,  and  his  queer  antics  will  sometimes  almost  make 
the  tears  come  into  your  eyes.  If  you  cannot  take  him 
yourself,  let  a  servant  take  him  on  an  errand,  or  send  him 
out  with  a  child.  Dogs  take  to  children  as  naturally  as 
ducks  to  the  water,  and  we  have  known  a  great  bull-terrier 
which  it  would  have  been  dangerous  for  any  stranger  to 
approach,  suffer  the  little  children  of  the  family — under 
three  years  old — to  sprawl  over  and  about  him  with  evident 
pride  Hod  ci\joynient.     To  keep  a  dog  always  chained,  of 


itself  sours  his  temper.  Let  him  see  the  world  :  use  him  to  a 

I  collar  and  chain,  and  keep  them  bright  with  constant  wear. 

j      Ladies'  pet  dogs,  more  than  almost  any  others,  suffer 

i  from  want  of  exercise — the  more  so  from  the  delicate  and 

I  constant  feeding  they  have  to  undergo — so  opposed  to  all 

;  dog  nature.     All  the  walking  the  wretched  creature  knows 

;  is  between  his  plate  of  meat  and  the  ottoman  which  forms 

I  his  bed.     What  wonder  if  he  snaps  and  snarls  at  every 

visitor  ?     His  fond  mistress  thinks  and  says,  "  Poor  Fido 

is  so  sensitive;"  the  real  fact  is,  the  unhappy  wretch  is 

always  suffering  from  indigestion.      Cut  him  down    (by 

degrees  of  course)  to  one  meal  a  day,  of  oatmeal,  or  rice 

and  gravy ;  send  the  servant  out  with  him  for  two  hours 

every  morning,  and  deny  any  scraps  ;  and  if  not  too  far 

gone,  he  will  in  a  month  be  a  different  creature. 

Washing. — If  the  animal  is  healthy  and  kept  as  we 
have  recommended,  washing  will  be  seldom  necessary. 
A  mere  cold  bath  is  well  enough  every  morning,  provided 
he  is  kept  active  afterwards  till  thoroughly  dry,  although 
in  very  warm  weather  this  precaution  is  not  so  necessary, 
at  other  seasons  he  should  on  no  account  be  allowed  to 
lie  down  or  go  to  the  fire  till  all  the  moisture  is  gone. 
Thus  treated,  a  mere  cold  bath  whenever  convenient  will 
do  him  good,  except  in  severe  weather.  Let  the  hair  be 
combed  and  brushed  every  day — always  waiting  to  remove 
mud  splashes  till  the  coat  is  dry — and 
the  animal,  if  in  health,  will  always 
look  respectable. 

General  Treatment.  —  Be  kind  to 
your  dog,  but  make  him  fee^  that  you 
are  his  master ;  be  gentle  and  con- 
siderate, but  always  firm.  Dogs  will 
presume,  if  allowed :  their  intellect  is 
undoubtedly  higher  than  that  of  most 
other  animals,  and  they  know  how 
to  take  advantage  of  weakness  or 
indecision.  We  hate  to  see  a  dog 
kicked  and  abused  ;  but  we  also  dislike 
to  see  him  pampered  and  spoilt.  Such 
dogs  are  never  so  fond  of  their  masters  as  those  which 
are  kept  in  proper  subjection. 

Also  study  your  dog's  character.  Be  sure  he  has  one. 
Me  knows  when  he  is  praised  ;  he  knows  when  he  is 
blamed  ;  he  is  quite  aware  when  he  is  even  ridiculed ! 
This  we  are  certain  of ;  indeed  ridicule — in  plain  words 
laughing  at  him — is  a  potent  agency  in  the  training  of 
a  dog  ;  no  dog  can  bear  to  be  laughed  at.  He  even  has 
a  sort  of  conscience.  Apart  from  mere  fear  of  punish- 
ment, he  knows  there  is  a  right  and  a  wrong  We  have 
often  marked  a  half-bred  retriever,  after  doing  what  he 
had  never  done  before,  and  therefore  never  been  punished 
for,  but  which  he  knew  to  be  wrong,  slink  in  with  his  tail 
between  his  legs,  the  very  picture  of  guilt. 

In  approaching  strange  dogs,  it  is  best  to  notice  the  eyes. 
The  highest  authority  we  are  acquainted  with  states, 
that  when  a  dog  is  angry  or  excited  the  pupil  is  always 
dilated,  and  that  with  ordinary  animals  this  sign  may  be 
implicitly  depended  on,  and  that  by  waiting  till  the  pupil 
is  again  contracted  they  may  be  approached  \yith  safety. 
Some  breeds,  however,  such  as  the  bull-terrier  and  St. 
Bernard,  are  of  very  uncertain  temper,  and  will  sometimes 
snap  without  any  warning.  With  all  such  it  is  well  to  be 
cautious  ;  but  when  approaches  become  necessar)',  cool- 
ness without  presumption  is  the  best  policy.  If  you  are 
afraid,  do  not  appear  to  be  so  if  you  can  help  it,  and  the 
probability  is  that  the  brute  will  submit.  But  it  is  best 
never  to  approach  a  large  strange  dog  till  you  know  his 
disposition  ;  we  have  known  sad  results  frcu||  want  of 
caution  in  this  respect.  Savage  dogs  are  bes^illed  out 
of  the  way.  But  they  are  the  exception;  the  rule  is 
affection  the  most  unbounded,  devotion  the  most  absolute, 
fidelity  the  most  inviolable,  obedience  the  most  perfect ; 
and  all  this,  if  you  will,  you  may  have  in  your  dog. 


2o6 


INMATES  OF  THE  HOUSE.— LEGAL. 


INMATES   OF   THE   HOUSE.— LEGAL. 

V. — RATES  AND  TAXES   {continwcd). 

In  the  last  paper  on  this  subject,  it  was  stated  that 
payment  of  rates  conferred  political  rights,  which  would 
be  described  under  the  title  of  Rights  of  Citizenship.  It 
is  found  more  convenient,  however,  to  describe  the  poli- 
tical rights  so  conferred  in  a  second  paper  on  rates  and 
taxes.  Before  giving  an  account  of  the  compound  house- 
holder, it  may  be  as  well  to  mention  one  or  two  points 
omitted  from  the  last  paper. 

Unions. — For  the  purpose  of  relief  of  the  poor,  as  well 
as  of  concentration  of  general  parochial  machinery,  it  has 
been  deemed  advisable  by  the  Legislature  to  authorise 
the  Poor  Law  Commissioners  to  compel  parishes  to  com- 
bine, and  to  exercise  collectively  the  functions  imposed 
upon  them  by  acts  of  Parliament.  Parishes  are  thus 
formed  into  unions,  under  the  government  of  a  single 
board  of  guardians  of  the  poor,  to  be  elected  by  the 
owners  and  ratepayers  of  the  component  parishes.  The 
guardians  are  chosen  by  the  individual  parishes,  in 
number  according  to  the  comparative  importance  of  the 
parish  with  the  other  parishes  composing  the  union ;  the 
united  parishes  have  a  common  workhouse,  provided  and 
maintained  at  the  common  expense ;  but  each  parish 
remains  (unless  expressly  provided  against)  separately 
chargeable  with  the  expense  of  its  own  poor,  whether 
relieved  in  or  out  of  the  common  workhouse.  Where 
such  an  arrangement  exists,  the  union  board  have  to 
determine  what  funds  are  necessary  for  the  support  of  the 
poor  of  the  union  district,  and  to  assign  to  individual 
parishes  their  relative  quota  of  contribution.  The  quota 
being  assigned,  it  is  for  the  parish  concerned  to  say  by 
what  rate  or  other  means  the  amount  shall  be  raised.  It 
is  even  competent  to  such  parish  to  protest  against  the 
aiTiount  laid  upon  it,  and  to  appeal  from  the  decision  of 
the  board  to  that  of  the  justices,  or  the  Commissioners  of 
the  Poor  Law  Board.  The  amount  of  contribution  being 
ascertained  by  consent,  or  some  competent  authority,  it  is 
for  the  parish  in  vestry  assembled  to  say  how  it  shall  be 
defrayed.  But  powers  are  given  by  act  of  Parliament  to 
unions  to  go  farther  than  this  towards  consolidation  of 
machinery  for  relief  of  the  poor,  and  the  component 
parishes  of  a  union  may,  under  sanction  of  the  Poor  Law 
Commissioners,  by  their  own  act,  be  united  for  the  purposes 
of  settlement  and  of  rating,  as  well  as  that  of  relief  and 
management,  so  as  to  include  the  united  parishes  in  one 
local  government.  It  docs  not  follow,  however,  that 
because  parishes  are  united  for  poor  relief  purposes,  they 
are  therefore  united  for  other  purposes  as  well.  The  taxes 
necessary  for  local  management,  and  the  administration 
of  those  taxes,  may  still  be  in  the  hands  of  representatives 
from  the  individual  parishes  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is 
competent  to  the  members  of  a  union  to  combine  for  these 
objects  also. 

Persons  chargeable  to  Parishes. — It  is  not  possible  in 
the  limits  permissible  to  an  article  of  this  kind  to  enter 
upon  a  description  of  the  complicated  law  of  settlement — - 
that  is,  to  state  the  circumstances  under  which  the  original 
right  to  be  relieved  by  the  parish  in  which  one  was  born, 
or  apprenticed,  or  to  which  one  has  paid  taxes,  may  be 
modified  or  lost.  It  may  be  as  well  to  state,  however,  that 
the  parish  is  not  bound  to  relieve  any  who  have  certain 
relations  competent,  or  by  law  compellable,  to  maintain 
them.  The  relations  so  compellable  are — father  and 
grandfather,  mother  and  grandmother,  and  children,  of 
the  pauper.  These  are  liable  to  maintain  him  at  such 
rate  as  n^y  be  assessed  by  the  justices  at  general,  quarter, 
or  petty  wssions  ;  and  sums  so  assessed  are  recoverable 
in  summary  process  before  two  justices  of  the  peace,  and 
may  be  levied  by  distress  and  sale  of  the  goods  and 
chattels  of  the  offenders.  Persons  able  to  work  and 
refusing  to  do  so,  so  that  they  and  theirs  become  charge- 


able to  a  parish,  may  be  punished  as  idle  and  disorderly 
persons,  Ijy  imprisonment  for  a  month  with  hard  labour 
in  a  house  of  correction.  Paupers  set  to  work  and 
refusing  to  do  it,  are  punishable  by  committal  to  gaol 
with  hard  labour. 

Compound  Householders. — The  class  of  persons  thus 
named  came  into  prominent  notice  during  the  debates  on 
the  Reform  Act  of  1867.  They  came  into  existence  (in 
regard  to  the  payment  of  rates)  on  the  passing  of  the 
Small  Tenements  Act  of  1850.  Shortly  they  may  be 
described  thus  : — Holders  of  small  tenements,  the  rents  of 
which  are  usually  collected  at  less  intervals  than  quarterly, 
being  liable,  as  other  people,  to  the  payment  of  parochial 
rates,  it  was  frequently  found  that  they  neglected  or  were 
unable  to  pay,  and  that  parishes  lost  large  sums  of  money^ 
which  had  to  be  defrayed  by  the  less  needy  householders. 
Even  where  the  rates  on  these  small  holdings  were  paid, 
the  expense  of  realising  made  it  very  questionable  whether 
the  parish  gained  or  lost,  and  the  matter  became  a  serious 
one  for  all  ratepaying  districts.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was 
a  serious  thing  for  a  small  tenement-holder,  with  perhaps 
just  sufficient  means  to  pay  his  way,  to  be  called  upon  at 
certain  intervals  to  pay  a  sum  for  rates  equivalent,  it 
might  be,  to  a  whole  week's  wages.  By  the  Small 
Tenements  Act  of  1850,  small  tenants  were  enabled  to 
compound  for  rates  in  the  following  manner — viz.,  the 
landlord  undertook  to  settle  with  the  parish  for  rates 
payable  by  his  small  tenements,  and  was  allowed  for  his 
trouble  in  recouping  himself  by  extra  rent,  a  commission 
in  the  shape  of  an  abatement,  which  often  ran  to  twenty- 
five  per  cent.  The  tenants  paid  rates  without  feeling  much 
of  this  weight,  and  became  entitled  to  the  advantages 
secured  by  ratepaying.  Their  names,  however,  did  not 
appear  on  the  rate  register.  This  arrangement  worked 
well  enough  for  both  parties — the  small  tenement-holder 
and  the  parish — until  Mr.  Disraeli  brought  in  his  Reform 
Bill.  The  principle  upon  which  that  bill  was  based  was 
alleged  to  be  that  a  share  in  the  government  should  be 
given  only  to  those  who  shared  in  the  burdens  of 
government,  and  in  carrying  out  this  principle  it  seemed 
convenient  to  take  payment  of  rates  as  a  proof  of  con- 
tribution towards  the  general  charges.  Payment  of  rates 
accordingly  was  made  the  condition  of  receiving  a  vote  at 
elections  for  Parliament.  But  as  soon  as  this  principle  was 
adopted,  the  question  arose,  "  Are  compound  householders 
entitled  to  vote  ?  They  cannot  be  said  to  pay  rates  in  the 
strict  acceptation  of  the  words,  and  their  names  are  not 
on  the  rate  register,"  which  was  ordered  to  be  the  basis  o-f 
the  list  of  voters  for  electoral  purposes.  Compound  house- 
holders were  practically  disfranchised,  or  rather,  being 
enfranchised,  according  to  the  principle  of  the  bill,  they 
were  not  permitted  to  exercise  their  rights  owing  to 
defective  machinery  for  carrying  out  the  principle.  The 
Liberal  party  would  not  consent  to  the  omission  from  the 
franchise  of  persons  in  the  position  of  compounders,  and 
the  Reform  Bill  was  in  peril,  when  a  proposition  was 
made  to  abolish  compound  householders,  and  to  make 
everybody  pay  the  rates  chargeable  upon  his  holding. 
Mr.  Disraeli  embodied  the  suggestion  in  his  bill,  carried 
it  with  the  Reform  Act  of  1 867,  and  was  supposed  to  have 
established  household  suffrage  in  its  widest  extent.  But  it 
was  soon  found  that  small  tenement  holders  were  no  better 
able  to  pay  rates  in  1867  than  they  had  been  before  1850  ; 
that  landlords  would  not  lower  rents  in  proportion  to  the 
relief  they  themselves  had  from  rate-paying  ;  and  that  the 
compound  householder  with  his  name  on  the  register,  was 
practically  as  much  excluded  from  voting,  his  rates  being 
unpaid,  as  he  was  before  his  name  was  enrolled.  In 
Birmingham  alone  sixteen  thousand  summonses  were 
taken  out  for  non-payment  of  rates,  the  parishes  suffered, 
and  the  small  householders  were  disfranchised. 

In  these  circumstances  Mr.  Gladstone's  Government 
came  into  power,  and,  unwilling  to  re-open  the  question  of 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


207 


principle  on  which  the  Reform  Bill  had  been  based,  but 
determined  to  admit  the  small  holder  to  the  franchise, 
introduced  a  bill  authorising  the  landlord  to  pay  rates  for 
his  tenants,  receiving  a  commission  from  the  parish  for 
doing  so.  The  tenants'  names  remained  on  the  register 
as  paying  rates,  though  the  money  was  actually  paid  by 
the  landlord,  who,  on  the  other  hand,  was  empowered  to 
receive  by  instalments  what  he  had  paid  by  small  addi- 
tions to  the  weekly  rent.  By  this  means  the  compound 
householder  was  virtually  restored  without  being  deprived 
of  his  vote. 

On  this  basis  the  law  now  rests,  payinent  of  rates  giving 
a  title  to_  vote  for  members  of  Parliament, 

Annexed  is  a  resuine  of  the  chief  provisions  of  the  im- 
portant act  of  Parliament  (32  and  33  Victoria,  c.  41) 
which  restored  the  compound  householder  to  existence, 
and  gave  him  safeguards  for  his  political  rights. 

1.  Occupiers  of  tenements  let  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
three  months,  may  deduct  the  poor  rate  paid  by  them 
from  their  rents. 

2.  No  such  occupier  to  be  obliged  to  pay  at  one  time,  or 
within  four  weeks,  a  greater  amount  than  a  quarter's  rate. 

3.  In  case  the  rateable  value  of  the  tenement  do  not, 
in  London,  exceed  £10  ;  or  within  the  borough  of  Liver- 
pool, ^13;  or  within  tl>e  city  of  Manchester  or  the  borough 
of  Birmingham,  ^10  ;  or  elsewhere,  ^8,  the  owner  may 
agree  with  the  overseers,  subject  to  the  vestry,  t®  pay  the 
rates  for  a  year  certain,  and  whether  the  tenement  be  oc- 
cupied or  not,  and  to  receive  a  commission  of  not  more 
than  twenty-five  per  cent. 

4.  Vestries  may  order  the  owner  to  be  rated,  instead  of 
the  occupier,  abating  a  certain  amount  of  the  rate. 

5.  Owners  omitting  to  pay  rates  due  on  the  5th  Jaftuary, 
before  the  5th  June,  to  lose  commission. 

6.  Where  owners  omit  to  pay  rates,  the  occupiers  paying 
the  same  may  deduct  the  amount  from  the  rent. 

7.  Owners  agreeing  to  pay  rates,  to  give  lists  of  occupiers 
when  required  to  do  so,  under  penalty  of  £1. 

8.  Occupiers  to  receive  notice  of  rates  being  in  arrear, 
that  they  may  protect  themselves. 

9.  Rates  unpaid  by  owner  may  be  recovered  by  distraint 
on  occupier's  goods,  but  no  distress  to  be  put  in  until  de- 
fault after  notice  to  occupier,  and  no  greater  levy  to  be 
made  than  for  the  amount  of  rent  due.  The  occupier 
buying  out  a  distress,  to  be  free  to  abate  amount  from 
his  rent. 

TABLE    OF    DUTIES    CHARGEABLE    UPON    INSURANCE 
POLICIES    AND    LEGACIES. 

Insurance  Policies — Life : —  £    s.  d. 

For  any  sum  not  exceeding  ;,^25  ...         ...         ...     o    o     3 

Exceeding  ;^25  and  not  above  ;^50O,  for  every  ;^5o 

and  any  fractional  part  of  jf 50      ...         ...         ...     o    o     6 

Exceeding  ^500  and  not  exceeding  £1,000^  for  every 

;^loo  and  any  fractional  part  of  ;if  100     ...         ...010 

Exceetling  ;(^i,ooo,  for  every  ;^i,ooo  and  any  frac- 
tional part  of  ;if  1,000  ...         ...         ...         ...     I   10    o 

Accidental  Death,  or  Personal  Injury,  or  Insurance 
from  Loss  or  Damage  upon  Property  of  any  kind, 
when  the  premium  shall  not  exceed  2s.  6d.         ...     o    o     i 

Exceeding  2s.  6d.  and  not  exceeding  5s o    o    3 

Exceeding  53.,  and  for  every  5s.  or  fractional  part 
of  5s.  •         003 

Sea — Upon  any  voyage  whatever,  for  every  full  sum 
of  ;^ioo,  and  for  any  fractional  part  of  £100, 
thereby  insured        003 

For  every  policy  for  Time,  for  every  ;^loo,  and  any 
fractional  part  of  ;/^ioo  thereby  insured,  for  any 
time  not  exceeding  six  months      ...         ...         ...     o     o     3 

Exceetling  six  and  not  exceeding  twelve  months    ...     o    o     6 

Legacy  attd  Succession  Duty  : — 

Lineal  issue  or  lineal  ancestor ;f  I  per  cent. 

Brothers   and   sisters   of  the  predecessor    and  their 

descendants             ;,f  3  per  cent 


Brothers  and  sisters  of  the  father  and  mother  of  the 

predecessor,  and  t,hcir  descendants  ...  £^  per  cent 

Brothers  and  sisters  of  a  grandfather  or  grandmother 

of  the  predecessor,  and  their  descendants  £6  per  cent. 

Any  other  person  ;i;  10  per  cent- 

Legacy  to  husband  or  wife  exempt. 


HINTS   TO   LETTER-WRITERS.— I IL 

The  majority  of  people  are  not  often  required  to  wWte 
letters  to  persons  of  rank  and  title  ;  but  all  who  have  to 
do  it  should  know  the  forms  which  are  used  in  polite 
society.  The  nobility  and  others  in  high  official  positions 
are  addressed  in  a  style  which  is  peculiar  to  them,  and 
any  deviation  from  the  recognised  phraseology  is  con- 
sidered unbecoming.  Everything  of  the  nature  of  a  letter 
addressed  to  exalted  personages  requires  attention  in  four 
particulars : — 

1.  The  address,  commonly  so  called. 

2.  The  heading,  or  what  answers  to  "  Sir,"  "  Madam," 
&c.,  in  ordinary  letters. 

3.  The  mode  of  speaking  to  the  person  in  the  body  of 
the  letter ;  or  the  personal  address. 

4.  The  conclusion,  or  subscription. 

Attention  to  these  details  is  important,  and  we  proceed 
to  give  such  information  as  will  enable  any  one  to  fulfil 
the  principal  requirements. 

The  Queen.  Address :  "  To  the  Queen's  Most  Ex- 
cellent Majesty;"  or,  "To  Her  Most  Gracious  Majesty 
Queen  Victoria."  Heading:  "Madam;"  or,  "May  it 
please  your  Majesty."  Personal  Address :  "Your  Ma- 
jesty ;"  or,  "  Madam."  Conclusion  :  "  I  remain,  with  the 
profoundest  veneration,  your  Majesty's  most  faithful 
subject  and  dutiful  servant." 

The  Prince  of  Wales.  Address:  "To  His  Royal 
Highness  the  Prince  of  Wales."  Heading:  "Sir;"  or, 
"May  it  please  your  Royal  Highness."  Personal  Address  : 
"Your  Royal  Highness."  Conclusion:  "I  remain,  with 
the  greatest  respect.  Sir,  your  Royal  Highness's  most 
dutiful  and  most  obedient  humble  servant." 

Other  princes  and  royal  dukes  require  similar  forms. 
For  the  Princess  of  Wales  the  forms  are)  the  same,  only 
"  Princess"  is  put  for  "  Prince,"  and  "  Madam"  for  "  Sir.'* 
In  addressing  other  princesses  and  royal  duchesses,  also, 
the  same  rules  arc  to  be  observed,  except  that  in  the  con- 
clusion for  "  Most  dutiful  and  most  obedient  humble 
servant,"  we  say,  "  Most  obedient  and  devoted  humble 
servant." 

Archbishop.  Address:  "To  the  Most  Reverend 
Father  in  God,  by  Divine  Providence  Lord  Archbishop 

of ."     Thie  however  applies   to   official  documents; 

letters  are  addressed,  "  To  His  Grace  the  Lord  Arch- 
bishop of ."  Heading:  "  My  Lord  Archbishop."   The 

words,  "  by  Divine  Providence,"  are  only  used  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  to  othor  Archbishops  we  say, 
"  by  Divine  permission,"  and  ftic  same  to  suffragan 
bishops.  The  Archbishop  of  Armagh  is  styled,  "His 
Grace  the  Lord  Primate  of  all  Ireland."  In  the  body  of 
a  letter,  and  in  conversation,  an  archbishop  is  addressed 
as  "  Your  Grace."  The  wife  of  an  archbishop  is  addressed 
as  any  other  untitled  lady. 

Duke.     Address  :  "  To  His  Grace  the  Duke  of ." 

Heading  :  "  My  Lord  Duke."  Personal  Address  :  "Your 
Grace.""  Conclusion  :  "  I  have  the  honour  to  be,  my 
Lord  Duke,  your  Grace's  most  devoted  and  obedient 
servant." 

For  a  duchess  the  address  and  personal  address  cor- 
respond \rith  those  for  a  duke  ;  the  heading  is  "  Kfedam," 
and  the  conclusion,  "  I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Madam, 
your  Grace's  most  obedient  and  most  humble  servant." 
A  duke's  younger  son  is  addressed  as  "The  Lord  William 
; '  or,  "  the  Right  Honourable  Lord  William .' 


2o8 


THE     HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 


Heading:  "My  Lord."     Personal  Address :  "Your  Lord- 
ship."    Conclusion  :  "  I  have  the  honour  to  be,  my  Lord, 
your  Lordship's  most  humble  and  obedient  servant." 
The  wife  of  a  duke's  younger  son  is  styled  "  The  Lady 

William ,"  and  addressed  as  "  Madam"  at  the  head 

of  a  letter,  but  as  "  Your  Ladyship"  in  the  body  of  a 
letter.  The  conclusion,  in  this  case,  corresponds  with 
that  of  a  letter  to  her  husband  ;  of  course  writing  "My 
Lady,"  and  "Your  Ladyship's,"  for  "My  Lord"  and 
"  Your  Lordship's." 

The  daughter  of  a  duke  is  also  addressed  by  her 
Christian  name,  "The  Lady  Augusta;"  or, more  formally, 
■"The  Right  Honourable  Lady  Augusta."  She  is  styled 
■"Madam,"  in  the  heading,  and  "Your  Ladyship"  in  the 
"body  of  a  letter.  The  conclusion  must  be,  "  I  have  the 
honour  to  be.  Madam,  your  Ladyship's  most  humble  and 
most  obedient  servant." 

Bishop.     Address:  "The  Right  Reverend  Father  in 

God,  John,  by  Divine  permission,  Lord  Bishop  of ." 

This  is  for  formal  documents  ;  letters  have,  "To  the  Right 

Rev.  the  Lord  Bishop  of ."     Heading:   "  My  Lord." 

Personal  Address:  "Your  Lordship."  Coticliision:  "I 
have  the  honour  to  be,  my  Lord,  your  Lordship's  most 
humble  and  obedient  servant."  The  wife  of  a  bishop  is 
addressed  as  an  untitled  lady. 

Marquess.      Address:  "  To  the  most  Honourable  the 

Marquess   of  ."     Heading:  "My   Lord    Marquess." 

Personal  Address:  "Your  Lordship."  Conclusion:  "  I 
have  the  honour  to  be,  my  Lord  Marquess,  your  Lord- 
ship's most  obedient,"  &c. 

Marchioness.    Address:  "To  the  most  Honourable 

the  Marchioness  of ."      Headitig:    "Madam;"    or, 

from  persons  in  ordinary  stations,  "  My  Lady  ;"  so  also  in 
the  body  of  a  letter.  Conclusion:  "  I  have  the  honour  to 
be,  Madam,  your  Ladyship's  most  obedient,"  &c. 

The  younger  sons  and  the  daughters  of  a  Marquess,  are 
addressed  as  those  of  a  duke. 

Earl.  Address:  "To  the  Right  Honourable  the  Earl 

of  ."     Heading:  "My    Lord."      Personal  Address: 

*'  Your  Lordship."  Conclusion :  "  I  have  the  honour  to 
be,  my  Lord,  your  Lordship's  most  obedient  and  very 
humble  servant." 

Viscount.  "To  the  Right  Honourable  Lord  Viscount 
,"     In  other  respects  as  an  earl. 

Baron,     "  To  the  Right  Honourable  Lord ,"     In 

other  respects  as  an  earl, 

A  countess  is  addressed  as  earl,  a  viscountess  as  a 
viscount,  and  a  baroness  as  a  baron,  only  changing  the 
titles  into  their  feminine  equivalents. 

The  son  of  a  baron,  a  viscount,  or  an  earl,  is  addressed 
as  "  The  Honourable,"  and  spoken  to  as  "  Sir."  The 
daughter  of  a  baron,  or  a  viscount,  is  likewise  addressed 
as  "  The  Honourable,"  and  spoken  to  as  "  Madam."  In 
concluding  letters  to  these,  therefore,  "  Sir,"  or,  "  Madam," 
is  a  sufficient  title.  "  I  am,  Sir  (or  Madam),  your  very 
obedient,"  &c.  An  earl's  daughter  is  addressed  as  a 
duke's  daughter. 

Baronet.      Address:    "To    Sir    ,    Bart," 

Heading:  and  throughout  the  letter,  "  Sir."  Conclusion: 
"  I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Sir,  your  most  humble  and 
obedient  servant." 

Knight.       Address :    "  To     Sir •    ,    Knt." 

Heading,  and  throughout,  as  in  writing  to  a  baronet. 
The  letters  "  Knt."  may  be  omitted  after  the  name  in  the 
address,  and  if  the  person  is  a  Knight  of  the  Garter, 
Thistle,  &c.,  the  proper  initials  are  appended  to  his  name  : 
"  K.G.,"  "  K.T.,"  "  G.C.B.,"  &c.,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  wife  of  a  baronet,  or  of  a  knight,  is  styled  "  Lady," 
and  letters  are  addressed  "  To  Lady  Johnson,"  or  what- 
ever her  husband's  name  is.  She  is  addressed  as 
"  Madam  "  in  all  parts  of  a  letter. 

Maids  of  Honour.  Address  :  "  To  the  Honourable 
Miss ,"    Headiftsr:  '■'yizAzxo.y 


Privy    Councillors.      Address :    "  To  the   Right 

Honourable  ,"    The  style  of  the  Heading  is  to  be 

varied  according  to  the  rank  of  the  individual.  The  title 
of  Right  Honourable  is  possessed  by  all  Privy  Councillors, 
the  Lord  Mayors  of  London,  York,  and  Dublin,  and  the 
Lord  Provost  of  Edinburgh, 


THE  HOUSEHOLD  MECHANIC. 
curtains. 
Akin,  and  properly  belonging  to,  the  chapter  on  blinds, 
would  be  the  very  little  machinery  which  can  appear  in 
connection  with  curtains.  The  ordinary  window  curtain 
is  suspended  by  hooks  to  rings,  which  slide  backwards 
and  forwards  on  a  pole  or  rod  fixed  at  the  top  of  the 
window.  This  pole  is  of  either  wood  or  metal,  generally 
brass  ;  and  if  of  the  former  material,  its  diameter  should 
be  slightly  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  internal  diameter 
of  the  rings,  than  if  of  metal,  because  the  friction  is 
greater,  and  a  more  oblique  position  is  necessary  to  get 
the  rings  to  slide  easily.  In  this  arrangement,  or  rather 
want  of  arrangement,  the  curtain  has  to  be  dragged 
across  the  window  from  the  ground,  and  the  rings  on  the 
pole  follow  in  a  jerky  and  unsatisfactory  manner,  often 


Fig,  69. 


failing  to  meet  exactly  at  the  top  ;  indeed, 
the  action  beginning  at  the  wrong  end  must 
necessarily  be  inconvenient.  We  will  only, 
however,  just  explain  the  proper  stringing  of 
what  are  known  as  French  rods,  and  leave 
the  mere  description  to  speak  for  itself. 
These  rods  are  much  thinner  than  an  ordi- 
nary curtain  pole,  about  three-quarters  or  one 
inch  being  the  outside  size,  and  they  are 
concealed  from  view  by  a  cornice  and  fringe 
which  hangs  down  over  the  curtain.  They 
are  usually  of  metal,  but  may  be  of  wood 
with  brass  ends  for  short  lengths  and  light 
curtains.  Fig.  69  shows  the  arrangement  for 
a  pair  of  curtains  to  one  window,  a  is  a  rod 
terminating  at  the  end  with  a  single  sheave 
or  pulley  B,  and  the  other  by  the  pulleys  C  and 
D,  the  ends  of  the  pulley-boxes  being  pro- 
longed into  eyes,  E  and  F,  by  which  the  rod  is  supported  to 
the  cornice-board.  The  rings  must  be  of  brass,  and  just 
large  enough  to  slip  over  B,  and  are  strung  on  and  fastened 
to  the  curtains  in  the  ordinary  way.  We  show  five  rings 
to  each  curtain,  and  in  the  position  in  the  figure,  each 
curtain  would  be  about  three-quarters  drawn.  A  length 
of  blind-cord  is  passed  over  D  and  over  B,  returning 
through  all  the  rings  to  C  and  down  the  tassel  I.  The 
first  or  inner  ring  H,  if  the  right  curtain,  is  fastened  to  the 
upper  cord  at  H,  and  the  first  of  the  left  curtain  to  the 
lower  cord  at  G.  Now  it  is  obvious  that  as  G  and  H  are 
the  opposite  sides  of  a  practically  endless  cord,  any 
motion  of  either  will  pull  the  other  the  reverse  way,  so 
that  by  pulling  the  tassel  I,  we  shall  open  both  curtains 
simultaneously ;  or,  vice  versa,  should  J  be  pulled.  In 
the  cut,  we  leave  out  the  curtain  altogether,  to  prevent 
confusion.  In  some  cases  it  is  preferred  to  use  two  rods 
side  by  side,  in  order  that  the  curtains  may  overlap 
slightly,  and  so  shut  closer  ;  but  the  principle  of  stringing 
is  precisely  the  same  as  in  the  case  we  describe.  If  pre- 
ferred, the  line  may  be  carried  round  a  pulley,  instead  of 
terminating  in  the  tassels  I  J  ;  but  this  difference  is  quite 
immaterial.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  all  cases,  that 
the  simpler  our  arrangement  of  cords  can  possibly  be  made, 
the  less  the  liability  to  get  out  of  order. 


CASSELL'S  HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


209 


COTTAGE  FARMING. 

III. — GRASSES  ADAPTED   FOR  A   COTTAGE  FARM. 

(Continued  f I om  fagt  154.) 

The  fescue  grasses  are  another  tribe  relished  by  cattle, 
and  abundantly  estabUshed  in  all  our  meadows  and  per- 
manent pastures.  In  moist  weather,  or  with  a  naturally 
moist  bottom,  barley  fescue  {Festuca  hordeiformis)  grows 
abundantly  in  richly-manured  sandy  soils.  Sheep's  fescue 
{Festuca  ovind)  and  hard  fescue  {Festuca  duriusciild)  also 
produce  well  on  sandy  soils,  but  of  a  heavier  loamy  cha- 
racter. The  former  is  best  for  pasturage,  the  latter  grows 
freely  both  on  meadow  and  pasture.  Red  fescue  {Festuca 
rubra)  is  also  a  light  sandy  loam  grass,  growing  with 
sheep's  fescue  in  permanent  pasture.  Meadow  fescue 
{Festuca  pratensis)  is  an  excellent  hay  and  pasture  grass 
on  mossy  and  black  soils,  but  grows  freely,  also,  on  rich 
moist  soils.  The  variety  known  as  tall  fescue  grass,  the 
Andes  grass  of  America  {Festuca  elatior),  is  one  of  our 
best  hay  and  pasture  grasses  on  rich  black  loams, 
rising  quickly  iri  pastures  after  it  has  been  cropped 
by  cattle.  Floating 
fescue  {Festuca  flui- 
tans)  is  less  pro- 
ductive than  Poa 
aquatica,  but  similar 
in  character,  the  two 
generally  growing 
together  in  marshy 
land  on  the  edge 
of  water-courses.  Of 
the  oat  and  brome 
grasses,  other  varie- 
ties of  each  are  abun- 
dant in  woody  and 
shaded  pastures,  and 
also  in  open  ground  ; 
but,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  downy  oat 
grass,  which  yields 
good  pasture  on  open 
ground,when  cropped 
close  and  kept  from 
seeding,  the  others 
should  only  be  grown  in  woods,  or  under  trees  in  pastures. 

"  The  couch  grasses  grow  abundantly  everywhere,"  it  is 
said  ;  but  the  popular  credence  is  founded  on  the  large 
family  of  them,  every  soil  having  its  own  peculiar  kind  of 
couch  grass.  In  some  places  they  are  termed  twitch 
grasses.  The  wheat-grass  {Triticum  repens),  when  in 
flower,  has  some  resemblance  to  rye-grass  ;  but  when 
closely  examined  the  two  are  easily  distinguished,  espe- 
cially their  roots.  But  their  seeds  are  not  so  easily 
distinguished,  and  this  accounts  for  the  presence  of  this 
couch  grass  in  many  meadows  and  pastures.  The  bent 
grasses  {Agrostis)  are  more  numerous,  growing  freely  in 
some  cold  clay  and  poor  sandy  soils,  where  hardly  any 
other  grass  can  live.  The  firvin  grass  {Agrostis  stolonifera) 
grows  abundantly  on  some  of  the  bog-meadows  of  Ireland, 
where  its  roots  give  a  firmness  and  stability  to  the  surface 
of  bogs  very  soft  below,  that  enables  it  to  carry  carts  and 
horses,  which  otherwise  it  would  not  do.  These  couch 
grasses  also  improve  the  mechanical  texture  of  soil 
which  is  either  marshy  or  sand.  But  in  rich  meadow  and 
pasture  lands  it  is  otherwise,  for  their  creeping  roots 
accumulate,  both  in  the  soil  and  on  the  surface,  producing 
an  amount  of  effete  vegetable  matter  in  which  they  them- 
selves can  neither  grow  luxuriantly  nor  in  a  healthy  state, 
while  they  kill  out  the  finer  grasses.  From  rich  soils, 
therefore,  all  the  couch  grasses  should  be  eradicated,  and 
their  place  filled  by  others. 

When  the  meadows  and  pastures  are  in  a  healthy, 
thriving  state,  clover  is  also  found  growing  freely.   Alsike, 

VOL.  I. 


HAVSTACK   ANL>    KICK   CLOTH 


or  hybrid   clover  {Trifolium  hybridum)   appears  getting 
into  favour,  producing  largely  on  most  soils.     Red  clover 
{Tri/olium  pratense),\\'\ih.  Dutch  or  white  clover  (y>'//i?//«»« 
repens),  are  also  adapted  for  a  variety  of  soils.     Zig-zag 
clover  {Trifolium  mediu7n),  and  bird's-foot  clover  (Lotus 
I  corniculatus)^    cow-clover   {Iri/oliutn   pratense-perenne), 
j  and    trefoil  {Medicago    lupjilina),   and  yarrow   {Achillea 
j  millcfolid)  are  also  less  or  more  abundant  in  good  pastures. 
i  Sainfoin  is  natural  in  chalky  soils.  When  the  soil  suits  them 
!  they  all  keep  a  firm  hold  of  it,  but  cattle  are  apt  to  pull 
j  them  up,  especially  sheep,  when  the  bite  becomes  short. 
I      The  plantain,  or  rib  grass  {Plantago),  also  grows  plen- 
tifully in  some  permanent  meadows  ;  and  even  the  ribbed 
leaves  grow   erect   with   the    other    grasses.      They  are 
slightly  blanched  and  tender,  and  greedily  eaten  by  milch 
cows,  and  most    kinds    of  stock  ;   but   when   the  leaves 
spread  out  in  the  sun  they  become  more  tough,  and  are 
not  so  well  liked,  while  the  plant  itself  is  liable  to  shoot 
and  run  to  seed. 

The  grasses  with  which  our  meadows  and  pastures  are 
stocked,  require  a  daily  supply  of  food  during  the  period  of 

their  growth,  and  this 
they  abstract  from 
the  soil  and  atmos- 
phere. When  once  the 
land  is  put  into  a  pro- 
per state  of  fertility, 
the  yield  is  very  re- 
munerating, and  the 
duty  of  the  cottager 
afterwards  is  to  keep 
it  in  this  productive 
state  by  an  applica- 
tion of  manure.  It 
may  not  require  much 
to  maintain  some 
naturally  rich  soils  at 
the  highest  degree  of 
productiveness,  but  if 
this  little  is  not  sup- 
plied, the  richest  mea- 
dows and  pastures 
will  lose  less  or  more 
of  their  fertility  by 
every  crop  removed,  whether  hay  or  pasture-grass  ;  and  if 
neglected  one  season,  the  loss  the  second  will  be  greater 
than  that  sustained  the  first.  It  follows  that  the  whole  of 
the  land  should  be  manured  with  such  manure  as  it  re- 
quires— the  meadow  land  after  every  cutting  for  hay  or 
soiling,  and  pasture  once  at  least  every  year,  with  occa- 
sional waterings  during  the  dry  weather  of  summer. 

MANURES. 

The  next  subject  to  be  considered  is  the  composition 
and  preparation  of  the  various  kinds  of  ordinary  manures 
and  other  compounds  useful  for  the  fertilising  of  grass 
land.  Into  the  composition  of  artificial  manures  we  do 
not  at  present  intend  to  enter,  though  there  is  no  doubt 
that  their  application  to  grass  lands  is  found  of  the 
greatest  benefit. 

Composts  may  be  defined  as  refuse  of  every  kind  that 
contains  organic  and  inorganic  food  suitable  to  the  wants 
of  tlie  grasses  grown,  and  in  a  state  fit  for  being  applied 
to  meadow  or  pasture  land.  Thus,  the  scrapings  of  the 
roadway,  the  parings  and  cleanings  of  the  open  ditches 
on  either  side,  the  cleanings  of  other  open  ditches,  the 
cuttings  of  hedges,  weeds,  and  vegetable  mould,  ashes, 
and  all  sorts  of  gatherings  from  the  cottage  and  out- 
buildings, when  collected  together  in  a  heap,  and  allowed 
to  lie  until  sufficiently  rotten  for  application,  form  com- 
post. If  mixed  with  the  manure  from  the  stables,  cow- 
house, piggeries,  and  poultry-house,  and  allowed  to  lie 
until  the  whole  is  thoroughly  incorporated  and   rotten, 

U 


2IO 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 


the  compound  thus  made  is  termed  a  rich  compost.  But 
with  wall  and  wire  fences,  the  land  and  roads  drained 
and  properly  kept,  open  ditches  filled  in,  and  no  weeds 
grown,  as  there  should  be  none,  very  little  compost  of 
this  kind  can  be  made  upon  a  cottage  farm  on  this  old 
plan,  the  collection  being  too  small  to  form  a  compost 
hill.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  utilise  all  such  gatherings 
that  can  possibly  be  collected  otherwise,  as  follows  :- 

Farm-yard  Manure.— The  long  manure  from  the  stable, 
cow-house,  and  piggeries,  should  be  mixed  together  and 
used  in  the  garden.  If  the  garden  is  too  small  for  this 
purpose,  a  sufficiency  of  ground  outside  should  be  en- 
closed to  do  so  ;  and  if  the  produce  grown  is  more  than 
meets  the  requirements  of  the  family,  any  extras  may  be 
given  to  milch  cows,  pigs,  and  poultry. 

Farm  Sewage. — There  are  three  ways  of  utilising  the 
sewage  from  the  cottage  and  outbuildings ;  two  in  making 
compost,  the  one  by  allowing  the  sewage  to  flow  into  a 
pit  containing  earth,  or  to  pump  it  over  a  compost  hill, 
and  the  other  to  absorb  the  sewage  by  means  of  dry 
earth  in-doors,  on  what  has  recently  been  termed  the 
earth-closet  system ;  and  the  third  plan  is  to  apply  it  in 
a  liquid  form. 

Manure  pits  are  not  so  well  adapted  for  small  farms 
as  for  large  ones,  and  least  of  all  for  cottage  farms  in 
grass,  there  being  seldom  a  sufficiency  of  earth  at  com- 
mand to  utilise  the  whole  of  the  sewage  ;  and  as  it  requires 
more  earth,  and  is  less  economical  than  the  earth-closet, 
the  latter  is  to  be  preferred. 

Dry  Earth  Compost  and  Sewage-tank  combined — 
the  former  for  earth-closets,  stables,  cow-houses  and 
poultry-house,  and  the  latter  for  the  slops  and  washings 
from  the  cottage,  scullery,  laundry,  and  dairy — is  what 
will  best  suit  the  generality  of  small  gr»ss  farms.  From 
time  immemorial  the  sewage  of  the  stable  and  cow-house, 
and  sometimes  the  whole  of  the  droppings  of  the  piggeries 
and  poultry-house,  have  been  profitably  utilised  by  means 
of  dry  ashes,  vegetable  mould,  and  peat-earth  ;  and  the 
modus  operandi  is  exceedingly  simple.  Vegetable  mould 
and  peat-earth  are  dried  in  the  sun,  pounded  or  broken 
down  by  rollers,  or  passed  through  a  cake  or  malt  mill 
and  sifted,  and  the  fine  dry  earth  put  just  under  cover  for 
daily  use.  It  is  daily  strewed  behind  the  horses  and 
cows  in  quantity  sufficient  to  absorb  the  whole  of  the 
liquid,  and  keep  the  stable  and  cow-house  comparatively 
dry,  clean,  and  free  from  smell;  and  all  the  sweepings 
are  put  under  cover  daily.  The  pou-ltry-house  is  wholly 
littered  with  it,  and  the  sweepings  daily  put  by,  and 
sometimes  the  piggery.  Pigs  should  have  straw  in 
their  beds,  but  they  are  easily  trained  to  go  to  their  own 
earth-closet,  which  they  prefer  to  the  old  plans.  Of  the 
application  of  this  system  to  dwelling-houses,  we  shall 
treat  in  our  articles  on  the  construction  of  the  house. 
The  Avet  earth  from  the  different  places  should  be  well 
mixed  together  in  the  store  or  barn.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  it  should  be  stored  dry,  for  it  may  be  broken  down 
sufficiently  fine  for  being  applied  to  the  meadow  or  pasture 
by  means  of  a  broadcast  distributor,  with  a  large  per-cen- 
tage  of  moisture  ;  and  as  it  may  be  applied  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year  in  open  weather,  it  should  never  be  allowed  to 
lie  long  in  store  to  waste.  The  rains  of  winter  and  spring 
will  wash  it  into  the  land.  In  the  summer-time  it  may  be 
applied  before  rain ;  but  by  means  of  hydrants  and  hose,  it 
may  be  washed  in  during  dry  weather,  the  dry  earth  having 
been  previously  bush-harroived  into  the  grass.  And  so 
free  is  it  from  smell,  that  it  may  be  applied  to  lawns  in 
front  of  a  mansion  without  perceptibly  tainting  the  atmo- 
sphere. It  may  also  be  washed  in  with  diluted  sewage 
from  the  tank,  but  in  this  ca^e  the  smell  is  perceptible  ; 
but  if  the  wind  is  blowing  off  the  cottage,  it  will  not  be 
felt,  or  do  harm  to  the  dair}'. 

Top-dressings^  applied  as  above  after  the  first  hay 
crop  has   been  removed,  may  be  done  for  the  twofold 


purpose  of  getting  the  compost  more  effectually  bush- 
harrowed  into  the  land,  so  as  to  change  its  mechanical 
character,  and  thus  improve  its  permanent  fertility  ;  and 
in  the  second  place,  to  force  forward  an  abundance  of 
autumn  and  early  spring  food  for  milch  cows.  Some 
tenacious  meadows  fissure  and  crack  very  much  in  dry 
weather  when  the  crop  is  removed,  and  even  before.  This 
is  much  against  their  natural  productiveness,  and  the 
growth  of  the  finer  grasses.  If,  therefore,  a  heavv  dose 
of  rich  compost  is  applied,  and  the  cracks  filled  up  with 
it,  and  the  whole  bush -harrowed,  rolled,  and  washed  in, 
the  change  produced  is  so  great  as  hardly  to  be  credited 
by  those  who  have  no  experience  of  the  practice.  In  the- 
poorer,  because  more  tenacious  and  wet  clays,  the  appli- 
cation of  dry  road  scrapings  or  pure  sand  from  a  pit,  and 
the  filling  up  of  the  fissures  with  such,  will  produce  almost 
incredible  improvements,  both  as  to  drainage  and  fertility. 
In  autumn,  before  the  weather  breaks,  heavy  dressings  of 
compost  are  easily  applied  to  meadow  and  pasture  land, 
which  then  carries  both  the  feet  of  the  horses  and  the 
wheels  of  the  carts  and  manure  distributors  without  rut- 
ting. At  this  time,  when  fissures  exist  and  remain  open, 
they  may  be  filled  up  with  the  compost,  as  in  summer,  to 
change  the  mechanical  texture  and  fertility  of  the  land 
for  the  production  of  a  finer  quality  of  grasses.  Where 
fresh  grass  seeds  are  needed,  these  may  yet  be  sown  and 
bush-harrowed  in  with  the  compost,  as  the  young  grasses 
have  time  to  take  root  and  establish  themselves  before 
the  killing  and  uprooting  effects  of  winter  set  in.  They 
will  also  be  in  a  sufficiently  far  advanced  stage  to  be 
forced  forward  in  early  spring  for  cow-feed  in  March  and 
April. 

Summer  and  autumn  top-dressing  does  not  do  away 
with  the  practice  of  rolling  the  meadow  in  spring,  and 
the  prior  operation  of  bush-harrowing,  so  as  to  get  an 
even  smooth  surface  for  the  scythe  or  mowing-machine. 
On  the  contrary,  they  rather  stimulate  moles,  worms,  and 
other  insects  in  the  ground  to  greater  activity  in  early 
spring,  and  thus  increase  the  necessity  for  the  bush  or 
chain  harrow  and  roller.  High  farming,  however,  has 
for  its  ultimate  effects  a  reduction  in  the  nmnber  of 
insects  in  the  meadows,  and  mcjcs  and  field-mice  should 
be  extirpated  if  possible. 

The  old  plan  of  dressing  the  meadow  in  spring  was  to 
apply  the  compost  early,  and  at  a  later  period  to  employ 
women  and  children  to  pick  up  sticks,  stones,  and  every- 
thing which  should  not  be  there  prior  to  rolling.  But 
the  preparation  of  compost  on  sounder  principles,  as- 
above,  and  the  mixing  of  artificial  manures  with  the 
same,  so  as  the  better  to  adapt  them  to  the  requirements 
of  grasses,  has  greatly  abridged  and  improved  the  old 
practice.  In  gravelly  soils,  winter  frosts  raise  many- 
small  stones  to  the  surface,  so  that  they  require  to  be 
gathered  off  in  the  spring  before  rolling.  But  in  soils  free 
from  stones,  and  where  no  stones  are  carted  on  in  the 
compost,  none  are  to  be  removed.  Finely  prepared  com- 
post is  more  easily  applied,  whether  spread  from  heaps  or 
out  of  the  cart,  or  by  manure  distributors.  Few  cottagers- 
can  afford  to  keep  the  latter,  but  they  may  hire  them,  and 
do  the  work  in  less  time  and  at  less  money  than  on 
either  of  the  other  two  old  plans,  as  machines  distribute 
the  compost  more  evenly  and  better  than  it  can  be  done 
by  the  hand  and  spade.  The  old  bush-harrow  and  stone 
roller  are  being  superseded  by  chain-harrows  and  iron 
rollers  of  improved  construction,  which  will  be  treated  of 
when  we  come  to  speak  of  Impletnents.  And  when  the 
cottage-farmer  has  a  horse  of  his  own,  these  shoulb  be 
kept  on  the  inventory,  and  also  broadcast  solid  and 
liquid  manure  distributors  and  seed-sowers,  the  use  and 
advantage  of  which  will  also  be  shown  in  our  paper  on 
Impleme7its. 

Liqtiid  Manuring. — When    grass   farms,  commercial 
dairy  farms,   and  the    detached   meadows   of  domestic 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


211 


dairy  farms  have  the  command  of  town  sewage,  it 
should  be  apphed  after  every  cutting  for  hay  or  forage 
grass — as  explained  below  under  Soiling — no  more  being 
applied  at  a  time  than  what  the  land  will  retain.  If 
the  sewage  is  too  diluted,  guano  and  superphosphate  of 
lime  may  be  added  to  bring  it  to  the  proper  strength.  If 
the  sewage  is  sufficiently  strong,  but  defective  in  quality, 
it  may  be  tempered  by  adding  artificial  manure  and 
water  ;  or  a  rich  liquid  manure  may  be  made  by  dissolving 
artificial  manure  in  water.  For  the  kind  of  grasses  under 
consideration,  the  liquid  manure  requires  to  be  much 
more  diluted  than  for  Italian  rye-grass,  otherwise  the  con- 
tinuous application  would  rot  out  many  of  the  finer  grasses, 
more  especially  if  the  quality  is  defective.  The  applica- 
tion of  water  to  pasture  lands  in  the  summer  time  has, 
from  time  immemorial,  been  acknowledged  a  manurial 
process  second  to  no  other,  water  entering  largely  into 
the  food  of  the  grasses.  In  the  olden  times  irrigated 
meadows  were  generally  mown,  but  there  were  exceptions 
to  this  rule  ;  and  the  success  which  is  now  beginning  to 
crown  irrigation  with  results  far  greater  than  were  ever 
known  under  the  old  practice,  is  bidding  fair  to  make  the 
exception  the  rule  of  no  distant  period.  The  old  practice 
was  this  : — The  grazing  ground,  large  or  small,  was  di- 
vided into  two  or  three  fields.  When  the  cattle  had  eaten 
the  first  field  close  down,  they  were  turned  into  the  second 
field,  and  the  water  into  the  first,  and  when  it  was 
thoroughly  soaked  the  water  was  then  turned  off.  This 
set  up  an  immediate  growth  of  grass.  When  the  third 
was  eaten  close,  the  cattle  were  turned  into  the  first, 
which  by  this  time  was  dry,  and  offering  a  full  bite,  and 
the  water  was  turned  into  the  third,  and  so  on  for  the 
whole  of  the  grazing  season. 

Soiling  is  the  technical  phrase  for  feeding  cattle  with 
green  forage  in-doors.  By  March,  or  April  at  the 
farthest  in  southern  provinces,  a  portion  of  the  irrigated 
meadow  should  be  sufficiently  forward  to  supply  daily 
mowings  to  the  cottager's  milch  cows.  As  the  mowings 
are  small,  this  is  best  done  with  the  scythe,  and  the  daily 
work  continues  on  to  November.  At  first,  the  young 
grass  should  be  mixed  with  old  hay,  and  cut  with  chaff, 
adding  less  and  less  hay  as  the  cows  take  to  the  succulent 
herbage  ;  and  when  first  given  without  hay,  the  grass 
should  be  allowed  to  dry  for  a  short  time  on  the  swathe. 

Hay  Harvest. — A  two-horse  mowing  machine  will  cut 
down  one  to  two  acres  per  hour,  so  that  if  cottagers  club 
together  and  hire  a  machine,  they  can  cut  their  grass 
cheaper  and  better  than  with  the  scythe,  and  get  their 
hay  safer  and  sooner  into  the  stack  or  barn.  Haymaking 
machines,  horse-collectors,  and  horse-rakes  likewise  effect 
each  a  corresponding  economy  of  time  and  labour,  avoid- 
ing at  the  same  time  the  risks  of  change  in  the  weather. 
With  bright  sunshine  and  a  brisk  breeze,  the  hay  may  be 
in  the  barn  the  second  day,  though  this  is  exceptionally 
quick,  even  if  no  rain  falls.  The  first  process  is  to  shake 
the  hay  about  thoroughly,  so  as  to  expose  it  as  much  as 
possible  to  the  sun's  rays  ;  then  it  should  be  made  up  into 
light  ridges,  or,  as  they  are  called,  "  wind-rows."  Towards 
the  close  of  the  first  day  it  will  be  necessary  to  form  the 
wind-rows  into  rough  cocks,  and  shake  them  out  evenly 
next  morning  with  the  fork  or  haymaking  machine,  the 
latter  with  back  action,  shaking  up  the  wind-rows  far 
better  than  can  be  done  by  the  hand  ;  and  the  prtching  of 
the  hay  on  to  the  cart  concludes  the  manual  labour  of  the 
cottager  in  the  hay-field.  If  he  has  a  horse  and  cart  of  his 
own,  and  gets  his  grass  early  cut  in  the  morning,  a  small 
portion — if  the  weather  is  very  forcing — may  be  carted 
the  first  day,  as  the  hay  can  be  put  into  rather  small 
stacks  with  rather  fnore  sap  than  into  large  ones ;  but 
the  difference,  after  all,  is  not  much,  so  that  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  overheat  the  stack,  as  a  slight  fermenta- 
tion improves,  but  an  excess  deteriorates  the  quality 
of   the  hay,  turning  it  black  and    mouldy.       The   hay- 


stack requires  to  be  covered  by  a  rick-cloth,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration  (page  209).  At  each  end  of  the  stack  a 
pole  is  raised,  and  fixed  by  means  of  three  stay  ropes. 
A  cross-pole,  raised  and  lowered  by  blocks  and  tackle, 
extends  between  the  two  upright  poles,  for  carrying  the 
cloth.  In  the  woodcut  the  cloth  is  shown  down,  but 
during  the  operation  of  stacking  it  is  lashed  up  to  the 
cross-pole  by  the  small  cords  seen  on  one  side.  In  our 
next  paper  we  propose  to  say  a  few  words  as  to  the  most 
convenient  shape  and  size  for  making  hay-stacks. 

A  Hay-barn  for  a  small  farm  is  far  preferable  to  all 
other  contrivances  for  housing  hay  and  other  crops.  In 
Holland  the  small  farmer  would  not  think  of  doing  with- 
out his  hay-barn  ;  and  in  this  country  the  hay  is  found  to 
keep  equally  well  in  a  barn  as  out  of  doors,  and  the  waste  of 
hay,  so  great  in  small  stacks,  is  obviated  when  stacked  in 
a  barn.  They  are  equally  well  adapted  for  corn  crops, 
and  when  we  come  to  treat  of  this  department  of  cottage 
farming  an  engraving  of  one  will  be  given. 

Manuring  follows  the  mowings,  and  as  soon  as  there 
is  a  sufficient  area  of  ground  cleared  of  grass.  If  liquid 
manure  from  the  tank,  the  hose  is  laid  on  to  the  spot  from 
the  nearest  hydrant — it  may  be  across  the  grass.  If  com- 
post and  water,  the  former  may  be  taken  to  the  meadow  by 
the  cart  in  which  the  grass  was  carried  home,  and  evenly 
strewed  over  the  stubble,  bush-harrowed,  and  washed  in 
by  the  water  or  diluted  sewage  from  the  hose,  no  more 
water  being  applied  than  the  absorbent  power  of  the  land 
is  capable  of  retaining. 

Some  apply  the  compost  immediately  after  the  first 
hay  crop  is  removed ;  others  in  autumn,  on  the  stubble 
of  the  aftermath  crop  ;  but  the  more  common  practice 
is  in  spring,  and  as  early  as  the  weather  will  permit,  and 
without  regard  to  out-door  food  for  cattle  ;  for  cattle 
ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  set  a  hoof  upon  the  meadow 
in  spring  time,  however  luxuriant  the  grass  may  be. 

Renovating  Grass  Lands  is  done  in  three  different 
ways.  First,  the  meadow  or  pasture  is  carefully  gone 
over,  and  all  the  weeds  and  coarse  grasses  are  pulled, 
spudded,  or  dug  up  with  a  spade.  If  this  is  done  in  early 
autumn,  and  the  land  then  top-dressed  heavily  with  com- 
post, and  sown  with  fresh  se6ds,  the  young  grasses  and 
clovers  will  be  established  before  winter,  and  present  in 
spring  a  fine,  fresh,  promising  appearance.  The  second 
method  is  by  paring  and  burning,  and  the  third,  trench- 
ing— works  which  belong  to  arable  husbandr)-,  and 
under  which  they  will  be  described.  After  the  land 
has  been  got  into  a  proper  state  of  tillage  and  fertility,  it 
is  again  laid  down  to  grass,  which  is  best  done  in  early 
autumn  by  the  sowing  of  grass  seeds,  as  in  the  first  plan. 
The  grass  should  be  kept  short  the  first  season  by  fre- 
quent mowings,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  scorching 
during  the  drought  of  summer  by  copious  waterings. 
Instead  of  burning  the  thin  surface  sods,  they  may  be 
collected  and  converted  into  dry  vegetable  mould. 


ADVICE  TO   LODGERS. 

In  England  a  lodger  may  be  generally  defined  as  an 
under-tenant,  who  is  responsible  for  only  a  part  of  the 
rent  of  the  house  he  lives  in,  and  who  is  not  called  upon 
to  pay  the  taxes  levied  upon  it.  His  liabilities  as  a  tenant 
are  limited  to  the  householder,  who  is  accountable  to  the 
owner  for  the  rent  of  the  whole  tenement,  to  the  parish 
for  all  the  parochial  rates,  and  to  the  Crown  for  the 
Queen's  taxes.  Many  persons  take  houses  the  whole  of 
which  they  cannot,  need  not,  or  will  not  occupy,  and  they 
usually  do  this  for  the  sake  of  some  advantage  to  them- 
selves. So,  also,  many  persons  for  divers  reasons  prefer 
to  rent  only  part  of  a  house,  and  to  become  lodgers.  To 
multitudes  of  unmarried  men  and  women,  professional 
persons,  small  families,  and  families  with  limited  resources, 


ADVICE   TO   LODGERS. 


apartments  are  a  convenience,  if  not  a  necessity.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  large  class  finds  in  the  letting  of  apartments 
either  a  means  of  livelfhood  or  a  certain  addition  to  a 
restricted  income.  It  is  very  important  that  persons  who 
come  into  the  relation  of  landlord  and  lodger — that  is,  of 
landlord  and  tenant — should  know  their  duties  and  obli- 
gations ;  we  shall,  therefore,  state  a  few  facts  which  will 
be  useful  to  both  parties,  though  they  will,  perhaps,  be 
most  so  to  the  lodger. 

When  apartments  are  taken  for  a  short  limited  period, 
and  it  is  understood  that  the  tenancy  expires  at  the  close 
of  it,  a  notice  to  quit  is  unnecessary  ;  though,  without  an 
agreement  to  the  contrary,  a  regular  tenancy  is  established 
if  the  holding  is  continued  beyond  the  specified  time. 
Even  a  person  who  takes  lodgings  at  an  hotel  for  a  night 
ought  to  give  reasonable  notice  the  next  day  of  his  inten- 
tion to  depart,  or  of  his  wish  to  remain  :  much  more 
should  this  be  done  if  apartments  are  taken  for  a  longer, 
though  a  limited,  term.  Irrespective  of  all  legal  conse- 
quences, those  who  let  or  take  lodgings  will  do  well  to 
avoid  neglect.  With  regard  to  an  hotel  or  boarding-house, 
we  need  say  no  more  than  that  the  engagements  entered 
into  for  a  night  or  so  are  of  a  fugitive  character,  and  are 
fulfilled  by  a  lodger  who  is  courteous  and  otherwise  well 
conducted,  and  who  pays  his  bill  and  the  customary  fees. 
Our  main  concern  is  with  arrangements  of  a  more  private 
and  permanent  character  than  such  as  fall  within  the 
ordinary  category  of  good  entertainment  in  hotels  of  all 
sorts,  though  even  there  it  is  becoming  more  common  for 
people  among  us  to  fix  their  quarters  as  on  the  Continent. 

Private  apartments,  as  usually  understood,  are  either 
furnished  or  unfurnished.  Furnished  lodgings  may  involve 
the  partial  use  of  some  rooms  and  the  sole  use  of  others, 
partial  or  complete  attendance,  partial  or  complete  cooking, 
lodging  only,  or  board  and  lodging  ;  in  fact,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  enumerate  all  the  possible  variations.  Even 
in  the  matter  of  furniture  and  so  forth  there  is  room  for 
considerable  diversity,  and  it  is  necessary  to  know  what 
the  lodger  is  expected  to  provide  for  himself,  as  well 
as  what  he  is  expected  to  do  for  himself.  Differences  of 
requirement  and  provision  will,  of  course,  influence  money 
terras  as  really  as  differences  of  accommodation  and 
locality. 

Agreements  are  usually  verbal  only,  but  it  is  better  for 
security  that  they  should  be  in  writing.  A  written  agree- 
ment must  specify  the  date  of  entry,  the  amount  of  rent 
to  be  paid,  how  often  payment  is  to  be  made,  and  the 
length  of  notice  to  quit,  with  all  other  details  required  by 
the  particular  case.  Appended  to  the  written  agreement 
should  be  an  inventory  of  every  article  belonging  to  the 
landlord,  and  a  specification  of  every  defect  and  imperfec- 
tion in  the  furniture,  fittings,  &c.  Where  the  apartments 
comprise  an  entire  floor,  or  suite  of  rooms,  it  will  be  best 
to  proceed  as  in  the  case  of  a  furnished  house,  and  to 
employ  an  experienced  and  trustworthy  house-agent  to  go 
over  the  inventory,  and  to  see  that  everything  is  properly 
done. 

To  constitute  the  agreement  a  regular  legal  document, 
it  had  better  be  drawn  up  in  some  orderly  form. 

Memorandum  of  agreement  entered  into  this        day  of 
,18    ,  between  of  of  the  one  part, 

and  of  of  the  other  part. 

The  said  hereby  agrees  to  let,  and  the  said 

hereby  agrees  to  rent  and  take  all  those  apart- 
ments on  the         floor  {or  floors)  of  the  house  of  the  said 
,  situate  and  being  No.     ,  street  (or  as  the 

case  may  be),  in  the  parish  of  ,  in  the  county  of 

,  with  the  use  and  enjoyment  of  all  easements, 
apmurtenances,  furniture,  effects,  and  other  things  severally 
seT*forth  and  enumerated  in  the  schedule  or  inventory 
hereunto  annexed.     To  hold  the  same  from  the        day  of 
,  unto  the  said  ,  as  tenant  thereof,  from 


to  ,  at  the  clear         rent  of        ,  payable        on 

the  free  from  any  deduction  ;  the  first  payment  to  be 

made  on  the        day  of  next ;  the  said  tenancy  to  be 

determinable  by  either  party  on  giving  the  other 
notice  in  writing  to  quit.     And  the  said  hereby 

agrees  to  leave  on  the  premises  hereby  agreed  to  be  let, 
at  the  termination  of  the  tenancy  hereby  created,  all  the 
several  furniture,  effects,  fixtures,  and  other  things  enu- 
merated in  the  schedule  or  inventory  hereunto  annexed, 
and  which  are  now  in  or  upon  the  said  premises,  and  are 
the  property  of  the  said  ;  and  also  all  the  glass 

windows  whole  and  unbroken,  except  such  as  are  specified 
in  the  said  schedule.     And  the  said  hereby  agrees 

to  pay  all  taxes  and  outgoings  in  respect  of  the  premises 
hereby  agreed  to  be  let,  to  execute  all  needful  repairs,  and 
to  indemnify  the  goods  and  chattels  of  the  said 
from  and  against  the  same. 

In  witness  whereof  the  said  parties  j 
have  hereunto  set  their  hands  the  > 
day  and  year  aforesaid.  ) 

To  such  an  agreement  a  witness  may  be  had  if  thought 
desirable. 

Where  there  is  no  written  agreement,  the  length  of  a 
notice  to  quit  is  usually  settled  by  the  form  of  letting  or 
payment  of  rent.  Thus,  when  let  at  so  much  per  week, 
month,  or  quarter,  the  notice  will  be  for  the  same  periods, 
uilless  custom  to  the  contrary  can  be  proved. 

A  lodger  has  the  right  to  use  the  knocker  and  door  bell, 
the  lights  and  windows  in  the  approaches  to  his  apart- 
ments, and  the  water-closet  and  other  conveniences.  If 
he  has  any  doubt  about  some  things,  he  had  better  stipu- 
late for  their  reasonable  use,  as  a  garden  or  outer  yard. 
He  cannot  claim  to  affix  a  plate,  nor  to  have  his  name 
painted  or  exhibited  upon  the  house  without  his  landlord's 
consent.  A  landlord  has  no  right  without  permission  or 
just  cause  to  enter  his  lodger's  apartments  ;  and  if  he 
intrudes  upon  their  use  or  possession  he  forfeits  his  power 
to  recover  the  rent.  A  weekly  tenant  can  require  a  quarter's 
notice  if  the  landlord  allows  his  rent  to  accrue  for  a  quarter 
and  receives  it  as  a  quarter's  rent.  The  landlord  can 
recover  arrears  of  rent  if  his  tenant  leaves  without  notice, 
even  if  he  advertises  for  another  tenant ;  but  if  he  re-lets 
his  apartments,  he  cannot  recover  subsequent  rent  Where 
there  are  no  goods,  rent  and  arrears  can  be  recovered  in 
the  county  court. 

All  persons  who  take  apartments,  whether  furnished  or 
not,  will  be  prudent  to  make  various  inquiries  before 
entering  upon  an  agreement.  These  inquiries  may  include 
the  solvency  of  the  landlord,  the  character  of  his  house 
and  of  its  inmates,  the  respectability  and  healthiness  of 
the  locality,  the  proper  supply  of  good  water,  and  the 
condition  of  all  the  fittings  and  fixtures,  and  furniture,  if 
there  is  any. 

With  respect  to  unfurnished  apartments,  it  is  especially 
needful  to  be  cautious,  because  the  lodger  may  find  himself 
liable  for  actual  or  future  arrears  of  rent  or  taxes,  due  by 
his  landlord.  It  is  particularly  annoying  if  a  lodger  finds 
that  through  his  want  of  caution  his  goods  are  distrained 
for  the  rent,  parochial  rates,  or  other  charges  upon  the 
whole  house. 

A  magistrate  in  the  metropolis  can  award  compensation 
to  the  amount  of  fifteen  pounds  for  wilful  damage  done  by 
tenants  to  their  apartments.  Again,  a  landlord  is  not 
responsible  if  his  tenant  loses  his  goods  by  fire  or  theft, 
unless  the  lodger  can  prove  the  loss  due  to  want  of  proper 
precaution  on  the  landlord's  part.  If  a  lodger  refuses  to 
leave  after  the  expiration  of  his  term,  his  landlord  can 
eject  him  under  warrant  from  a  magistrate,  or  by  authority 
of  a  county  court.  Of  course,  a  lodger  cannot  remove 
any  fixtures  when  he  leaves,  though  erected  by  himself, 
except  those  which  are  known  in  law  as  removable  fixtures. 
The  lodger  is  not  responsible  for  ordinary  wear  and  tear 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


213 


either  of  his  rooms  or  of  the  landlord's  furniture,  &c., 
but  for  all  beyond  ordinary  wear  and  tear  he  is  liable.  As 
his  goods  may  be  distrained  for  the  rent  of  the  house,  so 
they  may  be  distrained  for  his  own  rent. 

Formidable  as  the  foregoing  enumeration  may  appear 
at  first  sight,  it  will  on  consideration  be  found  to  include 
little  to  terrify  those  who  intend  to  live  in  lodgings.  People 
must  live  somewhere,  and  wherever  it  is,  they  will,  if  they 
inquire,  find  themselves  surrounded  with  liabilities.  There 
are  many  who  are  well  able  to  rent  houses  for  themselves 
who  prefer  to  live  in  lodgings,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  for 
them  to  remain  years  in  the  same  place.  These  usually 
do  not  keep  their  own  servants,  but  sometimes  they  do, 
and  there  are  houses  so  arranged  that  two  or  more  families 
can  live  in  them  without  inconvenience.  In  Scotland, 
what  are  called  "  lands,"  comprising  on  separate  floors, 
called  "  flats,"  all  the  conveniences  of  a  house,  are  much 
preferred  to  "self-contained  houses."  In  the  metropolis, 
also,  there  are  springing  up 
blocks  of  buildings  with  a 
common  stair,  and  occupied 
by  separate  households.  Such 
examples,  however,  scarcely 
come  under  the  head  of 
lodgings  as  commonly  under- 
stood, but  they  are  mentioned 
here  as  a  sort  of  compromise, 
which  deserves  to  be  advo- 
cated in  the  case  of  crowded 
cities. 

In  ordinary  cases  a  single 
man  or  woman  will  do  best 
in  unfurnished  apartments,  but 
whether  they  shall  board  with 
the  family  or  not  must  depend 
upon  circumstances.  This  will 
be  less  difficult  in  a  strictly 
private  house  than  in  one  more 
properly  called  a  lodging 
house. 

A  man  and  his  wife,  or 
any  two  ladies  or  gentlemen 
living  together,  will  commonly 
do  best  if  they  board  them- 
selves. Where  there  are  more 
than  two,  or  if  there  are  chil- 
dren, a  separate  table  is  alto- 
gether desirable.  When  lodgers 
provide  their  own  food,  and 
only  one  kitchen  is  available,  fixed  hours  will  be 
necessary,  whether  they  have  their  own  cook  or  not. 
If  lodgers  find  their  own  bed-linen  and  table-linen, 
or  other  articles,  they  will  pay  less  for  furnished  apart- 
ments. Lodgers  must  have  free  ingress  and  egress,  and 
should  possess  a  latch-key  or  other  facilities  for  those 
purposes.  They  should  have  keys  also  to  their  rooms, 
cupboards,  boxes,  drawers,  &c.,  and  should  use  them,  and 
not  leave  them  about  as  a  temptation.  They  should,  of 
course,  be  models  of  regularity,  quietness,  good  order,  and 
so  forth,  and  will  usually  find  their  account  in  it. 

As  for  the  price  of  apartments,  it  varies  with  position 
and  a  hundred  other  circumstances,  so  that  while  two 
comfortable  little  rooms  may  be  got  for  a  few  shillings  a 
week,  the  wealthy  and  ambitious  may  pay  as  many 
pounds  for  two  or  three  large  rooms,  and  everything  in 
an  aristocratic  style. 

The  question  whether  it  is  best  to  lodge  in  a  house  kept 
by  one  who  is  a  professed  lodging-house  or  boarding- 
house  keeper,  or  with  a  really  private  family,  is  not  to  be 
easily  settled.  Some  are  violently  prejudiced  against 
lodging-house  keepers,  and  others  against  private  families. 
In  truth,  there  are  good  and  bad  of  all  sorts,  and  prudent 
peoplc^will  look  after  the  good  by  whatever  name  th^-y  are 


known.  Lodgers  are  not  always  perfect,  and  perhaps 
their  discontent  and  misery  are  as  often  due  to  themselves 
as  to  their  landlord  or  landlady. 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 

LOCKS  AND  DOOR  FITTINGS. 

Before  going  into  the  description  of  the  more  complete 
modern  locks  it  will,  perhaps,  be  advisable  to  touch  upon  the 
simpler  methods  of  fastening  and  securing  doors.  Perhaps 
the  most  primitive,  but  at  the  same  time  most  useful  for  out- 
door work,  is  the  staple  and  hasp  fastening,  which,  being 
of  very  rough  and  ready  ipplication,  and  not  requiring 
much  fit,  is  a  sort  of  thing  anybody  can  put  up.  Suppose 
a  fastening  of  this  kind  is  required  on  a  garden  gate,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  screw  in  the  hasp  to  the  gate,  and  then, 
holding  it  up  over  its  place  on  the  gate-post,  drive  a  large 
staple  into  the  post ;  a  peg, 
secured  by  a  string  or  a  chain, 
is  slipped  into  the  staple  over 
the  hasp,  and  so  secures  the 
gate.  Fig.  70  shows  the  ar- 
rangement complete  ;  it  is  too 
simple  to  require  detailed  de- 
scription. 

We  come  next  to  the  com- 
mon, or  latch  fastening,  shown 
at  Fig.  71.  A  bar  A,  about 
eight  inches  or  less  fn  length, 
pivots  on  the  screw  B,  being 
kept  in  its  place  and  limited 
to  a  small  upward  or  down- 
ward movement  by  the  guard 
C,  constitute  the  fittings  on  the 
inside  of  the  door.  Into  the 
post  D  the  latch  E  is  driven  ; 
this  latch  consists  of  a  small 
piece  of  iron  pointed  at  the 
end  which  drives  into  the 
wood,  the  other  end  being  ex- 
panded ;  as  is  shown  in  the 
drawing,  the  upper  edge  is 
formed  into  a  bevel  upwards 
for  a  short  distance,  when  the 
piece  is  suddenly  contracted, 
thus  forming  a  notch.  The 
action  is  evident.  The  door 
being  shut,  brings  the  end 
of  the  bar  A  in  contact  with  the  bevel  F  of  E,  and 
thereby  raises  it  until  it  falls  into  the  notch,  when  th'e 
door  is  quite  shut.  To  open  the  door  from  the  inside, 
it  is  necessary  to  raise  the  bar  A  by  the  knob  or  the  lever 
at  H  ;  this  lever  is  carried  through  the  door  and  termi- 
nates on  the  outside  in  a  broad,  flat  sort  of  plate,  on  which 
the  pressure  of  the  thumb  is  exerted  to  raise  the  bar  inside. 
In  cases  where  this  projection  of  the  thumb-plate  would 
b^objectionable,  a  sunk  iron  plate  is  substituted,  in  the 
centre  of  which  is  a  knob,  which  being  pressed  by  the 
finger  or  thumb,  attains  the  same  end. 

Let  us  now  look  into  a  common  cupboard  lock,  one  of  the 
simplest  forms  of  lock  used  in  this  country.  It  consists 
of  only  a  bar  A  (V\g.  72)  shding  across  the  framework  of  the 
lock,  and  part  of  one  side  being  split  up  into  a  rude  sub- 
stitute for  a  spring,  B,  which  has  just  flexibility  enough  to 
allow  the  notches  in  the  bar  at  C  to  rise  out  of  the  frame 
on  pressure  upwards  being  used  with  the  key.  The  key 
to  this  lock  is  a  barrel  key,  that  is,  it  is  tubu4ar,  and 
pivots  on  a  wire  in  the  lock ;  and  on  being  thrust  on  this 
wire,  and  turned  round  into  the  notch  in  the  bar  A,  the 
pressure  of  the  key  compresses  the  spring  Bj  and  allows 
the  bar  to  slip  over  into  the  other  notch.  The  key  will 
then  complete  the  circle,  and  gome  out  of  the  hole. 


214 


THE    HOUSEHOLD  MECHANIC. 


To  prevent  the  opening  of  the  lock  by  any  key  but  its 
own,  a  number  of  iron  or  brass  rings,  or  "  wards,"  as 
shown  at  E,  are  fitted  inside  the  lock,  to  prevent  the  key 
from  being  turned  round,  unless  the  slits  in  the  key  exactly 
correspond  with  the  wards. 

The  action  of  the  tumbler  lock  is,  however,  quite  differ- 
ent. The  bolt  A  (Fig.  73)  is  made  to  slide  easily  in  the  slots 
in  the  frame  of  the  lock,  but  this  bolt  is  not  solid,  except  at 
the  end  which  shoots  out,  its  thickness  being  reduced  in 
the  middle  to  make  room  for  the  tumbler  P.  to  go  behind  it. 
This  tumbler  is  hinged  at  E,  and  is  pressed  downwards  by 
the  spring  F.  On  the  end  of  the  tumbler  furthest  from  E, 
is  a  little  projection,  G,  which  exactly  fits  a  notch  in  the 
bar  A,  as  shown.  The  tumbler  goes  behind  the  bolt,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  Now  take  the  key,  insert  it  into 
its  place,  and  turn  it  round  ;  one  edge  coming  in  contact 
with  the  lower  edge  of  the  tumbler,  will  raise  it  from  the 
notch  C,  and  free  the  bolt ;  a  further  movement  driving 
the  bolt  out,  or  shooting  it,  as  it  is  termed  ;  the  tumbler 
then  drops  into  the  notch  D,  and  holds  it  secure.  The 
reverse  action  of  the  key  produces  exactly  the  reverse 
result.  The  bolt  A  shoots  into  channels  in  the  door-frame, 
the  forms  of  which  are  quite  immaterial. 

We  now  come  to  the  latch  and  lock  combined  (Fig  74), 
which,  as  far  as  the  lock  is  concerned,  is  just  what  we  have 
now  described  in  the  tumbler  lock,  but  looks  more  compli- 
cated on  account  of  its  combination.  In  the  lock  part  of 
the  arrangement,  the  same  letters  are  used  as  with  Fig.  73, 
and  the  same  description  exactly  applies.  The  latch  is  a 
long  bar,  F,  sliding  easily  for  about  half  an  inch,  and  pro- 
jecting that  distance  from  the  end,  terminating  in  the 
bevel  G  at  that  end.  The  other  end  is  turned  at  right 
angles  to  the  bar,  and  prolonged  into  a  smaller  bar  H.  A 
spring,  I,  keeps  the  whole  bolt  out,  and  a  lever,  j,  acts  on 
"a,  on  its  being  turned  either  way,  and  forces  the  bolt  back. 
Into  the  square  hole  in  J  a  square  rod  fits,  and  on  to  each 
end  of  this  rod  the  handles  are  fastened.  One  handle  is 
usually  permanently  fixed,  the  other  is  fastened  by  a 
screw  in  the  handle,  which  catches  into  holes  in  the  rod,  so 
arranged  on  each  side  as  to  allow  any  adjustment  required 
by  the  thickness  of  the  door  through  which  the  handle 
goes.  Such  locks  as  are  here  illustrated  will  be  found  on 
most  doors.  They  are  arranged  as  "mortice"  or  as  "rim" 
locks.  The  former  are  made  to  slide  in  a  hole  or  mortice 
in  the  edge  of  the  door,  and  are,  therefore,  out  of  sight. 
Rim  locks  are  screwed  on  to  the  inner  side  of  the 
door,  and,  of  course,  are  not  so  neat  as  mortice  locks. 
On  the  outside  of  the  door  in  the  case  of  rim  locks,  and 
on  both  sides  with  the  other  kind,  the  handle  works  in  a 
plate,  known  as  the  "  rose,"  which  is  bradded  on  to  the 
door ;  the  plate  ornamenting  the  key-hole  is  known  as  the 
escutcheon.  The  handles,  escutcheons,  and  finger-plates 
of  doors  are  known  as  the  furniture,  and  can  be  had  of 
various  patterns  and  qualities,  according  to  desire  or  taste, 
and  are  therefore  sold  quite  independently  of  the  locks. 

The  complicated  and  beautiful  latch  locks,  patented  by 
various  makers,  are  mostly  on  the  tumbler  principle,  and 
in  some  cases  the  sliding  bolt  has  six  or  eight  of  these 
tumblers  to  be  raised  before  it  can  be  moved  from  its 
position ;  the  number  and  diversity  of  form  in  the  tumblers 
rendering  it  nearly  impossible  that  any  but  the  right  key 
will  shoot  the  bolt.  In  these  door  latches,  the  lock 
tumbler  is  combined  with  the  lifting  latch,  the  principle 
of  action  being  the  same. 

Locks  should  occasionailly  be  taken  to  pieces,  cleaned, 
and  oiled,  when  the  stiff  way  in  which  they  work 
shows  they  require  it.  Where  much  exposed  to  damp 
and  change  of  weather,  locks  should  be  made  entirely  of 
brass,  as  iron  locks  will  rust  and  become  useless  ;  nor  is 
any  amount  of  oiling  sufficient  to  prevent  it. 

In  our  next  paper  we  propose  to  give  such  information 
on  the  subject  of  gas-fittings  as  will  fall  within  the  scope 
of  the  Household  Mechanic, 


GUTTA-PERCHA  FOR  MENDING  SHOES, 

Gutta-percha  was  scarcely  known  in  this  country  until 
1843,  whenDr,  Montgomerie,  of  Singapore,  called  attention 
to  its  valuable  properties.  It  soon  won  its  way  to  popular 
favour,  and  has  continued  to  be  an  article  of  immense 
importance.  One  of  the  many  applications  made  of  it 
at  the  outset  was  the  soling  of  shoes,  which  seems  to  have 
been  first  practised  by  a  Mr.  M apple.  It  was  found  to  be 
a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  a  repellant  of  moisture,  a  non- 
conductor of  electricity,  and,  in  the  form  of  shoe  soles, 
both  durable  and  cheap,  added  to  which  it  could  be  easily 
applied.  Objections  were  made  to  it,  but  its  use  for  shoe 
soles  was  established,  and  has  continued  ever  since.  One 
of  the  great  difficulties  at  first  was  to  make  gutta-percha 
soles  adhere  firmly  to  leather,  but  this  difficulty  was  over- 
come by  various  contrivances.  Some  attached  the  soles 
by  means  of  a  solution  of  gutta-percha  in  gas  tar ;  others 
fastened  them  by  first  making  holes  in  the  leather,  and 
squeezing  the  soft  gutta-percha  down  with  pressure  enough 
to  drive  it  into  the  holes.  When  the  gutta-percha  was  in 
a  manner  glued  on  to  a  new  upper  leather  as  first  practised, 
the  soles  came  'away  from  the  oily  leather,  as  a  matter  of 
course.  However,  we  only  recommend  gutta-percha  either 
as  a  middle  sole  between  two  others,  or  as  an  affix  to  the 
outer  sole.  The  soles  may  be  affixed  by  any  person  with 
ordinary  skill,  which  is  an  important  recommendation 
where  saving  is  almost  as  necessary  as  comfort.  We 
discard  all  solutions  and  cements,  and  have  done  so  for 
years. 

Our  mode  of  operation  is  regularly  now  the  follow- 
ing : — When  our  boots  or  shoes  require  a  new  pair  of 
soles,  we  take  them  and  dry  them  well  before  the  fire. 
We  scrape  the  soles  thoroughly  all  over,  so  as  not  to  leave 
any  grit  upon  them  ;  we  then  take  a  small  piece  of  gutta- 
percha and  rub  it  into  the  leather  soles  with  a  hot  iron, 
usually  a  screwdriver,  covering  the  soles  with  a  thin  coat 
or  plaster  of  gutta-percha.  We  lay  the  boot  thus  prepared 
before  the  fire,  where  it  will  keep  hot.  Then  we  take  a 
gutta-percha  sole,  put  a  brad-awl  through  it  an  inch  or  so 
from  one  end,  and  hold  it  thus  before  the  fire  as  if  we  were 
toasting  it. 

When  the  surface  is  thoroughly  hot  and  adhesive,  we 
lay  the  new  sole,  the  cool  side  down,  on  a  piece  of  paper 
upon  a  board,  and  immediately  place  upon  it  in  a  proper 
position  the  boot  which  we  have  kept  hot.  If  the  paper 
sticks,  never  mind,  it  can  easily  be  removed  afterwards  ; 
we  then  press  the  new  sole  on  equally  with  our  fingers, 
until  it  is  well  fixed  and  properly  shaped.  It  may  then 
be  allowed  to  cool,  and  afterwards  be  trimmed  with  a 
knife. 

If  the  process  is  correctly  gone  through  according  to  the 
directions  above  given,  the  gutta-percha  sole  will  wear  out 
without  being  detached.  Leather  or  gutta-percha  soles 
with  holes  in  them,  or  worn  away  in  part,  may  be  made 
good  by  simply  melting  upon  them  with  the  hot  screw- 
driver pieces  of  gutta-percha,  old  or  new  ;  any  fragments 
will  do.  But  in  this  case,  also,  the  boots  must  be  dry, 
and  all  grit  and  dirt  be  removed  from  the  places  to  be 
operated  upon  ;  in  fact,  dryness  and  freedom  from  dirt  are 
the  essentials  to  success.  Warmth  in  the  soles  is  desirable, 
but  a  good  hot  iron  will  enable  a  clever  hand  to  spread  the 
gutta-percha  in  any  form  or  degree  of  thickness  that  may 
be  desired.  These  are  the  methods  which  we  have  followed 
for  twenty  winters,  and  it  is  in  winter  especially  that  gutta- 
percha soles  are  desirable. 

It  will  be  seen,  from  our  description,  that  the  opera- 
tion of  applying  the  gutta-percha  is  a  remarkably  simple 
one,  and  one,  moreover,  which  may  easily  be  done  at 
home.  When  it  has  once  been  tried,  we  are  confident  that 
our  readers  will  value  the  information  we  have  given. 
An  old  pair  of  boots  or  shoes  may,  by  this  means,  readily 
be  made  water-tight. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


215 


DOMESTIC     MEDICINE. 

ERUPTIVE    FEVERS    {cotitimied). 

Small-Pox  would  occur  in  childhood  even  more  fre- 
quently than  the  other  diseases,  but  for  vaccination. 
Hence  we  may  notice  it  here.  Supposing  an  epidemic 
of  small-pox  to  be  abroad,  all  un-vaccinated  children 
shoHld  be  vaccinated,  grown  up  persons,  who  have 
not  been  re-vaccinated,  should  be  re-vaccinated,  and 
should  avoid,  in  the  meantime,  contact  with  persons 
affected  with  small-pox.  We  shall  first  describe  the 
symptoms  of  an  attack,  and  then  give  some  general 
account  of  its  course  and  treatment.  It  is  not  easy, 
while  a  person  is  sickening  for  small-pox,  to  be  quite 
sure  about  the  fact.  About  twelve  days  elapse  after  the 
poison  of  small-pox  has  been  received,  before  decided 
symptoms  show  themselves.  At  the  end  of  this  time  there 
is  shivering,  often  severe,  and  vomiting,  and  a  general 
feeling  of  lassitude  and  illness.  Another  significant  symp- 
tom is  pain  in  the  back,  often  so  acute  as  to  absorb  the 
patient's  attention,  and  lead  him  to  think  that  his  back 
has  been  hurt.  There  is  also  heat  of  skin,  thirst,  and 
loss  of  appetite.  About  two  days  after  the  shivering,  the 
eruption  begins  to  appear  ;  first  as  little  red  points,  which 
gradually  ripen  into  the  spots  of  small-pox.  These  points 
enlarge,  in  three  or  four  days  a  little  fluid  begins  to  appear 
at  the  top  of  them,  and  they  go  on  to  ripen  into  the  fully 
developed  vesicle  of  small-pox,  containing  first  a  clear 
fluid,  and  then  small-pox  matter.  The  spots  appear  first 
in  the  face,  neck,  and  wrists,  secondly  on  the  trunk, 
and  lastly  on  the  lower  extremities  ;  they  fill  and  ripen 
by  the  ninth  day,  at  which  time  the  pustules  break  and 
crusts  or  scabs  form,  which  begm  to  fall  off  in  four  or 
five  days  more.  The  severity  of  the  disease  depends  on 
the  amount  of  the  eruption,  which  is  as  a  rule  less 
when  small-pox  occurs  after  vaccination ;  and  it  has 
been  observed  that  the  more  vaccination  marks  there 
are,  and  the  deeper  they  are,  the  less  severe  is  the  dis- 
ease. If  the  small-pox  is  slight,  the  spots  remain  distinct ; 
if,  on  the,  other  hand,  the  spots  are  numerous,  they  run 
into  each  other.  The  case  is  then  said  to  be  one  of 
confluent  small-pox.  Occurring  in  the  unvaccinated  it  is 
a  horrible  disease,  and  fatal  in  about  one  in  three  cases. 

Treatment. — The  domestic  treatment  of  a  patient  with 
small-pox  consists  in  the  administration  of  light  pleasant 
drinks  and  simple  diet,  such  as  gruel,  weak  beef  tea, 
milk  and  tea,  barley-water,  plain  water,  tepid  sponging; 
in  frequent  changes  of  well 'aired  linen,  and  in  keeping 
the  patient  in  a  well  ventilated  room,  and  in  a  bed  with- 
out curtains  and  that  does  not  unduly  heat  the  patient. 
The  room  should  be  as  thinly  furnished  and  as  free  from 
curtains  and  carpets  as  possible,  as  the  contagion  of  small- 
pox is  very  intense,  and  gathers  about  such  things.  For 
the  relief  of  irritation  in  the  eruption,  olive  oil  may  be 
applied,  or  equal  parts  of  glycerine  and  rose-water,  after 
bathing  with  tepid  water.  The  medical  treatment  will  of 
course  devolve  upon  a  medical  man.  In  places  where 
a  medical  man  is  not  to  be  had,  the  above  treatment  is 
the  most  important.  Violent  purging  should  be  abstained 
from.  If  the  patient  has  been  unvaccinated — and,  indeed, 
in  any  severe  case — the  greatest  danger  sets  in  about  the 
eleventh  day  of  the  disease,  and  the  eighth  of  the  eruption. 
The  fever  then  increases,  and  the  swelling  of  the  skin  and 
face  is  greatest,  and  renders  the  patient  both  uncomfort- 
able and  most  unseemly  to  behold.  Delirium,  twitchings, 
or  diarrhoea  are  bad  symptoms  at  this  stage.  If  the 
anti-vaccinationists  could  see  a  case  at  this  stage  of  the 
disease  often,  they  would  talk  more  gratefully  and  sensibly 
about  vaccination.  The  patient  now  requires  to  be  well 
supported  by  strong  beef  tea,  and  if  much  depressed,  and 
the  spots  do  not  fill  well,  by  wine. 

'■  To  prevent  the  Disease  spreading. — Let  every  person  in 
the  liouse  be.  re-vaccinated,  and  "the  patient  isolated  as 


much  as  possible.  Clothes  must  either  be  destroyed  or 
dealt  with  as  we  have  recommended  in  the  case  of  scarlet 
fever,  and  exposed  thereafter  for  a  considerable  time  to  the 
air.  The  scabs  contain  the  matter  of  the  disease,  and,  as 
they  fall  off,  should  be  collected  and  burnt  or  disinfected. 

TVPHOID  AND  TYPHUS,  AND  INF.XNTILE  INTER.MITTEN'T 
FEVERS. 

Before  leaving  the  eruptive  fevers,  we  must  notice 
typhoid  and  typhus  fevers,  not  because  they  occur  so 
frequently  in  childhood  as  the  fevers  we  have  already 
noticed,  but  because  they  are  accompanied  with  an  erup- 
tion, and  will  be  better  understood,  perhaps,  if  treated  in 
this  connection.  They  resemble  the  other  eruptive 
diseases  of  which  we  have  treated,  not  only  in  having 
eruptions  attended  with  fever,  but  in  the  fact  that  persons 
do  not,  as  a  rule,  suffer  twice  from  them.  It  is  well  to 
impress  on  the  readers  of  a  popular  book  on  diseases, 
tTiat  typhoid  and  typhus  fevers  are  essentially  different 
diseases  ;  that  they  are  different  in  their  causes,  different 
in  their  symptoms,  different  in  their  duration,  different  in 
their  risks,  and  especially  different  in  the  degree  of  their 
contagiousness.  The  difference  of  these  diseases  has 
been  made  out  in  a  great  measure  by  our  own  distinguished 
countryman,  Sir  William  Jenner,  physician  to  Her  Majesty 
Oucen  Victoria.  As  typhoid  is  the  more  common  disease 
of  the  two,  especially  in  childhood,  we  shall  treat  of  it  first. 

Typhoid  Fever — or,  as  it  is  called  when  it  affects  children, 
Infantile  Remittent  Fever — often  sets  in  insidiously,  with 
general  signs  of  illness,  such  as  headache,  great  muscular 
weakness  and  soreness,  heat  of  skin,  and  furred  tongue. 
If  these  symptoms  persist  for  several  days  without  cough, 
or  rheumatic  pains  in  joints,  or  sore  throat  to  give  them 
explanation  ;  and  if  to  these  symptoms  is  added  more  or 
less  diarrhoea,  and  in  the  course  of  eight  or  ten  days  a 
slight  eruption  of  red  spots  or  pimples,  which  disappear 
under  pressure,  then  it  is  pretty  clear  that  the  case  is  one 
of  typhoid  fever.  Tlie  spots  occur  on  the  abdomen,  chest, 
and  back.  They  may  be  very  few  in  number,  not  more 
than  two  or  three,  or  they  may  be  as  many  as  thirty  or 
forty.  If  the  spots  are  very  numerous,  and  the  eruption 
continues,  the  disease  is  generally  severe,  or  at  least  pro- 
longed. The  eruption  does'  not  come  out  all  at  once,  but 
spots  show  themselves  generally  about  the  eighth  day, 
and  on  the  following  days  others  appear.  Each  spot  has 
a  duration  of  from  three  to  fifteen  days.  Muscular  weak- 
ness, fever  or  heat  of  skin,  diarrhoea  and  the  eruption  of 
rose  or  red  spots,  and  a  furred  tongue  tending  to  become 
dry,  constitute  the  principal  features  of  this  disease.  As 
the  disease  proceeds,  more  or  less  delirium  occurs.  The 
diarrhoea  is  a  very  important  and  peculiar  symptom.  It 
depends  upon  the  fact,  that  in  this  disease  the  small 
intestine  is  almost  invariably  affected.  The  little  glands 
in  it  are  either  swollen  or  inflamed,  or  actually  ulcerated. 
In  this  way  diarrhoea  is  caused,  and  the  absorption  of 
food  into  the  system  is  interfered  with.  Hence,  the 
patients  lose  flesh  fast,  and  often  become  extremely 
emaciated.  The  appearance  of  the  motions  is  almost 
always  unhealthy  and  relaxed  ;  they  are  very  offensive,  of 
a  peculiar  yeUow-ochrey  colour,  and  they  separate  on 
standing  into  a  supernatant  fluid  and  a  tlaky  sediment. 
The  intestine  is  sometimes  so  much  ulcerated  as  to  bleed 
freely — the  blood  appearing  in  the  motions.  Consistently 
with  this  state  of  the  bowels,  there  is  generally  tender- 
ness and  some  swelling  of  the  abdomen  (stomach).  When 
the  disease  occurs  in  children,  it  is  not  so  fatal  as  in 
adults,  and  it  is  characterised  by  remarkable  remissions 
of— that  is  to  say,  improvements  in — the  symptoms.  The 
child  who  has  been  hot  and  restless,  and  perhaps  slightly 
delirious  in  the  night,  is  comparatively  well  about  nine  or 
ten  in  the  morning,  and  remains  so  for  three  or  four  hours. 
The  fever  is  essentially  connected  with  the  state  of  the 
intestine  :  but  there  may  be  cough  and  other  complica- 


2l6 


DOMESTIC    MEDICINE. 


tions.  It  is  a  disease  which  extends  over  several  weeks. 
In  the  case  of  children  it  is  not  a  very  fatal  disease ; 
though  a  disease  of  great  importance  and  severity, 
often  leading  to  extreme  emaciation,  which  suggests  fears 
that  there  is  some  other  complaint  about  the  child.  It  will 
be  readily  understood  that  with  such  a  sensitive  condition 
of  the  intestine,  the  child  or  even  the  adult  passing 
through  or  recovering  from  this  disease  is  apt  to  be  hurt 
by  irritating  or  injudicious  diet. 

We  should  not  fail  to  say,  that  bed  sores  are  not  un- 
common in  this  disease,  owing  to  the  patient  lying  so  long 
on  his  back,  and  this  in  a  prostrate  condition. 

Causes. — In  the  great  majority  of  cases  typhoid  fever 
seems  to  arise  from  a  very  particular  cause — namely,  from 
animal  or  vegetable  matter  in  a  state  of  decay  or  putre- 
faction, and  especially  from  sewage  matter.  In  every 
house  in  which  cases  occur,  drains  should  be  looked  to,  to 
see  if  there  is  any  escape  of  sewage  matter  or  of  sewage 
gases.  A  very  common  cause  of  the  disease  in  badly 
drained  towns  or  villages,  is  the  admixture  of  sewage 
matter  with  drinking  water.  This  is  very  apt  to  happen 
if  well  water  is  used.  Every  now  and  then  we  hear  of 
wholesale  epidemics  of  this  disease  occurring  in  the  line 
of  a  certain  set  of  water-pipes,  houses  supplied  by 
other  water-pipes  being  exempt  amid  prevailing  disease. 
The  motions  of  persons  affected  with  this  disease  are 
charged  with  the  power  of  conveying  it,  so  they  should  be 
at  once  disinfected  and  completely  removed.  AH  drains 
of  the  house  should  be  disinfected  also.  For  this  purpose 
a  teaspoonful  or  two  of  crude  cs.rbolic  acid  should  be 
mixed  with  every  motion  ;  and  the  same  should  be  fre- 
quently put  into  the  water-closet  pan.  Motions  should 
not  be  allowed  to  remain  long  in  the  room. 

Treatment. — We  need  scarcely  say  that  typhoid  fever 
is  not  a  disease  for  domestic  treatment  only.  The  do- 
mestic treatment  will  consist  chiefly  in  the  administration 
of  proper  food  ;  in  anticipating  the  natural  wants  of  the 
patient  independent  of  suggestions  from  him  ;  in  looking 
for  any  redness  or  sore  of  the  back,  and  in  keeping  the 
patient  as  clean  as  possible  consistently  with  not  disturb- 
ing or  raising  him  too  much.  Beef  tea,  broth,  and  milk 
will  be  the  best  diet  j  but  towards  the  second  or  third 
week  the  patient  may  require  stimulants.  The  exact  degree 
and  kind  of  these  must  be  determined  by  a  medical  man. 
There  has  been  a  tendency  of  late  years  to  administer 
too  many  stimulants  both  in  fever  and  other  diseases  ;  but 
used  moderately  and  judiciously,  they  are  undoubtedly 
beneficial  in  this  disease.  We  should  repeat  here  the 
caution  about  giving  animal  or  other  solid  food  during 
convalescence  from  typhoid  fever.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  in  consideration  of  the  fact  that  the  intestine  is  only 
recovering  from  a  state  of  ulceration.  Relapses  may  be 
induced,  and  other  harm  done  by  giving  solid  food  too  soon. 
The  apartment  of  the  patient  should  be  kept  airy,  without 
exposing  him  to  draughts  of  air.  The  skin  of  the  back  should 
be  frequently  looked  to.  I  nflamed  spots  may  be  bathed  with 
a  little  spirits  of  camphor,  and  a  water  or  an  air  cushion 
should  be  placed  under  the  part  on  which  the  patient  lies 
constantly.  If  the  disease  is  infectious  or  contagious  at 
all,  it  is  only  slightly  so — unlike  typhus,  which  we  shall 
immediately  describe ;  and  if  proper  care  be  taken  to 
remove  and  disinfect  all  the  discharges  of  the  patient, 
especially  the  motions,  to  rectify  and  disinfect  the  drains, 
and  to  purify  the  water  supply,  there  is  little  fear  of  it 
spreading.  The  rest  of  the  treatment  must  devolve  on  a 
medical  man,  and  requires  much  judgment 

Typhus  is  not  so  common  in  children  as  in  adults ; 
nor,  probably,  is  it  so  common  in  children  as  typhoid. 
It  is  a  disease  arising  out  of  a  state  of  poverty ;  want 
and  overcrowding  are  the  conditions  in  which  it  arises. 
But  when  it  occurs,  it  is  intensely  contagious,  and  may 
affect  any  one  who  has  much  to  do  with  the  patient.  It 
often    prevails    epidemically    during   seasons   of  general 


scarcity.  Its  chief  centres  are  large  towns,  especially 
Glasgow  and  Liverpool.  Its  chief  victims  are  the  poor, 
and  those  who  have  unavoidable  or  kind  relations  with 
them— unlike  typhoid,  v/hich  attacks  rich  and  poor 
indiscriminately. 

The  symptoms  of  the  disease  somewhat  resemble  those 
of  typhoid  fever — that  is  to  say,  it  sets  in  with  heaviness, 
muscular  weakness,  headache  accompanied  with  fever, 
and  furred  tongue,  which  soon  becomes  dry.  There  is 
great  prostration  of  nervous  and  muscular  strength.  The 
points  of  distinction  between  this  disease  and  typhoid  are 
principally  two  or  three  :  first,  in  the  nature  of  the  erup- 
tion ;  secondly,  in  the  absence  generally  of  diarrhoea 
and  of  that  tenderness  of  some  parts  of  the  abdomen 
which  are  so  common  in  typhoid  ;  thirdly,  in  the  disease 
being  of  shorter  duration,  and  more  apt  to  come  to  a 
height  and  change  definitely  on  a  given  day  in  the  way  of 
a  crisis,  such  as  the  fourteenth  day.  A  favourable  crisis 
is  shown  by  a  decided  fall  in  the  temperature  of  the 
patient,  or  by  a  fall  in  the  pulse,  or  by  the  recurrence  of 
sleep  after  prolonged  watchfulness,  or  bv  the  concurrence 
of  a  number  of  these  favourable  symplftms.  Relapse  is 
not  common  in  typhus. 

When  fatal,  it  is  usually  so  between  the  twelfth  and 
twentieth  days.  The  greater  the  age  of  the  patient,  the 
greater  the  danger  of  the  disease. 

The  eruption,  or  rash  of  typhus,  appears  about  the 
seventh  day,  or  earlier  ;  it  consists  of  irregular  spots  of  a 
dusky  or  mulberry  hue,  and  after  the  first  two  or  three 
days  scarcely  disappears  under  pressure.  The  spots  do 
not  come  and  go,  as  is  the  case  with  the  rose  spots  of 
typhoid  ;  they  all  appear  in  the  course  of  three  or  four 
days,  and  remain  throughout  the  disease. 

Treatment. — The  general  and  more  domestic  treatment 
of  typhus  does  not  differ  from  that  of  typhoid.  The  ner- 
vous prostration  is  greater,  the  weakness  of  the  circulation 
is  greater,  and  hence  stimulants  form  a  more  indispensable 
part  of  the  treatment,  but  their  use  must,  of  course,  be 
dictated  by  medical  judgment.  Good  ventilation,  plenty  of 
simple  nourishment,  such  as  beef  tea,  milk,  &c. ;  attention 
to  the  wants  of  the  patient ;  looking  closely  to  the  state  of 
the  back  for  redness  or  sores,  and  being  ready  with  an  air 
or  a  water  cushion,  and  doing  everything  for  the  patient 
with  as  little  disturbance  or  movement  of  him  as  possible, 
are  the  principal  points  in  the  domestic  management  of 
cases  of  typhus  fever. 

But  there  is  another  point  of  great  importance  ;  it  is 
this  :  to  remember  that  the  disease  is  very  contagious,  and 
that  therefore  the  number  of  persons  exposed  to  the  risk 
should  not  be  greater  than  is  proper  or  unavoidable.  The 
room  should  be  freed  from  carpets  and  curtains,  and  have 
a  comfortable  amount  of  fire  in  it.  Above  all,  it  should 
be  well  aired.  All  the  discharges  of  the  patient  should  be 
disinfected,  as  directed  in  the  case  of  typhoid.  Clothes 
should  be  disinfected  by  prolonged  boiling,  or  by  exposure 
to  a  dry  heat  of  200  degrees. 

It  will  be  understood  how  significant  and  important  is 
the  occurrence  of  such  diseases  as  typhoid  and  typhus. 
On  any  large  scale  they  are  matters  of  public  interest,  for 
they  imply  errors  in  the  social  conditions  of  the  people, 
such  as  it  is  the  duty  of  good  government,  local  and 
imperial,  to  prevent.  Epidemics  of  typhoid  happen  so 
often,  and  on  such  a  huge  scale,  in  connection  with 
palpable  faults  and  flaws  in  the  water  supply  of  towns 
and  villages,  that  the  head  of  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment of  the  Privy  Council  thinks  the  time  has  come 
for  making  water  companies  responsible  in  damages 
to  the  sufferers  or  their  survivors.  Often,  of  course,  the 
fault  is  more  that  of  the  individual  householder  than  of 
the  water  companies 

Epidemics  of  typhus  suggest  extensive  destitution  and 
the  crowding  of  the  poor  into  ill-ventilated  houses,  or 
rather  hovels,  in  which  the  disease  spreads  extensively. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


217 


ANIMALS  KEPT   FOR   PROFIT.— POULTRY. 

VI.— TURKEYS  AND  GUINEA-FOWL. 

The  most  opposite  opinions  have  been  expressed  by  dif- 
ferent breeders  as  to  whether  or  not  the  rearing  of  turkeys 
in  England  can  be  made  profitable  ;  and  the  general 
judgment,  we  are  bound  to  say,  seems  to  be  that  they  can 
barely  be  made  to  repay  the  cost  of  their  food.  There  are 
not  wanting,  however,  those  who  from  their  own  experi- 
ence maintain  the  contrary  ;  and  we  believe  that  where 
the  balance-sheet  is  unsatisfactory,  the  cause  will  generally 
be  found  in  heavy  losses  from  want  of  care.  The  usual 
mortality  in  turkey-chicks  is  tremendous,  and  quite  suffi- 
cient to  eat  up  any  possible  amount  of  profit  ;  but  there 
are  persons  who  for  years  have  reared  every  chick ;  and, 
under  these  circumstances,  they  will  yield  a  fair  return. 


several  after  commencing  incubation.  In  a  state  of 
nature,  the  turkey-cock  is  constantly  seeking  to  destroy 
both  the  eggs  and  the  chickens,  which  the  female  as 
sedulously  endeavours  to  conceal  from  him.  There  is 
generally  more  or  less  of  the  same  disposition  when 
domesticated,  and,  when  it  appears,  it  must  be  carefully 
provided  against.  The  turkey-hen  is  very  prudish,  but 
gives  scarcely  any  trouble  while  sitting.  She  sits  so  con- 
stantly that  it  is  needful  to  remove  her  daily  from  her  nest 
to  feed,  or  she  would  absolutely  starve.  Nevertheless, 
when  absent  she  is  apt  to  be  forgetful,  and  therefore,  ff 
allowed  to  range  at  liberty,  care  should  be  taken  that  she 
returns  in  time— twenty  minutes.  Besides  her  daily  feed, 
a  water  vessel  and  some  soft  food  should  be  always  within 
her  reach.  No  one  must  visit  the  hatching-house  but  the 
regular  attendant,  or  the  hens  will  get  startled,  and  pro- 


VARIBGATRO  CAMBRIDGE  TURKEYS. 


The  number  of  hens  allowed  to  a  turkey-cock  ought  to 
be  limited  to  twelve  or  fifteen — quite  enough  brood  stock 
for  even  a  large  establishment.  The  turkey-cock  may  be 
used  for  breeding  at  two  years  old,  and  the  hen  at  twelve 
months,  but  are  not  in  their  prime  till  a  year  older.  They 
will  be  first-class  breeding  stock,  as  a  rule,  for  at  least 
two  years  later,  and  many  cocks  will  breed  splendid 
chickens  for  considerably  longer  ;  a  good  bird  should 
not  therefore  be  discarded  till  his  progeny  show  symptoms 
of  degeneracy.  The  size  of  the  hens  is  of  special  import- 
ance, much  more  than  that  of  the  cock,  in  whom  good 
shape,  strength,  and  spirit  are  of  more  value,  if  combined 
with  a  fair  good  size.  The  turkey-hen  generally  lays  about 
eighteen  eggs — sometimes  only  ten  or  a  dozen,  and  when 
each  egg  has  been  taken  away  when  laid,  it  may  be  more. 
We  once  heard  of  ninety  eggs  being  laid  by  a  turkey-hen, 
but  can  scarcely  credit  such  a  statement.  A  very  good 
plan  is  to  give  a  turkey's  first  seven  eggs  to  a  common 
hen — quite  as  many  as  she  can  cover — when  there  will 
be  just  about  enough  laid  subsequently  to  be  hatched  by 
the  turkey  herself.  The  best  time  to  hatch  the  chicks 
out  is  in  the  months  of  May  and  June,  or  even  July  ;  and 
all  eggs  set  should  be  marked,  as  the  turkey  often  lays 


bably  break  many  eggs,  which  easily  happens,  from  the 
great  weight  of  the  birds.  The  chicks  break  the  shell 
from  the  twenty-sixth  to  the  twenty-ninth  day,  scarcely 
ever  later.  The  day  but  one  before  the  hatchi-ng  rs 
expected,  the  hen  should  be  plentifully  fed,  the  nest 
cleaned  of  any  dung  or  feathers  during  her  absence,  and 
an  ample  supply  of  food  and  water  placed  where  she  can 
reach  it,  as  she  imtst  not  again  be  disturbed  till  the  chicks 
are  out.  In  dry  weather,  if  the  nest  be  in  a  dry  place,  the 
eggs  will  have  been  daily  sprinkled  as  described  under 
hatching.  The  egg-shells  may  be  cleared  away  after 
hatching  has  proceeded  some  hours,  but  the  chicks  should 
never  be  taken  away  from  the  hen,  and  never  be  forced  ta 
eat.  The  latter  practice  is  very  general,  as  turkey- chicks 
are  very  stupid,  and  do  not  seem  to  know  how  to  peck* 
But  a  much  better  plan  is  to  put  two  ordinary  hen's  eggs 
under  the  turkey,  five  or  six  days  after  she  began  to  sit, 
which  will  then  hatch  about  the  same  time  as  her  own, 
and  the  little  chickens  will  teach  the  young  turkeys,  quite 
soon  enough,  what  they  should  do.  Water  or  milk  may 
be  given,  however,  by  dipping  the  tips  of  the  finger,  or 
a  camel-hair  pencil,  in  the  fluid,  and  applying  it  to  the 
end  of  their  beaks.     The  best  feeding  at  first — say  for  a. 


2l8 


ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PROFIT.— POULTRY. 


week — is  hard-boiled  eggs,  chopped  small,  mixed  with 
nothing  but  minced  dandelion.  When  dandelions  cannot 
be  obtained — and  it  is  well  worth  while  to  grow  them 
where  turkeys  are  reared — boiled  nettles  chopped  fine  are 
perhaps  the  best  substitute.  At  the  end  of  a  week  or  ten 
days  some  bread-crumbs  and  barley-meal  may  gradually 
be  added  to  the  egg,  which  may  be  by  degrees  lessened, 
until  quite  discontinued  at  the  end  of  three  weeks.  About 
this  time,  a  portion  of  boiled  potato  forms  an  excellent 
addition  to  the  food,  and  by  degrees  some  small  grain 
may  be  added  also — in  fact,  assimilating  the  diet  very 
much  to  that  of  other  poultry.  Curds  also  are  excellent 
as  a  portion  of  the  dietary,  but  must  be  squeezed  very  dry 
before  they  are  given.  They  are  easiest  prepared  by 
adding  a  pinch  of  alum  to  a  quart  of  milk  slightly  warmed. 
By  this  feeding,  the  little  chicks  will  get  well  through  their 
Jirsi  great  danger — the  tendency  to  diarrhoea  already 
alluded  to  ;  and  the  cost  of  the  egg  will  be  repaid  by  the 
extra  number  reared.  The  second  peril  to  be  guarded 
against  is  cold  and  damp  :  a  wetting  is  absolutely  fatal. 
The  chicks  should  be  kept  entirely  under  a  s'hed,  on  a 
board  floor  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  nicely  sanded, 
except  during  settled  sunny  weather,  when  they  may  be 
allowed  a  little  liberty  on  the  grass,  after  the  dew  is  quite 
dry.  But  in  cold  or  windy  weather,  however  fine,  they 
miust  be  kept  in  the  shed,  and  well  screened  from  the 
wind.  If  there  be  a  one-storey  building,  therr  best  place 
will  be  the  top  floor,  the  bottom  being  devoted  to  the 
sitting  hens  and  other  adult  stock.  Their  water  also 
must  be  so  supplied  that  they  cannot  wet  themselves  by 
any  possibility  ;  and  these  precautions  must  be  continued 
till  they  are  nine  or  ten  weeks  old,  when  they  will  begin 
to  "  put  out  the  red,"  as  it  is  called,  or  to  develop  the 
singular  red  excrescences  on  the  neck  so  characteristic  of 
the  turkey  breed.  This  process  will  last  some  little  time, 
and  when  completed  the  birds  will  be  pretty  fully  fledged. 
They  are  now  hardy,  but  must  not  be  suddenly  exposed 
to  rain  or  cold  winds.  Take  reasonable  care  of  them  for 
awhile  longer,  and  very  soon  they  will  have  become  the 
hardiest  birds  known  in  the  poultry-yard,  braving  with 
impunity  the  fiercest  storms,  and  even  preferring,  if  per- 
mitted, to  roost  on  high  trees  through  the  depth  of  winter. 
In  fact,  turkeys  will  rarely  roost  in  a  fowl-house  ;  and  a 
very  high  open  shed  should  therefore  be  provided — the 
higher  the  better — the  perches  being  placed  as  high  as 
possible.  The  ordinary  domestic  turkey  is  of  two  kinds 
— the  Norfolk  (black  all  over)  and  the  Cambridge.  The 
latter  is  of  all  colours — the  best,  to  our  fancy,  being  a 
dark  copper  bronze  ;  but  fawn  colour  and  pure  white  are 
often  seen,  as  are  also  variegated  birds,  which  occasionally 
present  a  very  magnificent  appearance.  The  dark  Cam- 
bridge usually  attains  the  greatest  size. 

Tlie  Giunea-fowl  mates  in  pairs,  and  an  equal  number 
of  males  and  females  must  therefore  be  provided,  to 
prevent  disappointment.  In  commencing,  it  is  needful 
to  procure  some  eggs  and  set  them  under  a  coinmon 
hen  ;  for  if  old  birds  be  purchased  they  will  wander  off 
for  miles  as  soon  as  they  are  set  at  liberty,  and  never 
return  ;  indeed,  no  fowl  gives  such  trouble  from  its 
wandering  habits.  If  hatched  in  the  poultry-yard,  how- 
ever, and  regularly  fed,  they  will  remain;  but  must 
always  have  one  meal  regularly  at  night,  or  they  will 
scarcely  ever  roost  at  home.  Nothing,  however,  will 
persuade  them  to  sleep  in  the  fowl-house,  and  they 
usually  roost  in  the  lower  branches  of  a  tree.  The  hen 
lays  pretty  freely  from  May  or  June  to  about  August. 
She  is  a  very  shy  bird,  and  if  eggs  are  taken  from  her 
nest  with  her  knowledge,  will  forsake  it  altogether,  and 
.seek  another,  which  she  conceals  with  the  most  sedulous 
■  care.  A  few  should  therefore  always  be  left,  and  the  nest 
never  be  visited  when  she  is  in  sight.  It  is  best  to  give 
the  earliest  eggs  to  a  common  hen,  as  the  Guinea-fowl 
herself   frequently    sits    too  late    to  rear  a  brood.     If 


"  broody "  in  due  season,  however,  she  rarely  fails  to 
hatch  nearly  all.  Incubation  is  from  twenty-six  to 
twenty-nine  or  thirty  days.  The  chicks  require  food 
almost  immediately — within,  at  most,  six  hours  after 
hatching — and  should  be  fed  and  cared  for  in  the  same 
manner  as  young  turkeys,  though  they  may  be  allowed 
rather  more  liberty.  It  should  be  observed,  however, 
that  they  require  more  cotistaiit  feeding  than  any  other 
chickens,  a  few  hours'  abstinence  being  fatal  to  them  ; 
and  they  need  also  rather  more  animal  food  to  rear  them 
successfully  and  keep  them  in  good  condition,  especially 
in  the  winter.  The  flesh  of  the  Guinea-fowl  is  of  exquisite 
flavour,  much  like  that  of  the  pheasant.  The  body  about 
equals  in  size  an  ordinary  Dorking,  and  is  very  plump 
and  well-proportioned. 

DISEASES   OF  POULTRY. 

When  the  stock  is  provided,  let  it  be  not  only  attended 
to  as  described  in  our  last  paper,  but  carefully  observed, 
occasionally  for  symptoms  of  disease. 

Loss  of  Feathers  is  almost  always  caused  either  by  want 
of  green  food,  or  having  no  dust-bath.  Let  these  wants 
therefore  be  properly  supplied,  removing  the  fowls,  if 
possible,  to  a  grass  run.  For  local  application,  we 
prefer  an  unguent  composed  of  sulphur  and  creosote, 
but  nothing  will  bring  back  the  feathers  before  the  next 
moult. 

Roup  is  always  caused  by  wet,  or  very  cold  winds.  It 
begins  with  a  common  cold,  and  terminates  in  an 
offensive  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  eyes,  often 
hanging  in  froth  about  them.  It  is  highly  contagious, 
the  disease  being,  as  we  believe,  communicated  by  the 
sickly  fowl's  beak  contaminating  the  drinking  water; 
therefore,  let  all  fowls  affected  by  it  be  at  once  put  by 
themselves,  and  have  a  separate  water-vessel.  Keep 
them  warm,  and  feed  with  meal  only,  mixed  with  hot  ale 
instead  of  water  ;  add  sulphate  of  iron  to  the  water,  and 
give  daily,  in  a  bolus  of  meal,  half  a  grain  of  cayenne 
pepper,  with  half  a  grain  of  powdered  allspice,  or  a  roup 
pill.  Give  also  half  a  cabbage-leaf  every  day,  and  wash 
the  head  and  eyes  morning  and  evening  with  very  diluted 
vinegar,  or  a  five-grain  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc.  Roup 
runs  its  course  rapidly,  and  in  a  week  the  bird  will  either 
be  almost  well,  or  so  nearly  dead  that  it  had  better  be 
killed  at  once.  It  is  the  disease  of  poultry,  and  to  be 
dreaded  accordingly;  fortunately,  the  symptoms  are  spe- 
cific, and  the  treatment  equally  so. 

Diarrhoea  may  be  caused  either  by  cold,  wet  weather, 
with  inadequate  shelter ;  neglect  in  cleansing  the  house 
and  run ;  or  from  the  reaction  after  constipation  caused 
by  too  little  green  food.  In  this  case,  feed  on  warm 
barley  meal ;  give  some  green  food,  but  not  very  much ; 
and  at  first  administer,  four  times  a  day,  three  drops  of 
camphorated  spirit  on  a  pill  of  meal.  This  will  usually 
effect  a  cure.  If  the  evacuations  become  coloured  with 
blood,  the  diarrhoea  has  passed  into  dysentery,  and  re- 
covery is  almost  hopeless.  Another  prescription  is  one 
grain  each  of  opium  and  ipecacuanha,  with  five  grains  of 
chalk  ;  but  the  camphorated  spirit  we  consider  a  better 
remedy. 

Soft  Eggs  are  generally  caused  by  over-feeding  the 
hens,  in  which  case  the  remedy  is  self-evident.  It  may, 
however,  occur  from  want  of  lime,  which  must  then 
be  supplied,  the  best  form  being  calcined  and  pounded 
oyster-shells.  Occasionally  it  is  occasioned  by  fright, 
from  being  driven  about,  but  in  that  case  will  right  itself 
in  a  day  or  two.  \i  perfect  eggs  are  habitually  dropped 
on  the  ground,  the  proprietor  should  see  whether  the  nests 
do  not  need  purifying.     This  leads  us  to 

Insect  Vermin,  which  can  only  be  troublesome  from 
gross  neglect,  either  of  the  fowls  or  their  habitations.  In 
the  one  case,  the  remedy  is  a  dust-bath,  mixed  with 
powdered  coke  or  sulphur;   in  the  other,  an  energetic 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


219 


lime-washing  of  the  houses  and  sheds  will  get  rid  of  the 
annoyance. 

It  will  be  seen  that  by  far  the  greater  proportion  of 
poultry  diseases  arise  either  from  cold  and  wet,  or  neglect 
in  preserving  cleanliness— often  both  combined.  It 
should  be  noted  also,  that  the  first  general  symptom  of 
nearly  all  such  diseases  is  diarrhoea,  which  we  have 
observed  usually  manifests  itself  even  in  roup,  before  any 
discharge  from  the  nostrils  is  perceptible.  At  this  stage 
much  evil  may  be  warded  off.  Whenever  a  fowl  hangs 
its  wings,  and  looks  drooping,  let  it  be  seen  at  once 
•whether  it  appears  purged,  and  if  so,  give  immediately,  in 
a  table-spoonful  of  warm  water,  a  tea-spoonful  of  strong 
brandy  saturated  with  camphor.  Repeat  this  next 
morning,  and  in  most  cases  the  disease,  whatever  it  is, 
will  be  checked  ;  care  being  of  course  taken  to  give  the 
invalid  warmth  and  good  shelter,  with  ale  in  its  food.  If 
the  evacuation  continues,  administer  the  stronger  pre- 
scription given  for  diarrhoea.  Chickens  will  have  little 
or  no  disease  if  treated  as  we  shall  direct  in  a  future 
number.  

COOKING. 

PICKLES    {continued). 

Pickled  Gherkins. — One  of  the  few  pickles  in  esteem  in 
France,  where  a  peculiar  sort — the  cornichon,  short  and 
thick — is  grown  exclusively  for  pickling  ;  cucumbers  being 
rarely  eaten  sliced,  as  with  us.  The  smaller  the  gherkins 
(from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  long),  the  more  they 
are  esteemed :  to  insure  which  smallness,  they  are  daily 
gathered  from  the  beds,  and  thrown  immediately  into 
strong  salt  and  water.  When  yo\i  have  enough  to  fill 
your  jar  or  jars,  take  them  out  of  the  brine,  and  drain 
them.  Peel  shalots  (or  small  onions),  in  the  proportion 
of  about  one  in  ten  to  the  number  of  gherkins.  Have  a 
few  sprigs  of  fresh  tarragon.  Pack  the  gherkins  in  the 
jar,  interspersing  with  them  the  shalots  and  a  few  tarragon 
leaves.  When  the  jar  is  nearly  full,  lay  on  the  top  some 
j^rz^j  of  "tarragon.  Pour  boiling  vinegar  over  all.  Spice 
may  be  boiled  with  it,  but  is  not  needful.  If  the  gherkins 
are  not  green  enough,  you  may  pour  off  the  vinegar  after 
awhile,  and  return  it  to  them  boiling  hot.  Our  neighbours 
themselves  care  little  about  the  colour;  though,  to  please 
their  customers,  they  sell  gherkins  in  bottles  made  of 
green-tinted  glass. 

Pickled  Cucumbers,  Tomatoes,  aiid  Beet-root. — We  put 
these  three  articles  together,  on  account  of  the  difficulty 
of  keeping  them  (especially  the  two  last)  pickled,  without 
moulding.  The  remedy  is,  to  extract  the  natural  juices 
by  the  application  of  salt,  which  also  robs  them  of  their 
flavour.  Cucumbers  are  cut,  without  peeling  them,  either 
into  lengths  across,  and  the  seeds  removed  with  an  apple- 
scoop  ;  or  lengthwise,  also  removing  the  seeds.  After 
several  saltings,  they  are  put  into  a  jar,  and  covered  with 
hot  vinegar,  seasoned  with  spice.  Green  tomatoes,  left 
■whole,  are  treated  similarly.  The  addition  of  either  of 
the  three  to  other  pickles,  is  apt  to  mould  them.  They 
require  attention,  for  the  moment  mould  appears,  they 
must  be  taken  out  of  the  jar,  wiped,  put  into  a  fresh 
jar,  and  their  vinegar  poured  over  them,  after  boiling  up. 
Garden  beet  alone  hardly  makes  a  pickle.  The  best  way 
of  using  it  is  to  bake  it  in  a  very  slow  oven,  and  then 
to  slice  it  as  wanted  for  incorporating  with  salads,  &c. 
Green  potato  berries  have  been  pickled  to  pass  for  toma- 
toes, which  is  a  very  dangerous  practice. 

Pickled  Samphire. — The  true  samphire  (Shakespeare's 
Crithmum  maritimum)  is  now  a  rare  plant.  When 
you  are  so  fortunate  as  to  come  into  possession  of  it, 
divide  it  into  small  sprigs,  rinse  them  well,  lay  them 
to  drain  in  the  sun,  and  leave  them  there  till  the 
leaves  begin  to  flag  a  little ;  which,  being  succulent, 
they  are  in  no  very  great  hurry  to  do.    Place  them  in 


their  jar,  and  cover  them  with  hot  vinegar  containing  a 
little  salt  but  no  spice,  so  as  not  to  overpower  their 
natural  aromatic  flavour.  This  plant  is  an  umbellifcr — 
i.e.,  bears  flowers  arranged  like  those  in  celery,  parsley, 
&c.  What  ordinarily  passes  for  samphire  is  a  glasswort 
{Salicornia  herbaced)  common  enough  in  salt  marshes 
and  on  low  muddy  shores  not  often  covered  with  the  tide. 
It  is  not  aromatic,  but  is  full  of  soda;  whence  its  English 
name,  derived  from  its  having  at  one  time  been  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  glass.  It  has  even  assumed  the 
true  samphire's  name  of  passe-pierre,  from  the  belief 
prevalent  amongst  some  people  that  the  latter  relieved 
patients  troubled  with  gravel  and  stone.  Pull  glasswort 
into  sprigs  ;  wash  and  drain  them,  and  pour  over  them 
hot  vinegar  well  charged  with  salt  and  spice.  We  have 
known  glasswort  to  be  boiled  and  eaten  as  a  vegetable, 
from  faith  in  its  healing  virtues. 

Pickled  Nasturtium  Buds  and  Seeds. — The  first  make 
the  more  delicate  pickle,  the  latter  are  the  more  highly 
flavoured.  Both  must  be  gathered  daily  ;  the  buds  before 
the  petals  protrude  beyond  the  calyx,  the  seeds  while 
they  are  still  as  soft  as  green  peas.  It  suffices  to  throw 
either  into  good  strong  cold  vinegar,  and  when  the  har- 
vest is  over,  to  cork  them  down  tightly.  To  say  that 
nasturtium  (properly,  tropceoluni)  sauce  makes  a  good 
substitute  for  caper  sauce,  is  scarcely  fair,  because  it  is 
so  good  in  itself,  and  the  flavour  so  different  to  that  of 
capers,  that  it  may  be  left  to  stand  upon  its  own  merits. 
Other  pretended  substitutes  for  capers  are  the  flower-buds 
of  the  marsh  marigold  {Calt/ui  palustris),  a  ranunculus, 
and  the  unripe  seeds  of  a  garden  species  of  spurge 
{Euphorbia),  falsely  called  by  country  folks  the  caper 
plant.  We  mention  them  only  to  warn  the  reader  against 
both. 

PRESERVES,  ETC. 

Baked  Apples  for  Children. — Take  a  large  earthen  pot, 
and  fill  it  to  within  three  inches  of  the  top  with  well-wiped 
apples  of  any  sort  you  may  have,  but  it  is  best  they 
should  be  all  of  the  same  sort,  in  order  to  cook  equally. 
Neither  peel  them  nor  remove  the  stalks.  Pour  over  them, 
so  as  to  cover  them  completely,  a  mixture  of  treacle  or 
brown  sugar  and  water.  If  the  apples  are  windfalls,  you 
may  allow  a  little  extra  sweetening.  It  will  be  an  im- 
provement if  you  can  put  here  and  there  amongst  them 
some  pieces  of  orange  or  lemon-pceL,  and  a  few  cloves. 
Cover  the  pot  with  a  lid,  or  with  doubled  brown  paper 
tied  over  it  with  string.  Set  it  to  pass  the  night  m  a 
spent  baker's  oven.  If  the  oven  is  too  hot,  the  liquid  in 
the  pot  will  boil  over  or  evaporate,  and  the  apples  be 
dried  up  or  burnt. 

Baked  Apples. — Take  a  flat,  earthen  dish,  on  this 
place,  so  close  as  just  not  to  touch  each  other,  a  layer 
of  apples  which  have  received  no  other  preparation 
than  careful  wiping.  Set  them  in  a  gentle  oven,  in 
which  they  must  be  watched  from  first  to  last  in  order 
to  cook  them  as  slowly  as  possible,  and  prevent  their 
bursting  more  than  can  be  avoided.  Much  will  depend 
upon  the  oven,  something  on  the  kind  of  apple.  Serve, 
after  cooling,  on  the  same  dish  on  which  they  were 
baked. 

Baked  Apples. — Proceed  as  above,  using  a  silver  or  a 
plated  dish  instead  of  an  earthen  one.  W'hen  cold, 
sprinkle  over  them,  for  show,  a  slight  dusting  of  finely- 
powdered  lump  sugar. 

Stewed  Apples.— 'Y^o.  a  large  shallow  stew-pan  that  will 
hold  six  or  eight  apples,  enough,  in  short,  to  make  a  dish. 
Peel  the  apples  and  take  out  the  cores  with  a  scoop,  leaving 
the  fruit  whole.  Pour  a  film  of  water  over  the  bottom  of 
the  stew-pan  to  prevent  sticking  and  burning,  then  place 
the  apples  in  it  side  by  side  in  a  single  layer  as  closely  as 
they  will  pack,  drop  in  lump  sugar  to  give  the  degree  of 
sweetness  liked,  a  few  cloves,  the  rind  of  a  lemon,  and  the 
juice  of  the  same.    Pour  in  enougU  water  to  cover  them. 


COOKING. 


stew  till  tender  on  a  gentle  fire,  but  not  one  minute  longer. 
Take  them  out  one  by  one,  with  a  large  spoon,  without 
breaking  them,  and  arrange  them  in  the  dish  in  which 
they  are  to  appear.  Let  the  juice  boil  a  few  minutes 
longer,  to  reduce  it,  remove  the  lemon-peel  and  cloves  ; 
when  almost  cold  pour  it  over  the  apples.  Added  hot  it 
might  crack  the  dish  if  of  glass  or  china.  Invalids  find 
apples  so  stewed  much  more  tempting  than  if  mashed  to 
a  jam. 

Dried  Normandy  Pippins. — A  convenient  resource  in 
invalid  cookery,  because  they  store  well,  and  are  to  be  had 
when  apples  with  their  skins  whole  are  not.  These,  to 
turn  out  good,  should  be  previously  steeped  in  tepid  water — 
if  all  night  so  much  the  better,  if  not,  several  hours.  The 
time  they  take  to  stew  will  much  depend  on  the  length  of 
their  steeping.  For  stewing  use  the  water  in  which  they 
have  been  steeped,  with  the  addition  of  more  if  necessary. 
Season,  flavour,  and  serve  as  in  the  preceding  recipe 
for  stewed  apples,  applying  the  fire  heat  with  even  greater 
gentleness. 

Dried  Apples  {not  Normandy  Pippitts). — The  kind 
most  in  use  for  this  preparation  (for  which  Norwich  has 
long  been  celebrated)  is  the  Norfolk  biffin  [dean  Jin),  a 
very  late,  hard-fleshed  apple.  Drying  apples  in  this  way 
is  a  work  of  patience,  and  is  a  specialty  with  certain 
confectioners.  The  apples,  by  pressure  between  weighted 
boards  and  the  slow  but  long-continued  application  of 
heat,  become  perfectly  circular  cakes  of  dark  brown  flesh, 
enclosed  in  an  unbroken  skin. 

Apple  yam. — Peel,  core,  and  quarter  apples  ;  flavour  as 
above  ;  put  them  into  a  stew-pan  with  enough  water  to  keep 
them  from  burning,  continue  stirring  and  mashing  with  a 
fork  until  the  whole  mass  is  reduced  to  a  smooth  pulp.  You 
may  then  either  stop  and  put  the  jam  into  pots  for  pre- 
sent use — indeed,  this  is  never  intended  for  keeping — or, 
by  slow  evaporation,  you  may  bring  it  to  such  a  thickness 
that,  put  into  shapes,  it  will  stiffen  when  cold  and  so  turn 
out  an  apple  cheese. 

Apple  Jelly. — Peel,  quarter,  and  cut  up  into  small 
pieces  a  quantity  of  pippin  apples.  Put  them  in  a  stew- 
pan  with  a  teacupful  of  water.  When  cooked  to  a  mash 
put  them  in  a  jelly-bag,  and  let  them  drain  all  night  ;  they 
must  not  be  squeezed.  Next  morning  put  the  juice  in  a 
saucepan,  taking  care  not  to  put  the  sediment  into  it,  in 
order  that  the  apple  juice  may  remain  clear  ;  put  in  suffi- 
cient sugar  to  bring  it  to  the  sweetness  of  currant  jelly. 
Boil  until  it  will  jelly  when  cold,  and  put  away  in  pots  or 
glasses. 

Orange  Apple  Jelly  {Excellent). — When  the  apple 
juice,  as  above,  is  put  into  the  saucepan  to  be  boiled 
down  with  the  sugar,  throw  in  slices  of  orange  with  the 
peel  on,  and  the  pips  removed  ;  let  all  cook  together.  On 
potting  it  off  let  each  pot  of  jelly  contain  a  slice  or  two  of 
orange.  Both  of  the  above  are  delicate  sweet  relishes  to 
eat  with  bread. 

Blackberry  Jam. — For  people  living  in  the  country  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  woods,  although  the  fruit  varies  in 
abundance  with  the  year,  blackberry  jam  will  be  one  of 
the  cheapest.  Its  flatness  and  insipidity  may  be  relieved 
by  the  mixture  with  it  of  a  portion  of  apples,  which  will 
raise  it  to  the  rank  of  a  second-rate  jam.  Any  brisk - 
flavoured  apple  will  do,  but  the  Wellington  or  Dumelow's 
seedling  is  particularly  recommended  for  the  purpose. 
Several  jams  and  preserves  are  the  better  for  being 
mixed,  and  the  mixture  often  assumes  quite  a  character 
of  its  own.  Thus  apple  and  orange  jelly  (just  given)  is 
an  excellent  compound ;  rhubarb  and  strawberry  jam 
also  combine  advantageously. 

Strawberry  Jam. — With  jams  and  other  fruit  preserves, 
exactly  as  with  wines,  there  are  good,  indifferent,  and 
bad  years.  In  a  cold,  wet,  and  sunless  summer,  it  is 
difficult  to  make  jams  with  the  real  perfume,  although 
they  may  be  made  to  keep  by  longer  boiling,  and  an 


extra  allowance  of  sugar.  On  the  other  hand,  in  fine 
summers,  although  it  is  false  economy  to  diminish  the 
prescribed  allowance  of  sugar,  the  high  flavour  and  firm- 
ness of  the  jam  will  testify  to  the  influence  of  the  genial 
season.  In  all  cases  the  fruit  should  be  gathered  after 
one,  two,  or  three  dry  days  ;  never  after  a  spell  of  rain. 
Over-ripe  fruit  is  as  much  to  be  avoided  as  under-ripe. 
The  former  is  vapid,  has  lost  its  flavour,  and  is  often 
tainted  with  bitterness  and  the  elements  of  decay.  Gather 
your  strawberries  on  a  sunshiny  afternoon,  handle  them 
gently,  pick  only  handsome,  well-ripened  specimens,  and 
do  not  commit  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  "  any  fruit 
is  good  enough  for  jam."  Pick  them  from  the  stalks  with 
equal  care,  the  object  being  that  the  preserved  straw- 
berries shall  remain  whole.  In  this  state  they  will  be 
much  more  sightly  in  sweet  omelettes,  lay  tarts, .  with 
creams,  &c.  Weigh  your  strawberries,  and  for  every 
pound  of  fruit  allow  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  lump 
sugar,  well  broken  up  into  small  pieces  or  coarse  powder. 
Put  a  layer  of  strawberries  at  the  bottom  of  your  stew- 
pan,  then  a  thin  layer  of  sugar,  then  more  strawberries ; 
and  so  on  till  all  are  in  the  pan.  Set  it  on  a  gentle  fire. 
Shake  and  stir  with  a  spoon  to  prevent  burning,  taking 
care  not  to  break  the  fruit.  As  scum  rises,  remove  it  till 
there  is  no  more.  Let  the  jam  boil,  with  all  due  pre- 
caution, from  thirty  to  forty  minutes,  or  even  a  little 
longer,  according  to  the  proportion  of  moisture  contained 
in  the  fruit,  and  requiring  to  be  driven  off  by  evaporation. 
When  you  judge  the  proper  consistency  to  be  attained, 
remove  the  stew-pan  from  the  fire,  and  let  its  contents 
stand  to  cool  a  little  ;  then  distribute  them  into  your 
jam-pots  or  glasses.  Carry  these  on  a  tray  into  a  cool, 
dry  store-room,  and  let  them  stand  all  night.  Next  day 
you  will  be  able  to  decide  whether  the  jam  is  in  a  fit  state 
to  be  tied  down.  Sometimes  in  wet,  inclement  seasons, 
you  will  find  it  desirable  to  give  the  jam  a  second  boiling 
to  insure  its  keeping.  If  all  is  right,  cut  circles  of  white 
paper  which  will  exactly  cover  the  surface  of  the  jam  in 
the  pots.  Steep  them  in  brandy,  and  apply  them 
to  it.  Then  tie  down  with  doubled  or  trebled  paper  and 
string,  and  write  on  the  top  the  name  of  the  jam  and  the 
date  of  the  year.  Store  the  pots  in  a  dry  closet,  to  avoid 
mouldiness,  and  in  a  cool  one  to  prevent  fermentation. 

Raspberry  Jam. — Take  the  same  proportions  of  fruit 
and  sugar,  and  observe  the  same  precautions  as  in  gather- 
ing, except  that,  as  the  fruit  cannot  be  kept  whole,  this 
jam  being  really  a  jatn,  small  and  imperfectly-shaped 
fruit,  if  good  in  every  other  respect,  may  be  employed. 
Then  proceed,  finish  off,  and  store  exactly  as  with  straw- 
berry jam. 

Ripe  Gooseberry  Jam  may  be  made  either  with  the  red, 
yellow,  or  white  varieties  of  the  fruit,  but  separately, 
unless  a  medley  is  wished  for.  Thick-skinned  varieties 
are  good,  for  the  same  reason  that  citrons  are  preferable 
to  lemons  for  supplying  candied  peel.  Wet  weather  is,  if 
possible,  even  more  unpropitious  for  gooseberry  jam  than 
for  the  preceding.  Reject  all  cracked  fruits,  they  are  insipid 
and  worthless.  Remove  the  withered  flower  at  the  top  of 
each,  and  the  stalk  at  the  bottom  with  a  small,  sharp  pair 
of  scissors.  If  you  attempt  to  do  it  with  your  thumb  and 
finger  nails,  you  will  in  many  cases  tear  the  skin  of  the  fruit. 
Weigh  the  fruit,  and  for  each  pound  allow  an  equal  weight 
(a  pound)  of  broken  lump  sugar.  Then  proceed  as  with 
strawberry  jam.  You  cannot  keep  the  fruit  whole — i.e.,  you 
cannot  prevent  the  skins  from  bursting ;  nor  is  it  desirable 
that  you  should,  because  too  large  a  proportion  of  water 
enters  into  their  contents,  and  a  great  part  of  this  must  be 
evaporated.  But  break  the  skins  as  little  as  may  be,  then 
finish  off  as  before.  Gooseberry  jam,  properly  prepared 
keeps  well.  In  1869  we  were  using  some  dated  1865,  as 
good  as  on  the  day  when  it  was  made. 

Black  Currant  Jam. — Exactly  as  above.  If  you  have 
the  patience,  cut  off  the  withered  flowe»s  and  stalks,  which 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


221 


is  a  great  improvement.  Black  currant  jam  eats  well  in  a 
rolled  pudding  ;  it  is  also  useful  to  mix  with  water,  as 
a  cooling  drink  for  invalids.  Red  and  white  currants  are 
not  often  made  into  jam,  but  are  rather  reserved  for  jelly- 
making.  Some  people,  however,  have  a  preference  for 
red  currant  jam,  as  there  is  a  pleasant  acid  in  the  flavour 
of  it ;  others,  again,  mix  equal  quantities  of  red  currants 
and  raspberries. 

Apricot  Jam. — The  apricots  should  be  ripe  enough  to 
halve  with  your  fingers.  Crack  the  stones  and  blanch 
the  kernels  in  boiling  water.  Allow  equal  weights  of 
sugar  and  fruit.  In  the  stew-pan  add  the  blanched 
kernels  to  the  fruit,  and  proceed  as  before. 

Greengage  and  Plum  Ja7)i. — Wipe  the  fruit,  weigh  it, 
set  it  on  the  fire  in  a  stew-pan  covered  with  a  lid,  taking 
the  usual  precautions  to  avoid  burning.  When  soft 
enough,  crush  the  fruit  with  a  spoon,  and  remove  the 
kernels.  Then  add  the  sugar  ;  three-quarters  of  a  pound 
to  each  pound  of  fruit  will  do,  but  a  pound  is  better.  Let 
it  boil  slowly  for  forty  minutes.  If  sufficient  moisture  is  not 
driven  off,  all  plum  jams  are  apt  to  ferment.  You  may 
blanch  the  kernels  of  the  plums,  and  incorporate  them 
with  some  of  the  jam,  on  whose  paper  covers  it  will  be 
found  advisable  to  note  the  addition. 

Quince  Marmalade. — The  strong  odour  emitted  by 
quinces  is  a  sign  of  their  being  fit  for  use.  Peel,  quarter, 
and  core  them,  but  save  the  pips.  Put  the  quinces  and 
their  pips  into  a  stew-pan,  with  a  little  less  lump  sugar 
than  is  directed  for  the  preceding  preserves,  and  just 
enough  water  to  keep  them  from  burning.  As  the  sugar 
dissolves  and  the  liquor  boils,  continue  stirring  the  whole 
mass.  When  the  fruit  becomes  tender  break  and  mash 
it  with  a  spoon.  In  about  an  hour  it  will  be  done  enough. 
It  may  then  be  turned  out  into  preserve-jars.  The  next 
morning  it  ought  to  be  perfectly  stiff,  from  the  strong 
mucilage  of  the  pips  being  thoroughly  incorporated  with 
it.  Tied  down  in  the  usual  way,  it  will  keep  good  for  a 
long  time. 

Damson  or  Bullace  Cheese. — Let  the  fruit  be  quite  ripe 
and  sound,  and  any  that  is  at  all  damaged  must  be  care- 
fully picked  out.  For  every  pound  of  fruit  set  aside  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  sugar.  Put  the  fruit,  without  water, 
into  a  deep  stone  jaf.  Set  the  jar,  nearly  up  to  the  neck, 
in  a  vessel  of  boiling  water,  after  tying  double  paper  over 
the  top  to  keep  out  the  steam.  Or  you  may  set  it  in  a 
'very  slow  oven.  When  the  fruit  is  tender  pour  it  into  a 
bowl ;  remove  the  stones  with  a  fork,  but  leave  the  skins. 
Then  pour  all  into  a  stew-pan.  Add  the  sugar,  and  boil, 
with  care  not  to  b«rn,  until  the  whole  is  reduced  to  a 
thick  pulp.  The  time  required  depends  on  circumstances. 
A  dessert-spoonful  set  out  of  doors  to  cool,  will  tell  you  if 
your  cheese  is  stiff  enough  ;  if  not,  it  must  be  boiled  a. 
little  longer.  When  done  put  it  into  small  shapes  or 
moulds,  in  which  it  may  be  kept  until  wanted  to  be  turned 
out,  to  appear  at  luncheon  or  dessert. 

Currant  Jelly. — Jellies  from  currants  (red,  black,  or 
white)  are  aK  prepared  in  the  same  way.  Strip  the 
currants  from  the  stalks,  and  for  every  pound  of  fruit  set 
aside  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  sugar.  Some  cooks  allow 
as  much  as  a  pound  of  sugar  to  a  pound  of  fruit  or  a  pint 
of  juice.  Or,  after  the  juice  is  extracted,  you  may  allow 
three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  sugar  to  every  pint  of  juice. 
Put  the  stripped  currants  into  a  stew-pan,  and  let  them 
boil  for  twenty  minutes.  The  juice  from  red  and  black 
currants  can  then  be  squeezed  through  a  clom ;  that  from 
white  currants  had  better  only  drain,  with  very  gentle 
pressure,  to  keep  it  clear.  Return  the  juice  to  the  stew- 
pan,  add  the  sugar,  boil  up  and  skim.  After  cooling  a 
little,  your  jelly  will  be  ready  to  pour  off  into  jars  or 
glasses.  The  sugar  is  added  to  the  juice,  because  it  is 
clear  that  by  boiling  it  -with  the  fruit  you  lose  all  which 
remains  adhering  to  the  skins  and  pips  of  the  currants 
when  the  juice  is  strained  away. 


INMATES    OF  THE    HOUSE.— DOMESTIC, 

III.— THE  HOUSEMAID. 
In  many  English  households  two  servants  only  are  kept 
— cook  and  housemaid — a  small  domestic  staff,  but  one 
capable,  under  able  supervision,  of  getting  through  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  work.  In  order  to  effect  this,  it  is 
necessary  that  each  servant  should  be  efficient  in  her 
duties,  and  that  a  regular  plan  of  household  labour  be 
laid  down,  by  which,  instead  of  impeding  each  other's 
progress,  mutual  help  may  be  rendered  to  facilitate  a 
thorough  dispatch  of  work.  As  a  general  rule,  however, 
the  less  a  cook  has  to  do  out  of  her  kitchen  the  better 
will  she  be  enabled  to  cook,  and  the  more  time  a  house- 
maid bestows  on  house  cleaning,  the  greater  will  be  the 
comfort  of  the  family.  Dusty  furniture  and  a  close 
atmosphere  are  evils  which  are  apt  to  generate  ailments 
in  establishments  where  sufficient  domestic  labour  can- 
not be  afforded.  Ailments  of  the  kind  should  have  no 
existence  where  sufficient  servants  are  employed  to  keep 
every  part  of  a  house  clean  and  wholesome. 

One  of  the  chief  obstacles  to  the  better  discharge  of 
housemaids'  work  than  generally  obtains  is,  not  only 
the  notion  on  the  part  of  the  servant  herself,  that  her 
duties  are  of  a  semi-laborious  nature,  but  the  too  ready 
acquiescence  in  this  view  by  employers.  Many  ladies, 
when  engaging  a  housemaid,  hold  out  the  "  lightness 
of  the  work"  as  an  inducement  to  get  the  place  filled. 
Consequently,  no  sphere  of  domestic  service  is  so  crowded 
with  young  women  in  delicate  health  as  that  of  the 
housemaid.  Good  health  is,  nevertheless,  indispensable 
to  the  fit  discharge  of  all  kinds  of  labour. 

A  housemaid's  place  is  no  sinecure  if  properly  filled. 
Early  rising  is  indispensable;  much  physical  strength  is 
required  for  scrubbing,  carrying  trays,  and  answering 
bells,  and  if,  as  it  often  happens,  there  are  children  and 
invalids  in  the  family,  her  powers  of  patience  are  con- 
siderably tried. 

A  good  constitution  and  a  willing  disposition  are 
amongst  the  principal  qualities  to  seek  in  a  housemaid, 
to  which  may  be  added  a  quiet,  pleasing  manner  and 
cleanly  appearance.  Her  dress  is  of  some  importance. 
When  engaged  in  her  morning  work,  washable  materials 
are  the  best  ;  a  wide  holland  apron  should  always  be 
worn  over  one  of  white  material  whenever  house-cleaning 
is  going  on.  If  the  servant  be  required  to  appear  at  the 
front  door,  or  wait  upon  the  family  whilst  at  dirty  work, 
by  casting  aside  the  outer  apron  she  is  able  to  appear  at 
a  moment's  notice  in  a  presentable  manner.  For  after- 
noon wear  in  the  winter,  very  dark  or  black  French  twill 
dresses  are  suitable,  inexpensive,  and  easily  washed.  In 
the  summer  light  cotton  materials  look  best.  At  all 
seasons  a  neat  white  crochet  cap  is  the  best  head-gear. 
Thick  boots,  especially  with  nails,  are  destructive  to  stair 
carpets,  and  steel  petticoats  are  ruinous  to  painted 
skirtings.  Instead  of  the  latter  garment,  the  ordinary 
corded  petticoat  should  be  wern.  Housemaid's  gloves 
should  be  found  by  the  mistress  of  the  house. 

As  the  duties  of  a  housemaid  are  ver>'  numerous,  and 
liable  to  vary  in  different  households,  it  is  advisable  in 
this  place  to  explain  only  those  whick  are  of  general 
application. 

A  good  housemaid  will  rise  at  six,  and  have  her  grates 
cleaned  and  rooms  swept  by  seven.  She  will  then  go  up- 
stairs, wash  her  hands,  and  make  herself  tidy  for  taking 
to  the  bedroom  hot  water  if  required  to  do  so.  In  the 
meanwhile  the  dust  will  have  settled,  and  the  rooms 
will  be  ready  on  her  return  to  be  finished  by  eight.  By 
nine  o'clock  breakfast  ought  to  be  cleared  away  and  the 
housemaid  ready  to  strip  the  beds,  empty  slops,  and  set 
the  bedrooms  in  order.  By  eleven  o'clock  the  up-stairs 
work  oughi.  to  be  done,  unless  extra  cleaning  is  in  question. 
Washing  up  china  and  glass,  dusting  the  drawing-room. 


222 


INMATES    OF    THE    HOUSE.— DOMESTIC. 


and  other  light  labour  of  the  kind  may  take  till  twelve  or 
one  o'clock,  by  which  time  a  housemaid  ought  to  be 
dressed  for  the  day,  fit  to  answer  the  door,  wait  on  the 
family,  and  do  needlework.  Any  work  required  of  the 
servant  after  mid-day  should  be  of  a  nature  not  to  soil 
her  garments.  At  dusk,  it  is  a  housemaid's  place  to  close 
all  the  windows  at  the  upper  part  of  the  house.  Before 
going  to  bed  she  has  to  turn  down  all  the  beds  of  the 
family,  replenish  ewers  and  water  bottles,  empty  slops, 
and  put  everything  in  its  place.  If  she  has  the  charge 
of  the  plate-basket  she  carries  it  to  the  master's  room, 
together  with  hot  water.  Considerate  employers  will 
dispense  with  a  housemaid's  attendance  by  ten  o'clock, 
bearing  in  mind  her  morning  duties. 

The  usual  plan  of  housemaid's  work,  when  no  washing 
is  done  at  home,  is  to  clean  the  drawing-room  thoroughly 
on  Mondays,  and  one  or  two  other  rooms,  according  to 
their  ^ize,  on  each  successive  day  during  the  week. 
Saturday  should  be  a  tolerably  clear  day  from  house- 
cleaning,  beyond  general  dusting  and  setting  in  order  for 
Sunday,  cleaning  plate,  airing  clean  linen  from  the  wash, 
&c.  Any  spare  time  left  beyond  these  duties  is  generally 
allowed  the  housemaid  for  repairing  or  making  her  own 
clothes.  If  washing  is  done  at  home,  the  household 
work  must  necessarily  be  delayed  in  its  course. 

The  following  directions  are  written  for  the  guidance  of 
housemaids. 

Sweeping  and  Dusting. — Before  sweeping  a  room  re- 
move all  light  Articles  of  furniture  out  of  the  way,  and 
cover  up  those  which  would  be  spoiled  by  dust.  Draw 
back  the  window-curtains  and  pin  them  up  as  high  as  you 
can  reach.  Open  the  windows  a  few  inches  top  and 
bottom,  and  shut  the  door.  Turn  the  front  of  picture- 
frames  to  the  wall,  hang  a  sweeping-sheet  over  looking- 
glass  frames,  mirrors,  &c.  Then  sprinkle  tea-leaves, 
drained,  but  not  dry,  all  over  the  carpet,  especially  in  the 
corners.  Sweep  all  carpets  the  way  of  the  pile,  whether  it 
be  in  one  direction  or  in  another.  If  the  fireplace  is  in 
use,  all  the  ashes  should  be  removed  from  the  grate  before 
sweeping  the  carpet.  Whilst  the  dust  settles,  clean  the 
grate.  Having  done  so,  tie  a  soft  clean  cloth  over  a  hair 
broom  and  sweep  the  cornice  and  ceiling,  also  the  walls. 
A  turk's-head  broom  answers  better  for  this  purpose,  if 
you  have  one.  In  like  manner  sweep  the  curtain-poles, 
hangings,  &c.  In  the  absence  of  tea-leaves,  some  pieces 
of  coarse  brown  paper,  moistened  with  clean  water,  will 
answer  the  purpose.  Without  something  of  the  kind  you 
simply  drive  the  dust  from  one  part  of  the  room  to 
another. 

Dusting. — Remove  all  articles  from  the  place  to  be 
dusted,  and  do  not  wipe  round  them.  Put  everything  back 
in  its  place.  Use  a  painter's  brush  for  dusting  skirtings, 
and  wipe  glass  and  china  ornaments  with  a  fine  soft  cloth. 
White  dusters  are  best  for  chintz  furniture.  A  small 
feather  broom  should  be  used  for  raised  china  and  gilt 
work.  Never  wipe  picture  frames  with  a  duster.  Carved 
woodwork  should  be  dusted  with  a  short-haired  furniture 
brush,  which  likewise  polishes.  Pianoforte  keys  should 
be  dusted  with  an  old  silk  pocket-handkerchief,  kept  for 
the  purpose. 

Scrubbing.  —  Neglected  boards  will  not  come  clean 
without  extra  pains.  If  of  a  very  bad  colour  a  mixture  of 
three  parts  of  powdered  pipeclay  with  one  of  chloride  of 
lime,  about  the  thickness  of  cream,  will  be  useful.  This 
should  be  laid  on  to  dry  in  some  time  before  scrubbing. 
Or  some  white  sand  laid  on  the  brush  when  scrubbing 
will  remove  the  dirt.  Grease  will  only  yield  to  fuller's 
earth  spread  on  the  spots  for  several  hours.  Well  kept 
boards,  especially  in  country  houses,  require  nothing  but 
cold  water.  Soap  and  soda  in  hot  water  make  bsards 
black.  In  scrubbing,  only  arm's  length  should  be  wetted 
at  the  time,  taking  care  that  the  flannel  is  wrung  each 
time  dry  of  the   soiled  water.       Good  bass  scrubbing- 


brushes  are  more  cleansing  than  those  of  hair.  Vul- 
canised india-rubber  scrubbing-brushes  are  the  best  of  all, 
but  are  rather  expensive  at  the  first  outlay. 

To  clean  Grates. — It  is  a  good  plan  to  cover  new  grates 
with  a  coating  of  copal  varnish  lightly  ;  polishing  after- 
wards with  a  black-lead  brush  will  keep  them  in  good 
condition  with  very  little  trouble.  Once  a  year  the  varnish 
may  be  renewed,  and  the  saving  will  be  found  considerable, 
both  in  black-lead  and  labour.  Neglected  grates  are 
troublesome  to  restore.  The  only  effectual  way  is  to  scrub 
off  all  the  accumulation  of  dust  and  grease  with  a  hard 
brush  and  soft  soap.  Afterwards  go  over  them  with  some 
Brunswick  black,  to  be  had  at  most  oil-shops.  They  will 
only  require  dusting  afterwards  for  some  time.  Bright 
polished  steel,  if  neglected,  may  be  improved  by  mixing 
sweet  oil  to  the  thickness  of  cream  with  fine  emery  knife- 
powder.  Cover  the  steel  with  this  mixture,  and,  when  dry, 
rub  it  off  with  a  leather  dipped  in  the  same  powder.  For 
coarse  bright  metal  a  mixture  of  a  little  fine  brick-dust 
with  the  knife  powder  and  oil  will  answer.  Burnished 
fire-irons  and  mouldings  should  never  be  touched  with 
emery  or  sand-paper.  If  spotted  with  rust,  the  best  plan 
is  to  get  a  "buff" — i.e.,  a  thick  piece  of  soft  leather 
fastened  on  a  stick  sold  at  tool  warehouses.  Dip  the  buff 
into  a  little  oil,  and  afterwards  into  fine  crocus  powder, 
and  rub  the  rusty  places  till  they  become  bright. 

To  clean  Brass  and  Copper. — A  mixture  of  oil  and 
rotten-stone,  applied  with  a  piece  of  leather  and  after- 
wards rubbed  bright,  will  give  a  good  polish. 

Ormolu  articles  should  be  washed  with  plain  soap  and 
water,  and  polished  with  a  wash  leather. 

Lacquered  Work  the  ?ame.  All  acids  and  soda  are 
liable  to  destroy  lacquer. 

To  clean  Marble. — Ordinary  cleansing  of  marble  may 
be  done  by  simply  washing  the  surface  with  warm  soap 
and  water,  polishing  afterwards  with  a  fine  dry  cloth  or 
leather.  Stained  and  much  soiled  marble  may  be  much 
improved  by  boiling  equal  parts  of  soft  soap  and  powdered 
Avhitening,  say  four  ounces  of  each  with  one  ounce  of 
soda.  When  thoroughly  blended,  lay  the  mixture  on 
whilst  hot,  and  let  it  remain  for  a  day  or  so.  Afterwards 
wash  off  with  clean  water,  and  dry  with  a  leather.  Grease 
stains  may  sometimes  be  removed  by  applying  fuller's 
earth  in  the  usual  manner. 

To  wash  Glass. — Cold  water,  in  which  a  small  quantity 
of  soda  has  been  dissolved,  is  the  best  mode  of  washing 
tumblers,  wine  glasses,  &c.  They  should  afterwards  be 
turned  down  to  drain,  and  then  be  polished  with  a  soft^ 
dry  cloth.  The  same  plan  applies  to  chandelier  glasses. 
If  the  dust  is  much  worked  into  ground  glass,  a  soft  nail- 
brush should  be  used,  pohshing  afterwards  with  a  wash 
leather.  Decanters  are  best  cleaned  with  tea-leaves  or 
pieces  of  brown  paper  saturated  with  water.  Potato 
parings,  sometimes  recommended,  may  scratch  the  glass. 
A  wash-leather  is  the  best  thing  for  washing  and  drying 
looking-glasses.  Powdered  blue  and  whitening  if  used 
are  apt  to  get  into  the  mouldings,  and  prove  troublesome 
to  remove. 

To  clean  Oil-cloth. — Sitting-rooms  are  now  frequently 
bordered  with  oil-cloth,  and  consequently  the  cleaning 
falls  to  the  housemaid.  Scrubbing  oil-cloth  with  soda  and 
soap  is  a  destructive  process,  and  there  is  no  necessity  for 
doing  so,  if  ordinary  care  be  used  to  keep  the  oil-cloth 
clean  by  daily  sweeping  and  dusting.  If  any  spots  appear 
they  are  easily  removed  by  rubbing  with  a  little  oil  laid 
on  with  flannel.  When  it  is  necessary  to  wash  oil-cloth 
it  should  be  gone  over  with  a  flannel  moistened  with  milk. 
If  the  latter  is  not  easily  to  be  had,  a  small  quantity  of 
olive  oil  added  to  weak  table-beer  will  answer.  This 
should  be  rubbed  in  with  a  flannel,  a  small  space  at  a 
time,  and  dried  with  a  wash  leather. 

To  clean  Paint. — There  is  one  description  of  paint 
which  a  housemaid  should  be  careful  not  to  clean.     This 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


223 


is  what  is  icrmcdi  flaked  paint.  None  but  glaziers  should 
be  expected  to  do  this  work,  as  it  requires  especial  treat- 
ment. Soda  ought  never  to  be  used  for  paint  cleaning, 
and  very  little  soap.  Paint  is  best  dried  with  a  leather,  as 
the  latter  polishes  as  well  as  dries.  Grease  spots  on 
paint  may  be  easily  removed  by  dipping  the  flannel  into 
a  little  finely  powdered  gilders'  whitening  worked  into  a 
paste  with  water.  The  parts  only  which  are  soiled  should 
be  touched  with  the  whitening,  but  if  the  white  surface  of 
the  paint  is  very  dirty  the  mixture  may  be  applied  all 
over,  wetting  only  as  much  as  can  be  dried  off  at  a  time. 

By  this  means  the  finest  paint  may  be  preserved  in 
beauty  for  a  very  long  time.  Varnished  paint  should  only 
be  washed  occasionally  with  plain  cold  water,  applied  and 
dried  with  a  wash  leather. 

To  clean  Paper-hangings. — A  split  stale  loaf  rubbed 
over  the  walls  with  a  circular  movement  is  the  cheapest 
and  best  plan. 

To  clean  Stone  Staircases. — A  mixture  of  powdered  pipe- 
clay, soap  lees,  and  unslaked  lime,  will  remove  all  grease 
spots  if  left  to  dry  on.  The  mixture  should  afterwards  be 
washed  off  in  the  ordinary  way. 

The  above  are  some  of  the  chief  daily  duties  of  a  house- 
maid. Directions  for  other  portions  of  her  work,  sometimes 
performed  by  the  parlour- maid,  page,  and  laundry -maid, 
will  be  considered  in  subsequent  chapters. 


ODDS  AND    ENDS. 


Liquid  Glue. — Take  a  pint  of  water,  a  pound  of  good 
glue,  and  gradually  dissolve  the  glue  in  the  water, 
which  may  be  done  by  setting  the  vessel  containing  them 
in  another  containing  hot  water,  and  keeping  all  hot.  As 
it  cools  add,  little  by  little,  three  ounces  of  nitric  acid. 
Bottle  it  when  cold  in  stoppered  bottles.  It  will  not  set, 
will  keep  for  a  very  long  time,  and  may  be  used  for  any 
purpose  almost,  for  which  gum  arable  is  used  as  a 
cement. 

Lime-wash. — Put  new  quick-lime  into  a  pail  with  cold 
water  to  cover  it.  Add  one  pint  of  boiled  linseed-oil  to 
each  gallon  of  the  mixture  ;  stir  well.  Almost  any  fat  or 
grease  will  do  for  common  work.  Thin  it  to  a  proper 
consistency,  and  lay  it  on  with  a  brush.  Half  a  pound 
of  green  vitriol  to  one  gallon  will  produce  a  nice  stone 
colour. 

A  few  Facts  about  Water. — The  temperature  at  which 
water  is  dnmk  greatly  influences  the  health.  Below  45° 
it  is  an  astringent,  highly  tonic  if  pure  ;  at  60*  it  is  a 
diluent  for  dissolving  crudities  of  food  and  other  obstruc- 
tions in  the  stomach  :  this  temperature  will  give  relief  to 
those  suffering  from  indigestion.  Above  60°  water  relaxes 
the  system,  but  drunk  from  70°  to  80°,  the  first  thing  in 
the  morning,  it  is  an  excellent  antibilious  medicine.  The 
following  registration  by  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  is 
adopted,  under  medical  advice,  for  bathers : — At  70° 
water  is  cold  to  the  skin  of  the  hand.  A  bath  of  80°  would 
be  termed  a  cold  bath.  From  86^  to  90°  a  bath  is  tepid  ; 
100°  is  a  warm  bath;  a  vapour  bath  from  100°  to  130°. 
The  following  tests  for  water  are  useful  if  applied  in  the 
proportion  of  a  few  drops  of  each  to  one  or  two  ounces  of 
water  : — A  solution  of  nitrate  of  barytes  will  cause  a  turbid 
appearance  if  any  alkaline  carbonates  and  sulphates  exist 
in  the  water.  A  solution  of  acetate  of  lead  will  do  the 
same.  A  solution  of  oxalate  of  ammonia  precipitates 
lime,  if  there  be  any.  A  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia 
and,  directly  afterwards,  a  solution  of  phosphate  of  soda 
will  produce  milkincss  if  magnesia  be  present  in  the 
water.  Free  carbonic  acid  is  detected  by  a  very  slight 
milkiness  being  produced  by  adding  an  equal  portion  of 
lime  water  with  the  water  tested.  A  solution  of  soap  in 
alcohol  detects  lime,  and  shows,  by  the  greater  or  lesser 
flakiness  of  the  soap,  the  degree  of  hardness  of  the  water. 


Saline  waters  contain  salts  of  lime,  muriate  of  soda 
and  magnesia,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  carbonate  of  soda, 
and  other  alkaline  earths.  Mapiesian  waters  are  those 
possessing  the  taste  and  properties  of  magnesia.  Water 
is  called  chalybeate  when  carbonate  of  iron  abounds, 
and  hepatic,  or  sulphurous.,  when  impregnated  with  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen. 

Tarragon  Vinegar.— Fill  a  pickle-bottle  one-quarter  or 
one-third  full  of  sprigs  of  tarragon,  or  merely  with  the 
leaves  picked  off  the  stalks.  Fill  the  bottle  with  good 
vinegar,  and  stop  it  down  with  a  cork.  Let  it  stand  a  few 
days  to  make  a  cold  infusion,  and  it  is  fit  for  use.  No 
salt,  spice,  or  boiling  are  needed.  The  leaves  are  so  full 
of  their  peculiar  flavour,  that,  after  the  first  brewing  of 
vinegar  has  been  used,  a  second  may  be  poured  over 
them.  This  simple  relish  is  exceedingly  useful  to  have 
in  store. 

Treacle  Toffy. — Rub  your  pan  with  a  little  butter,  and 
pour  in  as  much  treacle  as  may  be  wanted.  Let  it  boil 
slowly  for  about  an  hour,  and  then  pour  it  into  a  warm 
basin  rubbed  over  inside  with  butter.  When  it  is  cool 
enough,  roll  it  up  into  sticks,  and  fold  it  in  clean  white 
paper.  The  treacle  may  be  flavoured  with  a  little 
essence  of  peppermint  before  it  is  put  into  the  pan. 

Veneering  is  the  art  of  covering  a  cheap  and  solid 
material  with  a  thin  layer  or  leaf  of  a  more  costly  and 
more  ornamental  material,  so  as  to  convey  the  impression 
that  the  whole  is  formed  of  that  which  meets  the  eye. 
According  to  Pliny,  veneering  was  invented,  and  made 
use  of,  to  obviate  the  extravagance  of  the  Romans  of  his 
day — a  day  in  which  an  emperor  thought  nothing  of 
giving  a  thousand  pounds  for  a  table,  and  rare  woods  were 
worth  almost  their  weight  in  gold.  The  veneer-mill,  or 
saw,  is  a  beautiful  and  ingenious  invention,  by  which  a 
solid  block  of  wood  may  be  peeled  or  shaved  into  sheets, 
some  only  of  the  consistency  of  brown  paper.  Thus  a 
solid  square  foot  of  wood  will  supply  material  for  a  large 
table.  The  veneer  is  sent  to  the  cabinet-maker,  by  the 
veneer  manufacturer,  rough  upon  both  sides  ;  nor  does  it 
assume  the  beautiful  polish  so  ornamental  togood  furniture,, 
until  the  whole  operation  of  laying  on  the  veneer  is  com- 
pleted, an  operation  which  requires  great  skill,  and  time, 
and  care. 

Inlaying  is  a  species  of  veneering.  A  pattern  is  to  be 
followed ;  so  the  material  is  cut  up  and  arranged  either 
in  scrolls  or  according  to  the  design  required. 

Marquetry  is  another  form  of  inlaying,  the  difference 
being  that  woods  of  a  variety  of  shades  and  colours  are 
employed,  and  formed  by  a  skilful  workman  into  a  land- 
scape or  picture  of  some  sort.  Originally  the  woods  used 
were  always  self-coloured.  Of  late  years  dyed  woods 
have  been  introduced,  and  that,  too,  with  great  economy, 
and  no  loss  of  beauty. 

Buhl-work  comprises  the  use  of  various  ornamental 
materials,  such  as  metal,  ivory,  tortoiseshell,  &c.,  all  of 
which  are  in  this  branch  of  the  art,  employed  as  inlaying 
materials,  or  to  be  inlaid  upon  with  coloured  woods.  The 
designs  now  used  in  buhl-work  are  usually  lines  or  bor- 
dering. 

Parquetry  is  a  coarser  kind  of  buhl-work,  made  ser- 
viceable for  flooring,  and  of  course  executed  in  a  bolder 
style.  ■ 

HOME    GARDENING. 

THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN. 

The  chapters  hitherto  given  on  the  subject  of  gardening- 
must  be  regarded  as  merely  preliminary-.  We  shall  now 
take  up  in  order,  and  describe  in  detail,  the  three  great 
divisions  of  the  garden,  as  comprising  vegetables,  fruits, 
and  flowers.  Of  these  the  vegetables  claim  our  first  atten- 
tion, because  of  their  constant  use  as  articles  of  diet,  in 
which  respect    they   occupy  a  more   prominent  position 


224 


HOME  GARDENING. 


than  fruits,  and  are  even  more  necessary  than  animal 
food. 

We  shall  commence  with  the  formation  of  the  kitchen 
garden,  a  topic  which  involves  a  variety  of  considera- 
tions, among  others  the  situation,  exposure,  aspect,  extent, 
shelter,  shade,  soil,  water,  form,  &c.  The  sittiation  of 
a  kitchen  garden  is  very  important.  It  should  be  as  near 
the  dwelling-house  as  is  consistent  with  convenience.  If 
possible,  it  should  be  either  to  the  back  or  at  the  side  of 
Che  house,  but  never  in  front,  as,  independent  of  its 
appearance,  the  necessary  garden  operation*  would  be  at 
times  unpleasant.  It  frequently  happens  that  gardeners 
are  guided  by  circumstances  ;  but,  if  possible,  low  situa- 
tions and  the  bottom  of  valleys  should  be  avoided,  as, 
in  the  first  instance,  there  is  a  natural  sourness  in  the 
soil  that  cannot  be  removed  ;  and,  in  the  second,  there  is 
liability  to  damps  and  fogs,  which  are  very  prejudicial  to 
plants,  in  spring  evenings,  by  moistening  the  young  tops, 
and  exposing  them  to  injuries  from  frosty  nights,  which 
often  succeed  them.  Neither  should  the  situation  be  so 
high  as  to  be  exposed  to  boisterous  winds,  which  are 
equally  hurtful ;  but  a  situation  between  these  extremes 
is  the  most  desirable. 

The  next  consideration  is  exposure.  The  garden  should 
not  be  surrounded  by  close  woods  or  plantations,  because 
a  foul  stagnant  air  is  frequent  in  such  confined  situations, 
which  is  very  prejudicial  to  growing  plants,  but  should 
be  open  and  free,  to  admit  the  sun  and  air,  with  an 
inclination  of  the  ground  of  about  one  foot  in  thirty. 

The  aspect  is  another  consideration  of  great  import- 
ance in  the  laying  out  of  a  garden ;  it  should  lie  to  the 
south-east  if  possible,  but  there  is  no  objection  to  its 
being  a  point  or  two  more  to  the  feast,  as  the  sun  will  still 
be  upon  it  soon  after  rising,  and  its  influence  will  increase 
regularly  as  the  day  advances,  which  will  be  found  to 
have  a  very  beneficial  effect  in  dissolving  hoar-frost. 

When  the  sun  is  excluded  from  a  garden  till  ten  or  eleven  ■ 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  then  darts  upon  it  with  all  its 
full  heat  derived  from  considerable  elevation,  the  aspect  is 
bad ;  the  powerful  rays  of  heat  melt  the  icy  particles  at 
once,  and,  acting  upon  the  moisture  thus  created,  scald  the 
tender  tops  of  the  most  delicate  plants  and  greatly  injure 
them.  The  covering  of  the  hoar-frost  is  otherwise  par- 
ticularly preservative  to  vegetables  from  frosty  winds. 

In  respect  to  the  extent  of  a  garden,  but  little  can  be 
said,  depending  as  it  does  either  upon  the  demands  of 
the  family,  or  the  amount  of  land  actually  at  disposal 
for  the  purpose.  Few  gentlemen's  gardens  in  the  country 
contain  less  than  three  roods,  and  sometimes  they  extend 
to  ten  or  twelve  acres.  The  farmer  and  cottager  have 
generally  small  portions  allotted  in  the  most  convenient 
part  or  corner  of  the  homestead,  in  which  they  grow  the 
most  common  kitchen  garden  crops,  as  potatoes,  turnips, 
carrots,  &c.  For  a  family  of  four  persons  (exclusive  of 
servants)  a  rood  is  about  enough,  and  so  on  in  proportion, 
allowing  it  to  be  larger  rather  than  too  small.  In  order 
to  bring  the  produce  of  the  soil  to  perfection,  the  garden 
should  be  sheltered  from  the  east,  north,  and  west 
winds  by  hills  and  rising  ground  ;  but  these  should  be  at 
such  a  distance  on  all  sides  as  not  to  prevent  the  sun's 
rays  in  the  spring,  when  warmth  is  of  immense  value. 

In  the  next  place  the  soil  of  a  garden  is  obviously  of 
the  greatest  moment.  This  should  be  a  moderately  light 
mellow  loam,  and  if  mixed  with  silvery  grit  so  much  the 
better.  It  should  not  be  of  a  binding  nature  in  summer, 
nor  retentive  of  an  undue  quantity  of  wet  in  winter,  but  of 
such  a  texture  as  may  be  worked  at  any  season  of  the 
year.  The  soil  of  a  garden  should  be  at  least  eighteen 
inches  deep ;  but  if  it  be  two  feet  so  much  the  better,  for 
when  the  plants  are  in  a  state  of  maturity,  if  the  roots  of 
most  kinds  are  minutely  traced,  they  Avill  be  found  to 
penetrate  into  the  earth  in  search  of  food  to  that  depth  or 
more,  providing  the  soil  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  admit 


them.  The  very  worst  soil  is  a  heavy  clay,  and  the  next 
a  light  loose  sand  ;  a  moderate  clay,  however,  is  preferable 
to  a  very  light  soil,  though  not  so  pleasant  to  work,  yet 
the  former  may  be  made  good  garden  soil  with  a  Httle 
trouble  and  expense,  but  the  latter  will  require  a  good 
deal  of  both.  It  will  very  rarely  happen  that  the  soil  is 
exactly  suitable,  inasmuch  as  it  will  either  prove  too 
poor,  too  strong,  or  too  light,  and  in  either  case  it  must 
be  carefully  improved  without  delay  ;  in  the  performing  of 
which  our  readers  must  be  guided  by  its  nature,  so  as,  if 
possible,  to  render  it  subservient  to  most  general  purposes. 
Hence  our  duty  is  to  endeavour  to  hit  on  that  medium 
which  suits  the  generality  of  vegetables  grown  in  kitchen 
gardens.  If  the  bottom  or  subsoil  be  of  a  wet,  cankering 
nature,  judicious  draining  (which  we  shall  describe  in  a 
future  paper)  is  the  most  eligible  means  ;  but  where  the 
soil  is  stubborn,  small  gravel,  sand,  coal  ashes,  lime,  and 
the  like,  are  very  appropriate  substances  to  be  applied, 
and  will,  if  carefully  and  well  worked  into  the  ground  by 
digging  in  the  winter  months,  or  indeed  at  all  times 
when  the  ground  is  not  in  crop,  soon  bring  it  to  a  proper 
texture  for  most  purposes.  The  ground  should  be  laid  in 
ridges,  in  order  to  give  the  greatest  possible  extent  of 
surface  for  the  weather  to  act  upon.  Where  the  soil 
is  poor  sand  or  gravel,  clay  or  clayey  loam,  the  scourings 
of  ditches,  which  run  on  a  clayey  subsoil,  pond-mud 
from  a  similar  situation,  or  scrapings  of  roads  which  lie 
in  a  clayey  district  will  be  found  great  improvers;  but 
all,  or  any  of  these,  are  of  little  use  unless  the  ground 
be  well  worked  and  pulverised,  which  is  of  itself  a  very 
obvious  improvement,  and  which,  indeed,  is  applicable  to 
most  soils  in  proportion  to  their  adhesive  texture.  Even 
free  siliceous  soils  will,  if  not  moved,  soon  become  too 
compact  for  the  admission  of  heat,  air,  and  rain,  and 
the  free  growth  of  the  tender  fibres  of  plants. 

Our  next  consideration  is  water,  a  copious  supply 
of  which  is  essential  to  a  good  kitchen  garden,  it  being 
necessary  both  to  the  commencement  and  progress  of 
vegetation,  as  it  is,  so  to  speak,  the  vehicle  which  conveys 
to  veget-ables  all  the  substances  useful  to  their  support, 
and  without  it  no  one  will  continue  to  vegetate  ;  and  if 
kept  long  without,  the  leaves  will  droop  and  assume  a 
withered  appearance  ;  and  for  want  of  it  many  kitchen 
garden  crops  are  lost,  or  the  produce  is  of  very  inferior 
quality.  From  whatever  source  water  is  obtained,  it 
should  be  conducted  to,  and  reserved  in,  an  open  pond 
or  basin,  as  near  the  centre  of  the  garden  as  possible. 
The  best  plan,  however,  is  to  have  a  square  tank 
built  in  the  ground  with  bricks,  which  if  compoed  over, 
will  last  for  years,  and  may  be  kept  constantly  filled 
from  a  pump,  by  means  of  a  sufficient  length  of  hose 
(fitted  to  the  spout)  to  reach  from  the  former  to  the  latter. 
Well  water,  recently  drawn,  is  very  improper  for  watering 
any  kind  of  vegetable  ;  yet  if  it  has  stood  in  a  pond  or 
basin  until  warmed  by  the  sun's  rays  it  may  be  used  ; 
but  soft  or  rain  water  is  much  more  conducive  to  vege- 
tation. The  garden  should  be  situated  near  a  river,  pond, 
or  brook,  if  possible,  from  which  the  water  '  may  be 
conducted  to  it  by  drains  or  pipes,  being  careful  to  lay 
them  low  enough  to  receive  the  water  in  the  dryest  season, 
when  it  is  generally  most  wanted. 

Our  next  consideration  is  as  to  form,  and  none  to  our 
notion  is  more  proper  than  a  square  or  a  parallelogram  ; 
but  we  decidedly  give  the  preference  to  the  former. 
Kitchen  gardens  are  mostly,  or  should  be,  bounded  by 
lines  of  walling,  the  chief  reason  for  which  is  for  the 
production  of  fruit,  as  a  kitchen  garden  destined  solely 
for  the  production  of  vegetables  may  be  as  well  fenced  by 
hedges  as  walls,  and  indeed,  where  hedges  are  good,  they 
are  more  secure  from  trespassers.  In  laying  out  a  kitchen 
garden  with  walls  the  principal  considerations  are  as  to 
height,  a^ect,  construction,  and  materials,  all  of  which 
we  shall  t^e  into  consideration  in  a  future  paper. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


225 


POINT    LACE 

WORK. 

The  longer  we  live  in 
this  world  the  more  wo 
find  that  there  is  indeed 
nothing  new  under  the 
sun,  and  each  successive 
day  only  brings  us  back 
to  the  works  and  devices 
)f  our  ancestors. 

It  is  even  so  with  the 
omployments,  or  rather 
amusements,  in  which 
Jadies  spend  their  hours 
of  leisure  from  more  im- 
portant occupations ;  and 
the  point  lace,  on  which 
so  much  time  was  spent 
in  days  when  it  was  used 
for  ecclesiastical  purposes, 
as  well  as  for  every  orna- 


Fig.  I. 


mental  part  of  woman's 
dress,  has  again  become 
a  fashionable  pursuit, 
many  a  female  finger 
being  now  busy  in  imi- 
tating, although  it  cannot 
excel,  the  handiwork  of 
those  long  since  gathered 
to  their  fathers. 

Innumerable  are  the 
uses  to  which  this  imita- 
tion of  the  old  point  lace 
may  be  made  serviceable 
in  a  lady's  dress,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  orna- 
mental articles  of  juve- 
nile apparel,  and  the 
adornment  of  furniture,  to 
which  it  may  be  applied. 
V/c  therefore  propose  to 
dedicate  a  few  chapters 
t  )    this    favourite    occu- 

jnition,  and,  to  commence  with,  we  present  an  effective 
but  simply  worked  pattern,  F"ig.  2. 

The  materials  required  will  be  some  tracing  linen,  which 
can  be  purchased  at  a  good  stationer's,  some  toiU  cir^e, 
green  on  one  side,  several  yards  (say  a  dozen)  of  point 

VOL.  I. 


lace  braid,  some  fine 
linen  thread,  and  a  large 
needle  (No.  6).  All  these 
can  be  procured  at  a 
Berlin  wool  shop.  The 
tracing  linen  must  be  cut 
about  half  an  inch  larger 
than  the  design,  and 
kept  quite  flat  and  very 
steady  while  the  pattern 
is  traced  off  with  pen  and 
ink  upon  it ;  next,  a  piece 
of  the  toile  cir^e  should 
be  cut  to  the  same  size 
exactly,  and  the  linen 
with  the  design  closely 
tacked  to  it  all  round  the 
edge,  so  as  to  ensure  the 
flatness  and  firmness  of 
both. 

The  braid  employed 
may  be  of  two  kinds,  the 
plain,  with  an  open  edge, 
a,  or  one  with  a  round 
opening  at  intervals  in  the 
centre,  b,  Fig.  3,  giving  a 


1 

Fig-  3- 


Fig-  4. 


more  decidedly  lace-like 
appearance  to  the  work. 
To  avoid  joining,  which 
is  very  important,  the 
braid  should  be  wound 
double  on  a  card,  leaving 
the  two  ends  to  com- 
mence the  work  with  ; 
by  this  means  cutting 
is  avoided.  The  braid 
must  be  carefiilly  sewn 
on  with  middle-sized  reel 
cotton,  taking  the  stitches 
(of  which  there  should 
not  be  too  many)  quite 
through  both  linen  and 
ioile  ciri'e,  and  following 
the  design  in  all  its 
meanderings  as  exactly 
as  possible.  In  those 
parts  where  the  leaves 
are  pointed,  great  care 
sliould  be  taken  to  keep 
them     as    flat    as    pos- 

2.  sible   at  the   point,  and 

the     braid     should     be 

folded  and  kept  to  the  shape,  in  turning  it,  with  much 

nicety. 
When  the  whole  design  has  been  braided,  the  outside 

edge  of  the  braid  has  an  open  stitch  worked  into  it,  which 

we  will  call  the  "  open  over-cast, "  and  it  is  thus  accom- 


226 


DOMESTIC    MEDrciNE. 


plished  : — With  the  fine  hnen  thread  the  needle  must  be 
passed  through  one  of  the  openings  in  the  edging  of  the 
braid,  as  if  for  over-casting,  but  the  stitch  must  not  be 
drawn  tighter  than  is  required  to  make  it  about  the  same 
size  as  the  edging  of  the  braid,  then  the  needle  being  passed 
through  the  single  part  of  the  stitch,  still  in  the  manner 
of  over-casting,  the  thread  is  drawn  tightly  and  fastens 
the  stitch  ;  this  must  be  repeated  in  every  second  or  third 
loop  of  the  braid-edge,  and  forms  another  edging  upon  it, 
which  greatly  improves  the  work.  This  double  over-cast 
is  repeated  on  the  inside  of  the  braid,  and  each  leaf  and 
open  part  of  the  design  is  filled  up  with  a  succession  of 
rows  of  this  stitch,  which  need  iiot^  however,  be  done  with 
great  preciseness  in  the  filling  up,  as  a  slight  irregularity 
in  the  size  and  tightness  rather  adds  to  the  genuine  ap- 
pearance of  the  point.  Care  must,  nevertheless,  be  taken 
that  the  work  be  close  enough  to  secure  the  braid  in  the 
pattern  traced,  as  this  will  be  found  of  great  importance 
when  the  threads  at  the  back  of  the  design  are  cut  away 
at  the  last.     The  details  of  the  work  are  shown  in  Fig.  i. 

With  this  open  over-cast  a  great  deal  may  be  done 
towards  making  the  braid  lie  well  to  the  pattern  ;  in  the 
curves,  for  instance — where  the  inner  edge  will  naturally 
be  slightly  fuller  than  the  outer,  or  7Jice  versd — by  omit- 
ting one  or  two  stitches  of  the  open-work,  in  one  case,  or 
putting  two  stitches  into  one,  in  the  other,  it  will  be  made 
right.  The  bars,  Fig.  4,  joining  the  various  parti  of  the 
design  are  done  when  all  the  filling  up  is  completed.  To 
make  them,  the  needle  with  the  fine  thread,  after  being 
darned  in  and  out  of  the  centre  of  the  braid,  to  make  the 
end  secure,  is  brought  out  at  the  edge  and  passed  across 
and  across  three  or  four  times  to  the  opposite  opening, 
and  upon  these  threads,  thus  made  up,  a  close  plain  over- 
cast is  worked.  On  reaching  the  end  of  the  bar,  the 
thread  worked  with  may  be  fastened  off  in  the  braid,  or 
carefully  darned  along  it  until  the  next  bar  is  reached. 
In  those  parts  of  the  design  where  the  braid  on  the  one 
side  comes  very  near  to  that  on  the  other,  it  will  not  be 
requisite  to  work  the  double  over-cast  on  the  inside  edge, 
but  the  two  inner  open  edges  of  the  braid  on  each  side 
may  be  drawn  together  by  passing  the  needle  from  one 
to  the  other. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  add  that  in  the  braiding  only 
must  the  needle  be  taken  through  the  linen,  &c.,  all  the 
rest  of  the  work  must  be  done  on  the  surface,  and  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  catch  up  the  linen  with  it.  To 
prevent  all  chance  of  this,  and  also  to  avoid  splitting  the 
thread,  it  will  be  found  advisable  to  work  as  much  as 
possible  with  the  head  of  the  needle  and  not  with  the 
point.  The  threads  of  the  braiding  must  be  cut  when  all 
is  finished,  and  the  work  taken  off  with  the  greatest  care. 
The  braid  not  having  been  cut  off,  the  design  may  be 
continued  to  any  length  required,  as  it  will  be  found  that 
the  end  of  the  work,  when  detached,  will  correspond  with 
the  beginning  of  the  design,  and  can  then  be  proceeded 
with  as  at  first. 

Some  persons  trace  out  the  design  for  point  work  on 
pink  glazed  calico,  and,  before  braiding,  sew  it  down  on  a 
piece  of  strong  paper.  The  pink  colour  enables  the 
worker  in  some  instances  to  see  the  pattern  more  easily 
by  gas-light. 

In  our  next  paper  on  this  subject  we  hope  to  give  direc- 
tions for  some  open  stitches,  so  as  to  vary  the  fiUing-in  of 
the  leaves,  and  also  a  slightly  different  mode  of  working 
the  bars. 


POMESTIC     MEDICINE. 

RELAPSING  FEVER. 
This  is  a  disease  suggestive  of  extensive  destitution.     It 
often  occurs  in  populous  towns.      It  differs  from  typhus 
in  being  not  at  all  fatal,  and  in  the  fact  that  the  sufferers 
are  liable  to  relapse.     After  being  ill  for  a  week,  they 


seem  to  be  getting  pretty  well  for  another  week,  and  then 
they  have  a  return  of  all  the  symptoms.  Like  typhus  it  is 
very  contagious,  and  seems  to  affect  nearly  all  the  members 
of  the  poor  homes  in  which,  for  the  most  part,  it  occurs. 

The  symptoms  are  shiverings,  headache,  muscular  pains 
followed  by  fever,  rapid  pulse,  thirst,  pains  in  the  epigas- 
trium, and  vomiting.  Blood-stains  like  bruises  may 
appear,  but  there  is  no  proper  eruption.  There  is  con- 
siderable prostration.  On  the  fifth  or  the  seventh  day 
there  is  great  improvement,  till  about  the  fourteenth,  when 
the  patient  relapses.  On  the  the  third  or  fourth  day  after 
this,  the  patient  again  improves  and  gradually  gets  well. 
The  disease  is  seldom  fatal. 

The  patient  should  be  isolated  or  sent  to  the  fever 
hospital.  Little  treatment  is  required,  other  than  simple 
nourishing  food  and  rest  in  bed. 

HOOPING-COUGH. 

This  disease  is  like  the  diseases  discussed  in  our  last 
papers  in  two  respects  :  it  is  intensely  contagious,  and  it 
seldom  occurs  more  than  once.  The  main  features  of  it 
are  very  palpable  and  very  familiar.  It  is  from  time  to 
time  extensively  prevalent  throughout  the  country. 

Hooping-cough  generally  begins  with  symptoms  of  a 
common  catarrh  or  cold,  such  as  sneezing,  cough,  and 
fcverishness.  After  these  symptoms  have  lasted  for  about 
a  week,  the  cough  begins  to  show  the  peculiar  character- 
istics of  hooping-cough,  which  may  be  said  to  be  two  :  first, 
//  is  paroxysmal — that  is,  it  comes  on  in  severe  Jits,  with 
intervals  of  comparative  freedom  ;  secondly,  it  is  attended 
with  a  hoop.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  paroxysms  or 
fits  of  coughing  are  worse  in  the  night.  There  is  every 
variety  in  the  severity  of  the  symptoms  of  cold  which 
usher  in  hooping-cough.  They  may  be  quite  mild,  or 
they  may  be  very  sharp. 

The  peculiar  character  of  this  disease  is  th^hoop,  which 
we  shall  try  to  explain.  It  arises  from  the  spasmodic 
closing  of  the  upper  part  of  the  windpipe.  The  child 
affected  with  hooping-cough,  at  the  end  of  a  fit  of  cough- 
ing severe  and  prolonged,  is  apparently  in  a  state  of 
impending  suffocation.  The  air  has  been  all,  or  nearly 
all,  expelled  from  the  lungs  by  the  successive  acts  of 
coughing.  The  face  is  red  or  blue  ;  the  nose,  or  any  part 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  head  or  chest,  may  bleed  ; 
and  the  whole  frame  seems  shaken  and  terrified.  To  all 
appearances  the  child  is  in  extremity  for  want  of  air.  The 
only  comfort  is  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  here,  at  least, 
when  matters  are  at  their  worst  they  mend.  Just  when 
the  child  seems  on  the  point  of  suffocation,  it  draws  in  a 
long  breath  through  the  closed  glottis,  or  upper  part  of  the 
windpipe.  It  is  the  passage  of  air  through  this  narrow 
chink  that  gives  rise  to  the  sound  with  which  we  are 
all  so  familiar.  This,  so  far  from  alarming  us,  may  re- 
assure us  that  air  is  getting  in  where  it  is  badly  wanted. 
The  fit  of  coughing  may  now  terminate,  but  generally  it 
begins  again  after  the  hoop,  which  is  again  followed  by 
a  number  of  short,  hurried  coughs,  until  some  glairy 
phlegm  is  coughed  or  vomited  up,  and  the  child  breathes 
again  like  other  people. 

Occurring  in  its  simplest  form,  hooping-cough  is  a 
nervous  or  spasmodic  disease,  coming  on  in  fits  of  cough- 
ing, and  leaving  the  patient  in  the  interval  pretty  well. 
But  it  is  seldom  that  it  is  altogether  so  simple  as  this,  and 
we  may  specify  two  or  three  ways  in  which  the  disease  is 
apt  to  be  complicated. 

First,  the  child  is  apt  to  have  inflammation  of  the  chest. 
Generally  there  is  more  or  less  of  bronchitis  ;  but  in  a 
considerable  number  of  cases  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
bronchitis,  which  alters  the  character  of  the  cough,  and 
which  may  be  known  by  feverishness,  quick  breathing, 
wheezing  sounds,  and  the  other  symptoms  which  we  have 
described  under  the  head  of  bronchitis.  Bronchitis  alters 
the  sound  of  the  cough.     After  a  day  or  two  it  prevents 


CASSELUS   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


227 


the  hoop.  As  the  bronchitis  subsides  the  hoop  returns. 
If  the  child  is  of  a  healthy  constitution,  the  probability  is, 
that  with  proper  treatment  the  bronchitis  will  terminate 
favourably  ;  but  it  is  an  important  complication,  requiring 
good  medical  judgment.  Inflammation  of  the  lungs  itself 
may  occur,  and  may  be  known  by  similar  symptoms  to 
those  of  bronchitis,  and  especially  a  very  hot  skin. 

Another  complication  of  hooping-cough  is  convulsions. 
They  may  come  on  suddenly,  or  be  preceded  by  drowsi- 
ness.    They  are  more  apt  to  happen  in  teething  children,  1 
or  in  children  of  a  certain  delicate  constitution,  charac-  j 
terised  by  a  large  head,  large  stomach,  small  limbs,  late  i 
teething,  late  walking,  &c.     Frequent  vomiting,  occurring 
independently  of  fits  of  coughing,  in  connection  with  any 
tendency  to  convulsions,  is  a  serious  symptom. 

Another  effect  of  hooping-cough  sometimes  causes 
anxiety — a  great  loss  of  flesh  and  flabbiness  of  the  child. 
This  occurs  often  quite  independently  of  serious  disease, 
probably  from  weakness  and  exhaustion,  consequent  on 
the  harassing  nature  of  the  disease.  If  this  loss  of  flesh 
concurs  with  a  feverish  temperature  of  the  body,  it  is  more 
serious  than  when  the  body  is  cool. 

Treatment. — There   are  few  diseases  for  which  more 
various    remedies   have   been   prescribed   than  hooping- 
cough,  from  which  we  may  learn  that  it   is   a   difficult 
disease  to  treat,  or  make  any  very  favourable  impression 
on.     Only  in  very  simple  cases  would    it  be    right    to 
trust   to   domestic    treatment — that   is   to   say,  in   cases 
where  the  fits  of  coughing  are  not  veiy  severe  ;  where  the 
patient  is  little  thinned  by  the  disease,  and  breathes  well 
in  the  intervals  of  the  fits.     In  these  cases  a  few  simple 
remedies   may  be   tried.      Amongst    these   a  very  safe  | 
remedy  is  Roche's   embrocation.     The  following  is  the  j 
recipe  for   compounding  this  famous,  though  somewhat  j 
dear,  liniment  : — 

Olive  oil I  part. 

Oil  of  cloves  J  part. 

Oil  of  amber         ^  part. 

Among  internal  remedies  that  may  be  tried  are  alum. 
Three  or  four  grains  may  be  given  to  a  child  a  year  and  a 
half  or  two  years  old  eveiy  four  or  six  hours  in  water.  It 
is  most  likely  to  be  useful  in  cases  in  which  there  is  a 
great  accumulation  of  phlegm,  and  in  which  the  skin  is 
cool.  Another  valuable  remedy  is  dilute  nitric  acid,  in 
the  following  form  : — 

Dilute  nitric  acid i  drachm. 

Spirits  of  nitre      2  drachms. 

Simple  syrup         ...         ...         ...  ^  ounce. 

Water        ...         ...         ...         ...  6  ounces. 

A  child  five  years  old  may  take  a  table-spoonful  every 
four  or  six  hours  in  as  much  water,  according  to  the 
frequency  of  the  cough.  Younger  children  can  take  one, 
two,  or  three  teaspoonfuls  every  four  or  six  hours. 

During  the  actual  fit  of  coughing  let  air  be  admitted 
freely  to  the  child,  whose  mouth  should  be  kept  clean. 
Everything  tight  about  the  dress  should  be  removed.  For 
the  emaciation  which  is  apt  to  occur  in  hooping-cough  a 
little  cod-liver  oil  is  a  good  remedy.  A  teaspoonful  night 
and  morning  to  begin  with,  increasing  the  dose  gradually. 

Supposing  all  other  remedies  to  fail,  a  change  of  air  is 
a  most  powerful  one,  and  often  cures  the  disease.  In  all 
cases,  as  recovery  begins,  it  is  a  valuable  means  of 
restoring  the  child  to  complete  health.  In  moving  about 
with  hooping-cough,  or  any  other  infectious  disease,  it  is 
not  only  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  law, 
but  with  those  of  common  sense  and  consideration,  that 
all  possible  precautions  be  taken  not  to  carry  the  disease 
to  other  persons. 

The  diet  of  a  child  suffering  from  hooping-cough  should 
be  simple,  unstimulating,  and  nourishing ;  milk,  especially, 
is  good. 


If  symptoms  of  inflammation  of  the  chest  set  in,  the 
case  is,  of  course,  past  domestic  treatment,  and  therefore 
need  not  be  further  discussed. 

MUMPS. 

Here  we  have  another  disease  that  may  -seem  very 
different  from  the  eruptive  fevers  we  have  discussed,  and 
yet  has  many  points  of  resemblance.  It  is  often  epidemic ; 
it  is  very  infectious  ;  it  seldom  attacks  persons  more  than 
once  in  a  lifetime  ;  it  is  seldom  propagated  except  by 
infection — that  is  to  say,  by  communication  with  some 
other  child  or  person  who  has  had  the  disease.  It  is  like 
the  fevers  in  another  respect — that  it  is  attended  for  a 
time  with  smart  feverishness. 

The  disease  consists  essentially  in  a  kind  of  inflamma- 
tion, ratlier  an  enlargement,  of  the  large  gland,  called  the 
parotid,  which  lies  between  the  jaw  and  the  ear ;  the  other 
glands  under  the  jaw  and  under  the  tongue  are  likewise 
sometimes  affected.  Every  swelling  of  these  glands  must 
not  be  called  mumps,  but  the  name  must  be  restricted  to 
that  large  and  painful  swelling  which  occurs  in  the  above 
situation,  and  which  affects  a  great  number  of  persons  at 
one  time — in  other  words,  is  contagious.  The  swelling  is 
lender  and  painful,  and  has  a  bruised  feeHng,  and  renders 
the  jaws  stiff;  the  tongue  is  white,  and  the  patient  gene- 
rally feverish  and  unwell.  As  the  saliva  which  moistens 
the  mouth  and  food  proceeds  mainly  from  the  gland 
affected,  the  secretion  of  it  is  often  much  lessened,  causing 
the  mouth  to  be  dry,  which  adds  farther  to  the  difficulty 
in  chewing  occasioned  by  the  stiffness  of  the  jaws. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  older  the  patient  the  more  painful 
is  the  mumps.  The  disease  is  most  common  in  children 
over  five  years.  It  is  not  very  serious  in  itself,  for  it  has 
a  strong  natural  tendency  to  get  well  in  seven  or  eight 
days,  leaving  the  patient  somewhat  pale.  But  there  is  a 
peculiarity  about  the  disease  that  sometimes  adds  to  the 
danger  of  it,  and  greatly  to  the  alarm  or  pain  that  it 
occasions.  The  brunt  of  the  disease  may  be  more  or  less 
suddenly  transferred  from  the  parotid  gland  to  other 
parts,  especially  to  the  breasts  in  girls  or  to  the  testicles 
in  boys.  This  change  is  shown  by  severe  pain  and  swell- 
ing in  those  parts,  and  a  rapid  subsidence  of  the  swelling 
between  the  jaw  and  the  ear.'  Sometimes  the  transference 
of  the  disease  is  to  the  head,  which  then  gives  rise  to 
nervous  symptoms,  drowsiness,  or  delirium.  Occasion- 
ally the  swelling  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw  has  not  made 
much  impression  on  the  patient  or  his  friends,  and  may 
quickly  disappear,  so  that  the  swellings  in  other  parts,  or 
the  nervous  symptoms,  arc  the  first  things  noticed,  and 
may  occasion  a  greater  alarm  than  if  they  occurred  in 
clear  connection  with  mumps.  Still,  these  cases  are  very 
exceptional,  and  mumps  generally  is  not  a  dangerous  or 
serious  disease,  though  a  painful  one. 

Treatment. — Though  the  disease  tends  to  subside  in  a 
few  days,  like  most  other  diseases,  it  is  the  better  for  a 
little  judicious  medical  treatment.  If  the  case  is  acute 
and  severe,  a  medical  man  should  be  sent  for.  In  cases 
which  are  simpler,  or  advice  is  difficult  to  be  got,  the 
following  measures  will  tend  to  help  the  patient,  and 
diminish  the  pain.  Poppy  fomentations  should  be  used 
frequently  to  the  swellings— three  or  four  times  a  day; 
after  using  these,  a  warm  piece  of  flannel  should  be 
applied  to  the  part.  The  following  mixture  may  be  given 
to  children  at  or  about  five  years  old : — 

Chlorate  of  potash       i  drachm. 

Tincture  of  perchloridc  of  iron    24  to  36  minims. 

Simple  syrup jounce. 

Water     6  ounces. 

Mix  thoroughly,  and  take  one  tablespoonful  every  four 
or  six  hours. 

The  diet  of  the  patient  should  be  simple,  and  such  as 
can  easily  be  swallowed,  as  milk,  broths,  beef  tea,  &c.,  and 
I  the  like. 


228 


ANIMALS    KEPT    FOR    PROFIT.— CATTLE, 


ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PROFIT.— CATTLE. 

I. — THE    VARIETIES  AND   BREEDING  OF  CATTLE    {cont). 

Passing  from  the  dairy  to  what  must  be  called  rather  the 
flesh-producing  breeds,  the  first  place,  after  the  Shorthorn, 
must  be  given  to  the  Hereford.  This  breed  is  charac- 
terised by  an  almost  invariably  red  colour,  with  a  white 
face.  It  has  lately  been  much  improved,  and  now  almost 
equals  the  Shorthorn  in  size  and  early  maturity  ;  while 
many  think  the  quality  of  the  meat  is  a  shade  superior. 
As  milkers,  however,  the  cows  are  decidedly  inferior. 

The  Devon  is  a  smaller  breed,  and  was  a  great  favourite 
with  the  late  Prince  Consort.  The  horns  are  rather  long, 
and  turned  upwards.  Like  the  Hereford,  the  pure  breed 
is  inferior  for  the  dairy,  but  fattens  well,  and  produces 
meat  of  very  juicy  quality.  It  has,  however,  another 
recommendation  to  very  many  parties  :  being  remarkably 


The  Galloway  is  a  somewhat  similar  breed,  but  of  the 
polled  or  hornless  tribe,  and  the  hair  is  smoother,  and  not 
so  long  as  in  the  West  Highland  ;  the  animal  also  attains 
a  larger  size.  This  must  be  described  as  one  of  the  very 
best  built  and  most  symmetrical  of  all  our  breeds  of  cattle. 
All  is  beautifully  compact,  with  a  broad  and  straight  back 
which  cannot  be  surpassed. 

The  Angus  is  also  a  polled  breed,  and  the  largest  of  all 
the  Scotch  varieties.  It  is  of  a  black  or  sometimes  red 
colour,  and  of  very  great  fattening  capacities — perhaps, 
indeed,  a  cross  between  the  Angus  and  the  Shorthorn 
produces  the  very  best  animal  for  the  feeding-stall  which 
is  possible  to  be  had.  The  pure  breed  itself  has,  however, 
been  very  much  improved  of  late,  and  has  come  into  much 
notoriety  since  Mr.  M'Combie's  black  ox  distanced  all 
competition  at  the  Birmingham  Show  of  1867,  even 
Herefords  and   Shorthorns  failing  to  equal   this   noble 


^m'^_^ 


HEREFORD    COW. 


light  and  active,  it  is  more  than  any  other  breed  suitable 
ior  farm  work  on  light  land,  and  in  many  places  the  oxen 
are  accordingly  worked  in  harness  till  five  or  six  years  old, 
after  which  they  are  fattened,  which  process  is  very  readily 
accomplished,  the  bones  being  small  and  fine.  On  light 
soil,  two  Devon  oxen  will  do  as  much  work  at  the  plough 
as  one  horse,  but  its  lighter  make  is  unsuitable  for  working 
on  heavy  land. 

The  colour  of  the  Devon  is  red  or  bay.  Although,  as 
we  have  hinted,  inferior  in  point  of  quantity  of  milk,  what 
there  is  of  it  is  of  unusual,  richness,  so  that  the  cow  will 
yield  much  more  butter  than  might  be  supposed.  A 
Devon  cow,  crossed  with  a  Shorthorn  bull,  generally  pro- 
duces a  cow  excellent  for  milking,  with  a  good  tendency 
to  fatten  when  dried. 

The  Sussex  breed  much  resembles  the  Devon,  but  it  is 
larger  and  coarser ;  hence  the  oxen  are  better  adapted  for 
labour  on  heavy  land.  Many  prizes  have  lately  been 
awarded  to  this  breed,  which  is  gaining  ground  as  a  meat- 
producer. 

The  West  Highland  or  Kyloe  breed  is  largely  reared  in 
Scotland,  to  be  driven  south,  and  fattened  for  the  English 
butcher.  They  are  symmetrical  animals,  especially  the 
bulls,  very  hardy,  and  their  meat  is  of  fine  quality.  The 
colour  is  generally  black,  but  sometimes  reddish  or  dun, 
and  the  hair  is  long  and  shaggy.  The  cows  do  not  yield 
much  milk,  but  it  is  of  a  very  great  richness. 


animal.  It  does  not  seem,  however,  to  do  so  well  in 
England  as  in  its  native  climate. 

There  are  numerous  other  breeds,  sub-varieties,  and 
crosses,  but  which  scarcely  demand  special  attention  ;  and 
we  conclude  this  article  with  a  few  practical  remarks  of  a 
general  character. 

We  have  endeavoured  to  give,  shortly,  the  usual  quali- 
ties of  the  principal  breeds  ;  but  it  will  be  easily  under- 
stood that  different  individuals  of  the  same  race  may  vary 
greatly  in  their  milking  qualities.  Yet,  while  this  point 
may  make  all  the  difference,  how  very  seldom  it  is  inves- 
tigated. One  cow  will  give  twelve  quarts  at  a  milking, 
while  another  of  the  same  breed  may  only  give  six.  Very 
likely  the  price  of  each  animal  will  be  the  same,  while  the 
return  is  widely  different. 

When  the  parentage  can  be  traced,  it  is  generally  safe  to 
buy  a  cow  which  comes  of  a  good  milking  family— ^^a^X  is, 
if  the  dam  is  a  good  milker,  and  the  sire  also  bred  from 
a  good  milker,  it  is  many  chances  to  one  the  animal  her- 
self will  be  valuable  in  the  same  way,  and  it  is  surely  worth 
some  trouble  to  ascertain.  Great  consideration  must, 
however,  be  given  to  what  the  cow  is  wanted  for.  If  it  is 
intended  to  sell  milk,  animals  must  be  kept  which  will  give 
the  largest  quantity  ;  but  if  butter  be  the  object,  this  rule 
may  lead  to  disastrous  mistakes,  for  eight  quarts  of  milk 
from  one  cow  will  yield  more  butter  than  twelve  quarts 
from  another.    Again,  the  milk  of  some  cows  will  make 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


^ood  butter,  but  very  bad  cheese,  and  all  these  circum- 
stances should  be  taken  into  account. 

Generally  speaking,  the  hind  quarters  of  a  good  milking 
cow  are  much  heavier  than  the  fore,  and,  according  to 
many  careful  and  scientific  observers,  the  spinous  pro- 
cesses of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  generally  bend  well  forward, 
so  as  to  leave  a  good  space  between  the  last  spine  and  the 
sacrum.  The  udder  also  should  be  long  and  wide,  but  not 
too  deep  (which  shows  debility),  and  it  is  very  important 
for  all  the  teats  to  be  able  to  pass  milk  without  difficulty. 
Dealers  sometimes  affirm  this  is  no  matter,  but  the  fact  is, 
that  each  teat  is  the  outlet  of  an  entirely  distinct  and 
separate  secretory  organ,  so  that  a  faulty  one  is  equivalent 
to  the  absolute  loss  of  its  due  proportion  of  milk. 

But  probably  the  best  criterion  of  a  good  milker  is  that 
pointed  out  by  M.  Guenon,  which  consists  mainly  in  the 
appearance  of  the  hair  on  the  animal's  buttocks.    The 


Farmers  generally  prefer  to  buy  young  cows  when  in 
calf,  but  in  commencing  a  small  family  dairy  it  is  Wss 
trouble,  when  possible,  to  obtain  the  animal  after  her  calf 
has  been  separated.  When  old,  the  most  profitable  plan 
is  to  dry  her,  fatten  her  in  her  own  stall,  and  sell  her  for 
immediate  slaughter ;  she  will  then  often  realise  nearly 
her  original  value  ;  but  if  this  cannot  be  done,  some 
pounds  loss  on  this  head  is  of  course  inevitable.  It  is  in 
connection  with  this  point  that  the  importance  will  be 
seen  of  selecting  a  breed  which  has  a  good  tendency  to 
fatten,  such  as  the  Shorthorn  ;  for  while  a  bony,  angular, 
lean-looking  cow  will  often  give  a  good  quantity  of  milk, 
if  she  will  not  fatten  when  finally  dried,  there  must  be  a 
considerable  loss  on  her  sale,  which  might  have  been 
avoided  by  a  better  choice. 

If  stock  arc  bred  for  home  use,  the  same  reflection  must 
be  carried  through  all  the   operations.      Breeding  pure 


WEST    HIGHLAND    COW. 


coat  in  this  locality  grows  partly  upwards  and  partly 
downwards,  producing  at  the  juncture  a  ridge  or  fringe 
of  hair  which  is  called  technically  the  esctctcheon.  Now 
supposing  that  in  different  cows  other  characteristics 
appear  equal,  observation  proves  that  in  nearly  every  case 
an  animal  with  a  large  escutcheon  is  a  better  milker  than 
a  cow  with  a  small  one. 

The  veins  called  "  milk-veins,"  which  run  along  the 
belly,  are  not  really  connected  with  the  supply  of  milk  at 
all,  but  it  nevertheless  appears  in  practice  to  be  of  impor- 
tance that  they  are  large  and  well  developed.  Professor 
Gamgee  also  insists  on  the  importance  of  the  network  of 
veins  on  the  fore-quarters  of  the  udder  itself,  being  large 
and  conspicuous,  which  is  generally  seen  on  a  good  milk- 
ing cow. 

After  all,  it  is  sometimes  found  that  a  cow,  bad  by  nearly 
ever>'  rule,  turns  out  a  capital  milker,  so  that  we  again 
insist  on  careful  inquiry  or  observation  of  the  paientage. 
Disposition  also  is  a  great  point  to  notice,  the  best  animals 
being  always  quiet  and  contented, 

A  cow  is  in  her  prime  after  her  second  calf,  and  remains 
profitable  to  the  age  of  six  or  seven  years.  The  chief 
means  of  judging  the  age  is  by  the  horns,  which  form  a 
fresh  ring  at  the  root  every  year ;  but  only  the  third  year's 
circle  is  obvious  to  ordinary  inspection.  After  six  or  seven 
years  the  produce  rapidly  diminishes,  so  that  it  is  very  im- 
portant to  get  rid  of  the  animals  when  they  reach  that  age. 


stock  is  a  science  of  itself,  and  even  its  bare  outlines 
could  not  be  given  in  our  limited' space.  Success  in  this 
pursuit  is  always  the  reward  of  sound  judgment  in  the 
liberal  expenditure  of  capital,  but  requires  both.  For 
ordinary  purposes,  however,  cross-breeding  generally 
yields  most  return  in  both  beef  and  milk  ;  but  even  here 
it  is  very  important  to  get  the  service  of  the  very  best 
pure-bred  bull  that  can  be  managed,  especially  if  he  be  a 
Shorthorn.  It  is  the  first  cross  that  always  yields  the 
best  results,  and  breeding  between  the  mongrels  always 
deteriorates  the  stock.  By  putting  the  best  half-bred 
animals,  however,  the  second  time  to  the  pure-bred  males, 
very  magnificent  animals  are  often  obtained,  and  by 
perseverance  in  this  way,  hiring  the  service  of  a  pedigree 
bull,  a  splendid  herd  may  often  be  formed  at  very  moderate 
expense,  and  capable  of  transmitting  its  own  good  qualities 
to  other  animals. 

In  breeding  for  the  growth  of  beef,  it  is  best  to  choose 
a  cow,  whatever  the  breed,  with  a  large,  roomy  frame, 
capacious  pelvis  and  ribs,  and  fairly  ^^t?// milking  qualities, 
that  the  calf  may  have  room  to  grow,  and  plenty  of 
nourishment  after  birth.  With  these  conditions  the  breed 
matters  little  ;  but  the  bull  should  be  the  very  best  that 
can  be  had  of  some  pure-bred  strain,  that  he  may  stamp 
his  own  valuable  qualities  on  the  progeny;  and  on  the 
whole  the  Shorthorn  or  the  Hereford  will  generally  give 
most  satisfaction  in  this  respect. 


230 


INMATES  OF  THE  HOUSE.— LEGAL. 


In  breeding  for  milking  stock  some  attention  should 
also  be  paid  to  the  quality  of  the  bull's  strain  in  point  of 
beef,  but  the  milking  powers  of  the  mothers  are  the  chief 
things  to  be  considered.  So  completely  is  this  usually 
neglected,  that  in  nearly  any  district  a  vast  improvement 
may  be  effected  by  a  cross  with  a  good  bull ;  but  so  far  as 
milking  only  is  concerned  equal  progress  might  be  made 
in  a  few  years  by  the  simple  plan  of  selecting  exclusively 
the  calves  of  the  best  milking  cows.  Often  the  produce 
might  easily  be  thus  doubled,  and  it  is  matter  for  amaze- 
ment that  so  simple  a  means  of  increasing  wealth  is  not 
universally  followed  by  the  small  farmers  of  Great  Britain, 
whose  means  will  not  allow  the  purchase  of  high-priced, 
pure-bred  aiiimals. 

ODDS   AND    ENDS. 

Red  Ink. — Take  of  white  wine  vinegar  one  quart,  pow- 
dered Brazil-wood  two  ounces,  and  alum  half  an  ounce  ; 
infuse  them  together  for  ten  days,  then  let  them  gently 
simmer  over  a  slow  fire,  after  which  add  a  good  half  ounce 
of  gum  arable.  When  the  gum  is  dissolved  strain  the 
mixture  and  bottle  it  for  use.  Ink  thus  prepared  will 
keep  its  colour  for  many  years. 

Violet  Ink. — Boil  a  good  quantity  of  logwood  chips  in 
vinegar,  and  add  to  the  mixture  a  little  alum  and  gum 
arable.  The  depth  of  the  tint  may  be  modified  by  varying 
the  proportions  of  logwood  and  \inegar. 

Black  Ink. — Heat  a  quart  of  rain  water  till  it  almost 
boils,  and  then  put  into  it  two  ounces  of  green  copperas  ; 
when  cold  strain  it,  and  add  to  the  liquor  five  ounces  of 
powdered  galls  and  two  ounces  of  loaf  sugar.  This  ink 
keeps  its  colour  well. 

Paste  for  Moulding. — Melt  some  glue  in  water,  and  let 
it  be  tolerably  strong.  Mix  with  this  whiting  until  it  is  as 
firm  as  dough ;  then  work  it  into  the  moulds,  which  must 
be  previously  oiled. 

Polish  for  Marble. — Melt  over  a  slow  fire  four  ounces 
of  white  wax,  and  while  it  is  warm  stir  into  it  with  a 
wooden  spatula  an  equal  weight  of  oil  of  turpentine ;  when 
thoroughly  incorporated,  put  the  mixture  into  a  bottle  or 
other  vessel,  which  must  be  well  corked  whenever  not  in 
use.  A  little  of  the  above  is  put  upon  a  piece  of  flannel 
and  well  rubbed  upon  the  marble.  Another.— Fine 
rotten-stone,  with  olive  oil,  rubbed  upon  the  marble  till 
the  desired  lustre  is  attained. 

Polish  for  Purniture. — White  wax  and  oil  of  turpentine, 
as  in  the  directions  for  polish  for  marble.  A  small  quan- 
tity applied  with  flannel  or  other  woollen  cloth,  and  well 
rubbed,  is  excellent  for  mahogany  and  walnut.  If  it  is 
desired  to  give  a  yellowish  tint  for  light  coloured  wood, 
the  turpentine  should  have  infused  into  it  for  forty-eight 
hours  before  mixing,  a  small  quantity  of  quercitron,  or 
dyer's  oak.  To  give  it  a  reddish  tinge  a  little  alkanet  may 
be  used  in  the  same  way  as  the  quercitron. 

Gregorys  Powder. — Half  an  ounce  of  ginger,  one  ounce 
and  a  half  of  rhubarb,  four  ounces  of  calcined  magnesia. 
Mix.  Dose :  from  twenty  to  thirty  grains.  Stomachic, 
antacid,  and  laxative. 

India-rubber  Varnish  for  Boots. — Dissolve  half  an  ounce 
of  asphaltum  in  one  ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine,  also  dis- 
solve quarter-of-an-ounce  of  caoutchouc  in  two  ounces  of 
mineral  naphtha.  The  two  solutions  are  to  be  mixed 
before  application. 

Opodeldoc. — Opodeldoc  and  soap  liniment  are  the  same 
thing.  It  is  a  popular  external  application  for  local  pains 
and  swellings,  bruises,  sprains,  and  rheumatism.  There 
are  several  ways  of  making  it.  One  recipe  is  :  one  ounce 
of  camphor,  five  ounces  of  Castile  soap,  one  dram  of  oil 
of  rosemary,  one-and-a-quarter  pints  of  rectified  spirits  of 
wine,  and  one-and-a-quarter  pints  of  water.  This  requires 
to  digest  for  a  week  and  to  be  occasionally  stirred.  When 
ready,  filter  and  bottle  for  use. 


INMATES  OF  THE  HOUSE.— LEGAL. 

VI. — RIGHTS  OF  CITIZENSHIP. 

In  the  last  paper  an  attempt  was  made  to  describe  the 
way  in  which  rates  are  assessed  upon  householders.  In  the 
present  paper,  it  is  proposed  to  give  some  account  of  the 
rights  conferred  by  payment  of  rates,  and  of  those  other 
rights  which  belong  to  a  citizen. 

Electoral  Rights  are  the  highest,  seeing  that  the 
exercise  of  them  gives  a  man  a  share  in  the  government 
of  the  country.  Until  the  Reform  Act  of  1832,  the  repre- 
sentation ofthe  people  was  most  imperfect,  the  distribution 
of  seats  being  wholly  out  of  proportion  to  the  numbers 
that  ought  to  have  been  represented,  and  the  power  of 
voting  being  for  the  most  part  confined  to  those  few  whose 
supposed  interest  lay  in  returning  members  opposed  to 
the  popular  aspirations.  In  the  counties  the  wealthy  land- 
lords returned  members  of  their  own  body,  and  in  the 
towns  the  franchise  was  vested  in  the  hands  of  those 
whose  supposed  interest  lay  in  siding  with  the  landlords. 
After  domestic  troubles  and  domestic  dangers  which  at 
times  threatened  the  very  existence  of  the  constitution, 
the  Government  in  1832  was  induced  to  carr}'  a  Reform 
Bill  which  materially  altered  the  relative  position  of 
classes,  and  gave  a  new  life  to  the  political  institutions  of 
the  kingdom. 

Between  the  year  in  which  certain  members  were  added 
to  the  House  of  Commons  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  the 
year  1832,  no  change  took  place  in  the  numerical  strength 
of  the  popular  assembly,  and  the  distribution  of  seats 
also  remained  in  statu  quo.  But  by  the  Act  of  1832 — 
which  was  not  passed  without  great  difficulty,  and  until 
after  the  ministers,  having  resigned,  were  induced  by  the 
king  to  return  on  condition  that  they  might  create  peers 
enough  to  pass  the  Bill — many  important  changes  were 
made.  The  number  of  members  in  the  House  of  Commons 
was  placed  at  660  ;  fifty-six  boroughs  in  England  were 
disfranchised  ;  thirty  were  reduced  to  one  member  only  ; 
twenty-two  new  boroughs  were  created  to  send  two 
members ;  and  twenty  to  send  one  member.  The  number 
of  county  members  was  increased  from  95  to  159  for 
England  and  Wales.  The  qualification  of  a  voter  for  the 
county  was,  that  he  should  have  a  forty-shilling  free- 
hold ;  but  copyholders  of  ^10  a  year,  lessees  of  leases  for 
twenty  years  to  the  yearly  value  of  ^50,  and  of  leases  for 
sixty  years  to  the  yearly  value  of  ^10,  were  also  admitted 
to  vote.  In  cities  and  boroughs  resident  householders 
paying  ;^io  of  rent  were  allowed  the  franchise. 

Several  attempts  were  made,  beginning  with  Lord  John 
Russell's  Bill  in  1854,  to  improve  upon  the  electoral  basis 
laid  down  in  this  Bill  ;  but  no  decided  action  was  taken 
till  1865,  when  Mr,  Baines'  £f)  Borough  Franchise  Bill  was 
discussed  and  thrown  out.  From  that  time  till  1867  the 
question  of  reform  was  warmly  debated,  and  in  1866  led 
to  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Gladstone's  Government.  In 
1867  Mr.  Disraeli's  Bill  was  introduced,  and  after  much 
debate  passed,  receiving  the  royal  assent  on  the  15th 
of  August  of  that  year.  Of  this  Act  we  will  give  as 
succinct  a  summary  as  possible.  It  is  divided  into  three 
parts  : — 

I.  Franchise. — Bororighs :  All  householders  rated  for 
I'elief  of  the  poor ;  lodgers,  resident  for  twelve  months, 
and  paying  ;!{^  10  a  year.  Counties:  Holders  of  property 
of  the  clear  annual  value  of  £$,  and  occupiers  of  lands  or 
tenements  paying  ;^I2  a  year.  At  a  contested  election 
for  any  county  or  borough  represented  by  three  members, 
no  person  to  vote  for  more  than  two  candidates ;  in 
London  to  vote  for  three  only. 

II.  Distribution  of  Seats. — Boroughs  with  less 
than  ten  thousand  population  to  return  one  member  only. 
Manchester,  Livei-pool,  Birmingham,  and  Leeds  to  have 
three  members  each  instead  of  two.  Certain  new  boroughs 
were  created,  a  representative  was  given  to  the  University 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


231 


of  London,  and  the  members  taken  from  petty  boroughs 
(witli  populations  of  less  than  ten  thousand)  were  given  to 
the  new  constituencies,  and  to  supplement  the  number  of 
members  in  boroughs  not  yet  adequately  represented. 

III.  Supplementary  Provisions  included  arrange- 
ments for  ascertaining  the  boundaries  of  electoral  districts 
by  means  of  boundar)'  commissiorlcrs,  who  were  required 
to  determine  on  inspection  the  limits  of  particular  districts ; 
for  the  registration  of  voters  on  the  basis  of  the  list  of  rate- 
payers, and  for  increasing,  where  necessary,  the  number 
of  revising  barristers — officers  created  by  the  Act  of  1832 
for  the  purpose  of  scrutinising  the  names  on  the  register, 
and  striking  them  off  or  allowing  them  after  complaint 
heard  and  determined.  It  was  also  provided  by  this  Act 
that  Parliament  should  not  be  dissolved  on  any  future 
demise  of  the  Crown  ;  and  that  members  holding  offices 
of  profit  from  the  Crown,  need  not  vacate  their  seats  on 
acceptance  of  another  office. 

By  this  Act  "  household  suffrage,  pure  and  simple,"  the 
passing  of  which  had  been  looked  upon  as  an  impos- 
sibility, was  established.  The  manner  in  which  the  com- 
pound householder  was  abolished  under  this  Act,  and 
restored  by  the  present  Government,  was  described  in 
the  last  paper. 

It  remains  only  to  observe  that  the  franchise  is  given 
to  all  male  subjects  of  the  Queen  satisfying  the  conditions 
stated  in  the  Act,  without  reference  to  rank  or  creed.  The 
disabilities  which  at  one  time  attached  to  persons  pro- 
fessing certain  religious  beliefs  have  been  abolished,  and 
there  is  now  no  impediment  in  the  way  of  either  elector 
or  candidate  for  the  post  of  member  of  Parliament.  In 
1829  the  Roman  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill  was  carried, 
and  persons  belonging  to  the  Church  of  Rome  were 
relieved  from  all  those  disabilities  which  had  hitherto 
debarred  them  from  seats  in  the  Legislature,  commissions 
in  the  army  or  navy,  and  from  any  post  under  Government. 
In  1828  Dissenters  received  a  like  measure  of  justice,  and 
in  1859  Jews  were  allowed — the  oath  of  abjuration  having 
been  altered— to  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

Freedom  0/  Conscience,  that  is  to  say,  freedom  to  profess 
and  exercise  any  religious  belief,  has,  since  the  dates  above 
mentioned,  been  accorded  to  all  persons,  whatever  their 
creed  may  be.  The  sovereign  is  by  the  Act  of  Settlement 
precluded  from  being  anything  but  a  Protestant,  but  all 
subjects,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  may  profess  what 
they  think  fit,  so  long  as  their  religion  does  not  in  practice 
violate  the  laws  'of  the  land,  e.g.,  require  them  to  offer 
human  sacrifices.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  Jew, 
Christian  of  whatever  church,  deist,  or  atheist  from  prac- 
tising rites  or  neglecting  rites  ;  the  utmost  freedom  of 
conscience  prevails,  and  is  secured  by  Acts  of  Parliament. 
A  very  few  disabilities  remain.  The  church  patronage  of 
Roman  Catholics  is  exercised  for  them  by  the  Universities, 
and  the  House  of  Lords  still  requiring  its  members  to 
swear  "  on  the  true  faith  of  a  Christian,"  is  shut  to  Jews  ; 
the  admission  of  Nonconformists  of  whatever  kind  to 
fellowships  and  part  in  the  government  of  the  universi- 
ties is  also  awhile  delayed  ;  but  even  these  disabilities, 
especially  the  last,  are  likely  to  disappear. 

Freedom  of  Speech  follows  naturally  upon  freedom  of 
thought,  but  it  has  at  all  times  been  more  circumscribed. 
The  tongue  is  a  little  member  and  boasteth  great  things. 
It  has  been  found  absolutely  necessary  to  restrict  its 
operation  by  laws  of  slander  and  libel,  but  within  these 
laws  the  tongue  has  free  ambit.  This  privilege  has  been 
one  of  gradual  growth,  and  one  which  has  not  been  won 
without  the  most  sustained  and  strenuous  exertions. 
Slander  is  an  injurious  speech  spoken  ;  libel  is  an  in- 
jurious statement  written.  The  basis  of  the  law  in  either 
case  is  the  maxim  that  no  one  shall  use  his  freedom  to 
another's  hurt,  and  if  he  does,  the  injured  man  shall  have 
his  remedy  against  the  injurer.  Thus  it  is  legally  slan- 
derous, and  therefore  actionable,  to  say  anything  of  a  man 


that  shall  put  him  in  peril  of  the  law,  as  to  accuse  him  of 
some  crime,  to  say  he  has  committed  murder  or  felony  ; 
to  say  that  which  is  likely  to  exclude  him  from  society, 
as  to  report  that  he  has  an  infectious  disease  ;  anything 
that  may  injure  him  in  his  trade  or  profession,  as  to  call  a 
tradesman  a  bankrupt,  a  physician  a  quack,  a  lawyer  a 
pettifogger,  a  judge  corrupt.  Mere  abuse  the  law  will 
not  notice,  as  when  a  man  is  called  a  thief,  a  fool,  or  a 
humbug,  but  with  no  intention  to  impute  actual  theft  or 
fraud  ;  mere  scandal,  also,  the  law  will  not  regard,  unless 
special  damage  can  be  proved.  In  that  case  the  person 
injured  has  an  action.  So  that  if  a  woman  can  show  she 
has  lost  a  marriage  through  an  imputation  of  unchastity, 
or  a  man  can  show  that  he  lost  business  through  some 
one  calling  him  a  fool  or  humbug,  the  law  will  give 
redress.  For  the  rest,  however,  the  law  says,  "Hard 
words  break  no  bones." 

-  When  injurious  statements  are  written,  the  law  looks 
upon  them  with  great  disfavour,  and  allows  less  margin 
than  in  the  case  of  slander.  People  are  not  supposed  to 
write  in  a  passion,  and  words  which  if  spoken  might  be 
excused  on  the  ground  of  hastiness,  assume  a  malicious 
complexion  when  deliberately  written  down.  All  matter 
actionable  as  slander  is  actionable  as  libel,  and  in  addi- 
tion all  contumelious  matter  which  tends  to  degrade  a  man 
in  the  opinion  of  his  neighbours,  or  to  make  him  ridiculous, 
is  reckoned  libellous.  Some  of  the  decisions  have  gone 
very  far ;  thus,  it  was  held  libellous  to  have  written  of 
Lord  Redesdale  that  he  was  a  "  stout-built  special  pleader," 
and  of  Lord  Hardwicke  that  he  was  "  a  sheep-feeder  from 
Cambridge  ;"  but,  as  a  rule,  the  limits  of  the  law  are 
narrower  than  these.  It  was  held  to  be  a  libel  when 
Colonel  Calthorpe  wrote  of  Lord  Cardigan  that  the  carl's 
horse  at  the  Balaklava  charge,  "  gallopped  off  with  him  to 
the  rear,"  under  circumstances  which  made  it  apparent 
that  the  writer  meant  to  say  Lord  Cardigan  fled  inten- 
tionally. To  write  of  an  officer  that  he  is  a  coward  is 
libellous,  becaase  that  is  injurious  to  him  in  his  profession, 
but  it  is  not  necessarily  so  of  an  unmilitary  person,  e.g., 
a  clergyman.  Certain  matters  are  prohibited — by  the  laws 
of  sedition  and  treason — from  finding  utterances  either 
orally  or  in  writing  ;  and  blasphemous  statements  are 
also  forbidden  as  contrary  to  public  morality,  and  dero- 
gatory to  the  honour  of  the  Most  High. 

Bounded  by  these  restrictions,  which  have  been  found 
salutary,  the  utterances,  whether  oral  or  written,  of  all 
British  subjects  are  protected  by  the  law,  and  may  take 
place  at  the  bar,  in  the  pulpit,  on  the  platform,  through 
the  press,  or  by  manuscript  communication. 

Certain  matters  are  privileged  from  the  operation  of  the 
libel  and  slander  laws,  if  good  faith  have  been  observed. 
Thus,  in  giving  the  character  of  a  servant,  defamatory 
words  are  privileged  if  spoken  in  good  faith,  but  if  malice 
can  be  shown,  then  an  action  will  lie.  Words  spoken  in 
Parliament  are  absolutely  privileged,  however  injurious 
they  may  be,  and  words  spoken  by  judge  or  counsel  in 
the  course  of  a  trial  are  equally  covered. 

Till  within  a  few  years,  it  was  not  allowed  to  plead  in 
defence  on  an  action  for  libel  that  the  matter  complained 
of  was  true.  The  courts  held  that  "  the  greater  the  truth 
the  greater  the  libel,"  and  directed  the  jury  that  the  state- 
ment being  true  was  no  justification  to  the  defendant. 
Now,  however,  such  a  plea  if  proved  is  valid,  provided, 
also,  it  can  be  shown  that  it  was  for  the  public  advantage 
the  libel  should  have  been  uttered. 

The  jury  is  now  judge  of  whether  the  words  complained 
of  come  within  the  meaning  of  libel  as  defined  by  the 
court.  Formerly  the  court  adjudged  a  thing  to  be  libel 
or  no  libel,  the  jury  being  only  judges  of  whether  the 
defendant  used  the  words. 

There  are  two  ways  of  proceeding  against  a  libeller— at 
the  civil  court  by  action  for  damages,  or  at  the  criminal 
bar  by  indictment  with  a  view  to  fine  and  imprisonment. 


COOKING. 


COOKING. 

KITCHEN      REQUISITES. 

It  may  surprise  many  readers  to  learn  that  in  France, 
which  enjoys  the  greatest  reputation  for  its  cookery 
throughout  the  whole  of  many  extensive  regions  a  simple 
wood  fire,  composed  of  logs  lighted  on  the 
hearth,  and  supported  at  one  or  at  each  end  by 
"dogs"  {chenets),  is  made  to  cook  most  excellent 
dinners,  not  only  of  much  variety,  but  even 
in  places  where  numerous  guests  have  to  be  pro- 
vided for,  as  in  inns  and  like  establishments. 
A  wood  fire  on  the  hearth  makes  capital 
roasts  by  means  of  horizontal  spits  turned  by 
clockwork.  The  cauldron,  supported  on  a  tri- 
pod, or  hung  from  the  pothook — a  complicated 
contrivance  called  a  cremaillere  —  furnishes 
broths,  soups,  and  boils  vegetables.  Stew- 
pans  at  the  skirts  of  the  fire  concoct  dainty 
small  side-dishes.  The  glowing  embers,  drawn 
on  one  side,  serve  to  broil  chops  and  steaks, 
and  to  make  any  sauce  that  is  quickly  dished 
up.  Tarts  and  pastry,  cakes  and  pates,  are 
baked  in  the  oven  used  for  bread.  Even  in 
Paris,  almost  all  the  roiisseurs,  who  sell  roast 
meat  and  fowls  either 
whole  or  in  portions, 
and  who  often  also 
carry  on  the  trade  of 
restmcrateiirs,  do  all 
their  roasting  on  hori- 
zontal spits  before  wood 
fires.  Even  where  the 
fire  is  small  in  appear- 
ance, when  it  is  kept 
up  all  day  long,  and 
the  spit  in  front  of  it 
is  never  empty,  it  is 
astonishing  what  a 
quantity  of  food  it  can 
be  made  to  cook  in 
the  course  of  twelve 
hours. 

The  great  merit  of 
the  old  English  range 
is  its  capability  of 
cooking  large  joints 
perfectly,  roasts  espe- 
cially. In  a  baker's 
oven  a  large  joint  is 
spoilt ;  in  the  oven  of 
a  cooking-stove  it  is 
apt  to  be  burnt 
unequally  done. 
An  open  range, 
extensible  at  the 
sides,  will  roast 
anything  _  well, 
from  a  spitfuU  of 
larks  to  a  haunch 
of  venison  or  a 
baron  of  beef. 
For  a  numerous 
household  re- 
quiring few  dishes  and  those  solid — such  as  the  twelve 
or  fourteen  pound  pike  boiled  whole,  the  haunch  of  four 
year  old  mutton,  the  potatoes  and  greens,  and  the  huge 
plum-pudding — the  open  range  answered  admirably.  It 
has  done  good  service  in  its  day,  and  if  circumstances  in- 
duce us  to  put  it  on  one  side,  we  should  be  unjust  not  to 
mention  it,  although  it  was  a  great  consumer  of  coals  ; 
also  the  circular  swinging  trivets  at  its  sides  often  supplied 
excellent  melted  butter  and  first-rate  mashed  potatoes.        ' 


The  open  range  is  not  a  jack-of- all-trades,  but  it  is" 
master  of  several  much -approved  specialities.  For 
instance,  it  admits  of  roasting  with  a  jack  and  a  spit, 
which  makes  the  best  of  all  possible  roasts,  especially 
with  cradle  or  basket  spits,  which  roast  a  joint  without 
piercing  it.  With  very  little  assistance  the  meat  bastes 
itself,  whereas  with  the  bottle-jack  there  is  a 
constant  tendency  to  drain  it  of  its  juices,  which 
no  basting  can  completely  remedy.  The  chim- 
ney of  an  open  range  requires  frequent  sweeping; 
but  it  is  better  to  sweep  it  often  than  to  have 
the  contents  of  a  frying-pan  spoiled  by  a  down- 
fall of  soot. 

For  middle-sized  families  of  modest  preten- 
sions, who  prefer  comfort  to  show,  and  variety 
in  their  meals  to  monotonous  abundance,  the 
most  useful  apparatus  is  the  cooking  stove,  of 
which  there  are  different  forms  made  both  by 
English  and  foreign  manufacturers.  Amongst 
cooking  stoves,  the  choice  lies  between  one  with 
an  open  fireplace  and  one  with  a  closed  or  con- 
cealed one.  Many  manufacturers  make  both. 
We  prefer  a  cooking-stove  with  a  closed  fire- 
place, for  the  following  reasons : — 

In  a  cooking-stove  with  an  open  fireplace,  the 
fire,  not  extensible  by 
movable  cheeks,  is  not 
large  enough  to  roast 
large  joints.  At  the 
same  time  the  con- 
sumption of  coal  is  con- 
siderable ;  the  larger 
fire  engenders  greater 
heat,  which  radiates 
both  from  the  open 
grate  and  the  iron 
surface  of  the  closed 
stove.  The  ventilation 
certainly  is  good,  but 
the  kitchen  is  apt  to  be 
extremely  hot. 

With  a  closed  fire- 
place, there  is  a  great 
economy  of  fuel,  and 
it  roasts,  i.e.,  bakes, 
small  joints  and  poul- 
try nearly  as  well  as 
before  an  open  fire.  A 
small  stove  of  this  kind 
will  perfectly  suffice  for 
the  wants  of  a  small 
family,  Avhile  its  di- 
mensions can  be  in- 
creased to  suit  a 
larger  one. 

On  this  page- 
we  give  a  sketch 
of  a  French 
ciiisiniire,  F  i  g. 
2,  which  is  very 
convenient  and 
serviceable.  The 
kitchen  chimney 
must  be  stopped 
by  a  flat  partition,  with  a  hole  exactly  big  enough  to 
allow  the  chimney  tube  of  the  stove  to  pass.  The 
draught  through  the  tube  is  regulated  by  a  valve.  The 
tube  is  easily  taken  down,  as  it  must  be  cleaned  as  soon 
as  it  begins  to  be  choked  with  soot. 

The  stove  shown  in  Fig.  9  is  very  convenient  for 
broiling  chops  and  steaks,  but  requires  the  use  of  char- 
coal, a  few  handfuls  of  which  are  spread  beneath  the 
gridiron,  and  lighted.     In  a  few  minutes  the  fire  is  reac:y 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


^33 


to  do  its  work,   and  can  be  let  out  as  soon  as  it  has 

done  it.     This  apparatus  is  usually  placed  near  the  main 

chimney,  but  a  pipe  from  it  can  be  carried  outside  through 

a  hole  in  a  wall  or  a  window. 

For  outdoor    cooking,   as   at   picnics  or  on  exploring 

parties,  we  recommend  either  of  the  r<f- 

chauds  or  camp-stoves  represented,  espe- 
cially Fig.  7.     When  of  small  size,  Fig. 

8,  they  must  burn  charcoal ;  if  of  larger 

dimensions,  coal  and  coke  will  do.  They 

are  also  useful  in  houses  which  have  a 

back   yard  or    court,   when    only  a  few 

small  things  are  to  be  cooked,  and  it  is 

wished  to  avoid  lighting  the  kitchen  fire, 

as    in     unusually    hot    and    oppressive 

weather.      They  will  heat  water  for  tea 

or  coffee,  boil  eggs,  warm  up  soups  or 

stews,  fry  chops,  sausages,  or  omelettes, 

make   sauces,  and  render  good  service 
by  supplementing   a    cold   dinner  with 

sundry  hot 
things.  And, 
this  being  per- 
formed in  the 
open  air,  all 
heat,  smoke, 
and  smell  arc 
avoided  in- 
doors. 

Toasting    is 

-kin  to  roast- 
mg,andmaybe 
done  (as  with 
cheese  and 
other  articles 
that  melt)  in 
a  Dutch  oven. 
Fig.  5,  or  with 
a  fork.  Large 
forks  should 
not  be  admit- 
ted into  mo- 
dem kitchens, 
where     they 

only  do  mischief.  Certainly, 
meat  that  is  being  boiled 
for  broth  or  soup,  may  be 
pricked  and  its  gravy  let  out 
as  much  as  the  cook  pleases ; 
but  she  will  obtain  her  end 
better  by  having  her  soup, 
meat,  and  bones  well  divided 
at  the  butcher's,  into  pieces 
small  enough  for  the  boiling 
water  to  exert  its  action 
throughout  their  substance. 
But  meat,  fowls,  or  vege- 
tables, that  are  to  be  served 
as  "boils"  in  distinction   to 

•  roasts,"    should    never    be 
iorced  with  a  fork  or  any 

ther  culinary  utensil,   until 

hey  are  carved  in  their  dish 

it  table.  The  gravy  which  runs  from  them  then,  and  the 
juiciness  of  the  meat,  will  show  the  difference  of  their 
treatment. 

Small  joints,  fowls,  whole  cabbages  or  cauliflowers,  &c., 
may  easily  be  removed  from  the  boiler  by  a  broad,  flat 
ladle,  pierced  with  holes,  in  one  hand,  and  a  long-handled 
kitchen  spoon  in  the  other.  Large  joints  of  salt  beef,  legs 
of  mutton,  turkeys,  calves'  heads,  &c.,  should  be  tied  with 
broad  tape  before  putting  in  to  boil.  This  will  not  only 
keep  them  in  shape,  but  aid  in  getting  them  out  of  the 


boiler  (perhaps  with  the  help  of  an  assistant),  neat  and 
entire,  without  receiving  a  puncture. 

There  is  the  toasting-fork,  of  which  the  cook  may  be 
allowed  more  than  one,  with  handles  of  different  lengths, 
to  keep  the  fire  at  its  distance  on  all  occasions.  There 
are  toasting-forks  with  telescopic  handles, 
composed  of  joints  slipping  one  into  the 
other  ;  but  they  are  rather  for  breakfast- 
room  than  for  kitchen  use.  The  com- 
mon cheap  toasting-forks  made  of  iron 
wire  have  only  three  prongs,  whose 
insufficient  hold  often  lets  the  half-done 
slice  fall  into  the  cinders — an  accident 
which  is  still  more  vexatious  when  the 
object  toasted  is  a  kidney,  a  rasher  of 
bacon,  or  a  slice  of  underdone  meat. 
A  five-pronged  fork,  like  that  in  the 
woodcut.  Fig.  6,  will  hold  the  toast  more 
securely.  The  bend  in  the  handle  allows 
it  to  be  toasted  by  the  side  of,  instead 
of  in  front  of 
the  fire. 

A  pastry 
oven,  heated 
with  charcoal, 
is  useful  in 
country  houses 
not  within  easy 
reach  of  the 
pastry-cook  or 
confectioner. 

Amongst  the 
articles    occa- 
sionally    used 
in  a  kitchen,  a 
gaufrier,    or 
iron  for  mak- 
ing ganfres,  or 
wafers,   may 
be     reckoned. 
There     may 
even    be    two 
irons ;  one  for 
making    thick 
gaufres,  resembling  pancakes 
in  quality,  the  other  for  wafers 
proper.      Gaufre    tongs    are 
made  of  cast  iron.   Any  iron- 
monger doing  business  with 
France  could  easily  procure 
them,  which  might  be  cheaper 
than   ordering   them    to    be 
made  here. 

The  cook  must  have  nut- 
crackers to  prepare  almonds 
and  walnuts  for  dessert ;  lob- 
ster  and   crab  -  crackers   for 
breaking  the  claws  of  those 
crustaceans ;    also  a  lemon- 
squeezer,    a    similar   instru- 
ment, only  made  of  wood, 
for     pressing    the     greatest 
possible  quantity  of  juice  out 
of  oranges  and  lemons.     The  inside  of  the  squeezer  has 
an  oval  hollow  to  keep  the  fruit  under  pressure  from 
slipping  aside. 

To  have  clear  jellies,  either  savoury  or  sweet,  a  flannel 
jellybag  is  indispensable.  Instead  of  being  hung  on  a 
peg  in  the  wall,  or  on  the  back  of  a  chair,  it  is  better  put 
to  drain  on  a  three-footed  stand,  with  a  support  beneath 
to  hold  the  vessel  which  receives  the  liquid  as  it  strains 
away.     We  have  shown  this  in  Fig.  i. 

One,  two,  or  three  shallow  saucepans,  made  of  stout 


Fig.  8. 


234 


COOKING. 


copper  or  iron,  well  tinned  inside,  are  extremely  useful 
and  convenient  for  roasting  inj  on  the  Continent  they 
are  considered  indispensable  in  a  kitchen.  They  will  be 
of  different  sizes  in  respect  to  breadth  ;  the  saucepan  is 
large  enough  if  the  joint  or  fowl  can  be  easily  turned  in  it. 
A  depth  of  six  or  eight  inches  will  suffice  for  the  largest ; 
less  for  the  smallest  size.  Fig.  3,  with  a  flat  bottom,  must 
be  used  when  it  has  to  stand  on  a  trivet  belonging  to  a 
range;  but  Fig.  4, with  the  rounded  bottom,  will  fit  into  the 
circular  hole  over  the  fire  of  a  cooking-stove,  which  hole 
should  be  provided  with  flat  rings  of  different  breadths, 
movable  at  pleasure,  suited  to  receive  different-sized 
saucepans,  and  also  to  regulate  the  direct  fire-heat  applied 
to  the  bottom  of  large  boilers  or  stewpans.  The  rounded 
bottom  has  the  advantage  of  allowing  every  part  of  its 
surface  being  brought  into  contact  with  the  joint  to  be  so 
roasted  ;  none  of  the  fat  or  gravy  remains  unemployed  in 
the  corner  at  the  bottom.  In  preserve-making,  the  whole 
of  the  jam  is  more  easily  scraped  out,  and  the  inside  of 
the  saucepan  itself  is  more  readily  cleaned. 

This  mode  of  roasting  is  very  generally  employed  by 
Continental  cooks  for  small  things,  such  as  a  leg  or 
shoulder  of  lamb,  a  moderate  sized  fillet  of  veal,  ducks, 
wild  fowl,  &c.  Small  birds,  especially — larks,  thrushes, 
and  the  like — are  generally  done  that  way.  And  a  mere 
handful  of  fire  suffices.  At  the  bottom  of  the  saucepan 
enough  butter  or  sweet  dripping  is  put  to  keep  the  joint 
from  burning.  As  soon  as  the  fat  is  hot,  the  joint  is  put 
in  and  kept  constantly  turned,  until  it  is  browned  all  over 
evenly,  and  thoroughly  done.  This,  of  course,  requires 
constant  watching.  A  roast  in  a  saucepan  cannot  be  left 
to  itself.  If  the  fat  dries  up,  more  must  be  added.  When 
carefully  done,  a  roast  in  a  saucepan  is  not  to  be  dis- 
tinguished, either  in  appearance  or  flavour,  from  a  roast 
done  before  the  fire.  Many  even  prefer  the  former.  The 
convenience  of  the  mode,  the  economy  of  fuel,  and  the 
escape  of  the  cook  from  exposure  to  a  great  blazing  fire, 
are  obvious.  Those  who  once  try  it  will  continue  the 
plan,  if  only  for  the  sake  of  its  providing  them  with  a  suc- 
cession of  nice  little  fresh  roasts,  instead  of  having  to  get 
through  heaps  of  cold  meat.  Saucepans  for  roasting  in 
need  no  lid  ;  still,  the  lid  will  be  useful  when  stews  are  to 
be  done  in  them. 

MISCELLANEOUS  RECIPES. 

Lemon  Mince  Pies. — Squeeze  a  large  lemon,  boil  the 
outside  till  tender  enough  to  beat  to  a  mash  ;  add  to  it 
three  large  apples  chopped,  and  four  ounces  of  suet,  half 
a  pound  of  currants,  four  ounces  of  sugar  ;  put  the  juice 
of  the  lemon  and  candied  fruit  as  for  other  pies. 

Egg  Mince  Pies. — Boil  six  eggs  hard,  shred  them 
small,  shred  double  the  quantity  of  suet  ;  then  put 
currants,  washed  and  picked,  one  pound,  or  more,  if  the 
eggs  were  large  ;  the  peel  of  one  lemon  shred  very  fine, 
and  the  juice ;  six  spoonfuls  of  sweet  wine,  mace,  nutmeg, 
sugar,  and  a  very  little  suet ;  orange,  lemon,  and  citron 
candied. 

Orange  Cheesecakes.— ^hen  you  have  blanched  half  a 
pound  of  almonds,  beat  them  very  fine,  with  orange- 
flower  water,  and  half  a  pound  of  fine  sugar,  beaten  and 
sifted,  a  pound  of  butter  that  has  been  melted  carefully 
without  oiling,  and  which  must  be  nearly  cold  before 
using  it ;  then  beat  the  yolks  of  ten,  and  whites  of  four 
eggs  ;  pound  two  candied  oranges,  and  a  fresh  one  with 
the  bitterness  boiled  out,  in  a  mortar,  till  as  tender  as 
marmalade,  without  any  lumps ;  and  beat  the  whole 
together,  and  put  into  patty-pans. 

Orange  Biscuits,  or  Little  Cakes. — Boil  whole  Seville 
oranges  in  two  or  three  waters  till  most  of  the  bitterness 
is  gone  ;  cut  them,  and  take  out  the  pulp  and  juice  ;  then 
beat  the  outside  very  fine  in  a  mortar,  and  put  it  to  an 
equal  weight  of  double-refined  sugar,  beaten  and  sifted. 
When  extremely  well  minced  to  a  paste,  spread  it  thin  on 


china  dishes,  and  set  them  in  the  sun  or  before  the  fire  ; 
when  half  dry,  cut  it  into  what  form  you  please,  turn  the 
other  side  up,  and  dry  that.  Keep  them  in  a  box,  with 
layers  of  paper.  They  are  for  desserts,  and  are  also  used 
as  a  stomachic,  to  carry  in  the  pocket  on  journeys,  or  for 
gentlemen  when  shooting,  and  for  gouty  stomachs. 

French  Rolls. — Rub  an  ounce  of  butter  into  a  pound  of 
flour  ;  mix  one  egg  beaten,  a  little  yeast  that  is  not  bitter, 
and  as  much  milk  as  will  make  a  dough  of  a  middling 
stiffness.  Beat  it  well,  but  do  not  knead  ;  let  it  rise  and 
bake  on  tins. 

Sponge  Cake. — One  pound  of  butter,  one  pound  of  loaf 
sugar,  nine  eggs,  one  ounce  caraway  seeds,  one  pound  and 
a  half  of  flour.  Wash  the  butter,  and  beat  it  up  with  the 
hands  ten  minutes  before  the  fire  ;  break  the  sugar  to 
powder,  then  add  it  to  the  butter.  Drop  one  egg  in  at  a 
time  without  first  beating  them,  but  beat  the  ingredients 
all  together  all  the  time  you  are  mixing.  Add  the  seeds, 
then  the  flour  ;  no  beating  after  flour  is  put  in. 

Macaroni  Pudding. — Simmer  an  ounce  or  two  of  the 
pipe  macaroni  in  a  pint  of  milk,  and  a  bit  of  lemon  and 
cinnamon,  till  tender  ;  put  it  into  a  dish  with  milk,  two  or 
three  eggs,  but  only  one  white,  sugar,  nutmeg,  a  spoonful 
of  peach  water,  and  half  a  glass  of  raisin  wine.  Bake 
with  a  paste  round  the  edges.  A  layer  of  orange  marma- 
lade or  raspberry-jam  in  a  macaroni  pudding,  for  change, 
is  a  great  improvement  ;  -in  which  case  omit  the  almond 
water  ratafia,  which  you  should  otherwise  flavour  it  with. 

Queen  Cakes. — Mix  a  pound  of  dried  flour,  the  same  of 
sifted  sugar,  and  of  washed  clean  currants.  Wash  a  pound 
of  butter  in  rose-water,  beat  it  well,  then  mix  with  it  eight 
eggs,  yolks  and  whites  beaten  separately,  and  put  in  the 
dry  ingredients  by  degrees  ;  beat  the  whole  an  hour ; 
butter  little  tins,  tea-cups,  or  saucers,  and  bake  the  batter 
in,  filling  only  half.  Sift  a  little  fine  sugar  over,  just  as 
you  put  it  into  the  oven. 

American  White  Cake. — The  following  is  said  to  be  a 
good  recipe,  and  it  is  a  simple  one : — Two  cups  sugar, 
two  and  a  half  cups  flour,  half  a  cup  butter,  three-quar- 
ter cup  milk,  whites  of  eight  eggs,  one  teaspoonful  cream 
of  tartar,  half  a  teaspoonful  soda. 

Yeast. — This  may  be  made  without  having  any  re- 
course to  any  product  of  alcoholic  liquors.  To  prepare 
flour  yeast,  boil  one  pound  of  good  flour,  a  quarter  of 
a  pound  of  brown  sugar,  and  a  little  salt,  in  two  gallons 
of  water  for  an  hour.  When  milk  warm,  bottle  the  mix- 
ture and  cork  it  close.  It  will  be  fit  for  use  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  A  pint  of  this  will  make  eighteen  pounds  of 
bread. 

Barley  Water. — Put  two  ounces  of  pearl  barley  into 
two  quarts  of  water.  Set  the  mixture  on  the  fire,  and 
when  it  boils,  strain  it  well.  Then  add  a  little  more 
water,  and  a  bit  of  lemon-peel,  and  let  it  boil  slowly  until 
it  is  reduced  nearly  one  half.  It  may  then  be  removed, 
and  again  strained,  and  flavoured  with  sugar  and  lemon- 
juice. 

Evert  on  Toffy. — The  pan  must  be  warmed  and  rubbed 
with  a  little  butter,  after  which  put  in  one  pound  of  brown 
sugar,  and  two  table -spoonfuls  of  water.  Let  the  sugar 
boil  over  a  slow  fire  until  it  becomes  a  smooth  thick 
syrup,  when  half  a  pound  of  butter  is  to  be  stirred  into  it. 
After  boiling  another  half  hour,  drop  a  little  on  a  plate, 
and  if  it  sets  hard,  and  comes  off  clean,  it  is  done  enough. 
Pour  it  out  into  a  wide  dish  or  tin  well  buttered,  so  as  to 
form  a  cake  about  half  an  inch  thick.  It  may  be  flavoured 
with  twenty  or  thirty  drops  of  essence  of  lemon,  stirred 
in  as  soon  as  it  is  taken  off  the  fire. 

Oatmeal  Porridge.  —Place  some  water  on  the  fire,  and 
as  soon  as  it  boils,  throw  in  a  little  salt.  Then  take 
some  coarse  oatmeal,  and  sprinkle  it  in  the  water  by 
degrees,  stirring  it  all  the  time  with  a  large  spoon,  until 
it  thickens  like  hasty  pudding.  It  should  then  be  re- 
moved from  the  fire,  and  poured  upon  plates  at  once. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


It  may  be  eaten  with  cold  milk,  treacle,  or  butter,  and  is 
an  excellent  food  for  brcakfixst. 

Frtimenty  or  Furincnty. — Boil  a  quart  of  wheat  until 
the  grains  are  well  swollen.  Take  two  quarts  of  milk, 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  currants  or  raisins,  picked  clean 
and  mashed ;  stir  these  together  and  boil  them.  Then 
beat  up  the  yolks  of  three  or  four  eggs  with  a  little  milk, 
adding  suet  and  nutmeg  to  flavour  them.  Add  these  to 
the  boiled  wheat,  place  the  whole  upon  a  moderate  fire, 
stir  it  well  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  sweeten  it  with 
sugar.  It  may  be  poured  out  and  eaten  hot,  though 
some  hke  it  as  well  cold. 

Arrowroot  with  Milk. — Set  a  pint  of  milk  on  the  fire, 
and  when  it  almost  boils,  pour  it  upon  a  dessert-spoonful 
of  arrowroot  which  has  been  well  mixed  in  a  little  cold 
water.  The  milk  must  be  poured  in  gradually,  stirring 
it  all  the  time,  after  which  it  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  fire 
again,  and  stirred  for  a  couple  of  minutes.  The  arrow- 
root mixes  better  if  sugar  is  stirred  into  it  before  it  is 
moistened  with  water.  Patent  barley  and  sago  may  be 
treated  in  a  similar  manner. 

To  Pot  Veal. — Cold  fillet  makes  the  finest  potted  veal, 
or  it  may  be  done  as  follows  :  Season  a  1  .rge  slice  of  the 
fillet,  before  it  is  dressed,  with  some  mace,  peppercorns, 
and  two  or  three  cloves  ;  lay  it  close  into  a  potting-pan 
that  will  just  hold  it,  fill  it  up  with  water,  and  bake  it 
three  hours  ;  then  pound  it  quite  small  in  a  mortar,  and 
salt  to  taste  ;  put  a  little  gravy  that  was  baked  to  it  in 
pounding,  if  to  be  eaten  soon,  otherwise,  only  a  little 
butter  just  melted  ;  when  done,  cover  it  over  with  butler. 

Veal  Sausages. — Chop  equal  quantities  of  lean  veal  and 
fat  bacon,  a  handful  of  sage,  a  little  salt,  pepper,  and  a 
few  anchovies.  Beat  all  in  a  mortar  ;  and,  when  used, 
roll  and  fry  it,  and  serve  with  fried  sippets,  or  on  stewed 
vegetables,  or  on  white  coUops. 


SEASONABLE    FOOD. 

FEBRUARV. 


Meat. — Beef,  veal,  mutton,  house-lamb,  venison. 

Game  and  Poultry. — Hares,  rabbits,  pheasants,  par- 
tridges, woodcocks,  snipes,  pigeons,  turkeys,  fowls,  pullets, 
capons,  chickens,  geese,  ducks,  ducklings,  wild  ducks, 
wild  geese. 

Fish. — Flounders,  brill,  plaice,  skate,  soles,  turbot,  cod- 
fish,   whitings,     smelts,    sturgeon,    herrings,    haddocks, 

rats,  oysters,  mussels,  cockles,  crabs,  cray-fish,  prawns, 
uimps,  barbels,  carp,  eels,  perch,  pike,  tench,  trout, 
salmon-trout. 

Vegetables.  —  Broccoli,  cabbages,  Brussels  sprouts, 
savoys,  celery,  cardoons,  endive,  spinach,  lettuces,  sorrel, 
forced  French  beans,  asparagus,  potatoes,  carrots,  par- 
snips, turnips,  beet-root,  chervil,  cresses,  and  all  small 
salads,  tarragon,  scorzonera,  cucumbers,  mushrooms, 
onions,  parsley,  sage,  shalots,  thyme,  mint,  and  all  garden 
herbs,  fresh  or  dried,  Jerusalem  artichokes,  dried  peas, 
and  beans. 

Fruits. — Apples,  pears,  grapes,  oranges,  almonds,  nuts, 
chestnuts,  walnuts,  figs,  raisins,  currants,  filberts,  prunes, 
all  sorts  of  preserved  and  dried  fruits,  jams,  marmalades, 
and  fruit  jellies,  and  forced  strawberries. 


HINTS  TO   LETTER-WRITERS.— IV. 

The  title  of  esquire,  though  now  applied  to  any  person  in 
;  respectable  sphere  of  life,  is  properly  a  title  of  courtesy, 
lud  denoted  originally  the  attendant  up>on  a  knight,  his 
.rmour-bearer,  or  shield -bearer.  While,  therefore,  in 
addressing  letters  and  other  documents  it  is  customary 
to  add  Esq.  to  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  they  are 
sent,  if  he  be  a  person  of  some  consideration,  these  three 
letters  must  be  appended  to  the  names  of  those  who  claim 


the  title  as  a  reality.  Everyone  should  know,  as  observed 
in  Debrett,  that  the  title  of  esquire  is  of  right  due  to 
"  all  noblemen's  younger  sons,  and  the  elder  sons  of  such 
younger  sons  ;  the  eldest  sons  of  knights,  and  their  eldest 
sons  ;  the  officers  of  the  sovereign's  court  and  household  ; 
naval  and  military  officers  from  the  rank  of  captain  up- 
wards; barristers  or  counsellors-at-law,  royal  academicians, 
medical  men  holding  degrees,  justices  of  the  peace,  &c. 
It  is  contended,  however,  that  justices  of  the  peace  arc 
only  esquires  in  reputation;  besides,  a  justice  of  the  peace 
holds  this  title  no  longer  than  he  is  in  the  commission  of 
the  peace,  in  case  he  be  not  otherwise  qualified  to  bear  it ; 
but  a  sheriff  of  a  county,  who  is  a  superior  officer,  retains 
the  title  of  esquire  during  his  life,  in  consequence  of  the 
trust  once  reposed  in  him." 

The  title  of  esquire  is  in  like  manner  accorded  to  all 
who  claim  to  be  "  gentlemen,"  a  word  which  includes  all 
degrees  of  high  rank,  but  which  is  supposed  not  to  descend 
below  a  certain  level  as  a  designation,  hence  some  claim 
to  be  "  gentlemen,"  as  others  to  be  esquires,  knights,  &c. 
It  is,  however,  now  much  less  customar\"  to  write  addresses 
as  to  "  Thomas  Fisher,  gent.,"  instead  of  which  we  write 
"  Thomas  Fisher,  Esq."  In  the  course  of  our  life  we  have 
met  with  some  curious  mistakes  in  connection  with  Esq. 
We  once  saw  a  letter  directed  by  an  eminent  foreigner  to 
"  Sir  A.  B.,  Esq.,"  and  several  times  we  have  seen  letters 
addressed  "Mr.  A.  B.,  Esq."  Now,  though  "Sir"  may 
and  should  head  a  letter  which  has  "  A.  B.,  Esq."  for  the 
superscription,  the  combination  of  the  two,  as  above,  is 
ludicrous.  In  like  manner,  although  "  Sir"  may  and  should 
head  the  letter  which  is  addressed  to  "Mr.  A.  B.,"  or  to 
"  A.  B.,  Esq.,"  the  combination  "  Mr.  A.  B.,  Esq.,"  on  an 
address  is  at  once  ludicrous  and  vulgar.  The  rule  in 
writing  to  any  gentleman  by  courtesy  who  has  no  knightly 
or  other  dignity,  is  to  address  a  letter  to  him  thus  :  "To 
Theophilus  Brown,  Esq."  If  Mr.  Brown  is  a  man  of  some 
distinction,  and  fills  good  offices,  or  is  member  of  certain 
learned  societies,  write  "  &c.  &c.,"  between  his  name  and 
residence.  It  is  not  necessary  to  prefix  "to"  to  this  or 
any  other  address,  and  it  is  only  in  special  cases  that 
"esquire"  is  written  at  full  length,  the  abbreviation  "  Esq." 
being  deemed  generally  sufficient.  In  addressing  such  a 
person,  and,  indeed,  when  writing  to  others  who  are  mem- 
bers of  Parliament,  doctors  of  medicine  or  of  laws,  &c.,  it 
is  proper  to  append  the  requisite  initials.  Thus,  if  Theo- 
philus Brown,  Esq.,  is  a  member  of  Parliament,  it  is  right  to 
place  "  M.P."  after  "  Esq. ;"  if  he  be  a  doctor  of  medicine, 
"  M.D."  must  be  added  to  "  Esq.;"  if  he  is  a  doctor  of  laws, 
"  LL.D."  must  follow  "  Esq.;"  and  if  he  is  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  or  some  such  honourable  institution,  we 
must,  after  "  Esq.,"  add  "  F.R.S.,"  or  whatever  initials  are 
correct.  When  a  gentleman  has  an  academical  degree,  it 
may  be  indicated,  though  this  is  by  no  means  necessary. 
That  of  a  master  of  arts  is  shown  by  "  M.A."  after 
"Esq.,"  or  "  D.D."  for  a  doctor  of  divinity  even  when  a 
layman.  But  while  "  Esq."  may  be  used  in  connection 
with  such  honours  as  have  been  enumerated,  it  is  not 
placed  in  the  superscription  of  a  letter,  &c.,  with  such 
designations  as  captain,  general,  colonel,  right  l.oiu  urable, 
&c.  The  heading  of  a  letter  to  an  esquire  should,  as 
above  hinted,  always  be  "Sir,"  and  by  that  name  he  must  be 
personally  addressed  in  the  body  of  the  document.  The 
concluding  form  is  similar  in  all  cases — "  I  have  the  honour 
to  be,  sir,  your  very  obedient,  humble  servant."  Where 
less  form  is  required,  the  conclusion  may  be  modified — 
"I  am,  sir,  your  obedient,  humble  servant" — "  I  am,  sir, 
your  obedient  servant" — I  am,  sir,  your  very  humble 
servant" — "  I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  and  faithful  servant," 
&c.  With  regard  to  the  word  "gentleman,"  it  may  be 
added  that  although  attorneys-at-law,  and  persons  in 
sundry  other  positions,  arc  personally  entitled  to  the 
addendum  of  "gentleman"  to  their  name-  i'  i-^  >"  limTnur 
which  few  people  would  care  to  exact. 


236 


THE    REARING   AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    CHILDREN, 


THE   REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF 
CHILDREN. 

VI.— children's  clothing  {continued). 

When  the  babe  is  short-coated  it  may  either  wear  the 
little  chemises  it  already  has,  joined  up  the  back,  or  have 
a  set  of  six  new  ones,  made  in  fine  cambric  muslin,  ten 
inches  wide  (doubled),  allowing  another  half  inch  for  the 
seams  at  the  side.  This  is  cut  hke  Fig.  75, ten  inches  long, 
allowing  another  half  inch  for  hems.  Fold  the  muslin,  so 
as  to  have  it  double  on  the  shoulders  at  A  A.  Cut  the 
slanting  lines  close  beside  the  A  a's  which  divide  the 
shoulders  from  the  flaps.  Cut  the  flaps  apart,  and  hem 
them  and  the  shoulders  all  round,  button -holing  the 
corners.     But  the  seams  should  first  be  sewn  and  felled 


to  the  back  and  secured  by  a  button  in  front.  The  little 
flannel  petticoat  is  generally  plaited  at  the  waist  and  sewn 
on  the  body.  The  breadth  of  flannel  is  sufficient  ;  the 
length,  guided  by  the  size  of  the  child,  should  be  an  inch 
less  than  the  white  petticoat.  The  prettiest  flannels  for 
infants  are  those  sold  by  the  yard,  scalloped  and  em- 
broidered in  blue  or  scarlet. 

Further  on  we  give  full  details  for  making  a  flannel 
petticoat,  which,  with  the  exception  that  it  is  longer,  is  the 
same  as  the  baby's. 

We  now  pass  on  to  clothing  for  children  of  two  or  three 
years  old.  The  directions  are  equally  applicable  for  those 
of  a  year  and  upwards,  but  are  a  little  longer  and  larger, 
perhaps.  First  of  all,  for  children  of  both  sexes  little 
flannel  jackets  of  fine  Welsh  flannel  are  needed.  The  shape 
resembles  Fig.  T"],  measuring  eleven  inches  and  a  half 


2    B   B 


Fig.  65. 


Fig.  68. 


Fig.  69. 


Fig.  70. 


Fig.  67. 


Fig.  71. 


Fig  73- 


Fig.  74- 


with  very  fine  cotton.  The  bottom  may  then  be  hemmed 
round  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep.  Make  the  sleeves, 
cutting  them  like  Fig.  70,  six  and  a  half  inches  long, 
the  straight  side.  Sew  together  at  B  and  C.  Then  turn 
down  and  stitch  the  straight  side,  and  sew  and  fell  the 
other  side  into  the  chemise.  At  the  corners  of  the  flaps 
marked  E  and  E  sew  on  strings,  which  are  tied  under 
the  arm,  the  strings  of  the  front  to  those  at  the  back.  A 
button  is  placed  on  the  sleeve,  and  a  button-hole  for 
it  is  made  at  the  point  of  the  shoulder.  This  fastens 
over  the  little  one's  many  shoulder-straps,  and  keeps 
them  neat.  Edge  the  sleeves  with  Valenciennes  lace. 
Fig.  70  is  a  design  for  the  chemise  sleeve,  to  be  made 
seven  inches  long. 

The  short-coat  stay  body  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  72.  It  is 
made  of  fine  jean  or  of  stout  fine  linen,  faced  with  twilled 
muslin,  and  quilted  :  with  a  machine  this  is  easy  to  do. 
The  size  is  five  inches  deep  and  twenty-two  long.  It  is 
then  bound  all  round.  The  shoulder-straps  are  of  the 
same  material,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide  and  about  four 
inches  long,  quilted  and  bound  all  round.     They  are  sewn 


(double)  under  the  arms  from  A  to  A,  and  thirteen  at  the 
bottom  from  B  to  B.  The  length  is  nine  inches.  It  is 
well,  however,  to  make  it  three  or  four  inches  longer  and 
three  inches  wider  (double)  each  side.  We  measure  from 
one  which  has  been  worn  some  time,  and  consequently 
shrunk. 

Run  and  fell  the  side  seams  from  A  to  B,  and  the  shoulder 
seams.  Hem  the  top  and  bottom  narrow,  and  also  the 
armholes.  When  the  shoulders  wear  out  cut  them  away, 
and  put  broad  tape  straps  an  inch  wide.  Never  use 
narrow  straps  for  children,  because  they  drag  and  cut 
the  skin.  It  is  well  to  have  four  flannels,  for  children 
often  need  a  change,  and  these  little  things  do  not  cut 
into  much  stufl".  They  should  be  worn  all  the  year 
round,  for  they  are  even  more  needed  in  summer  than 
winter.  . 

Next  make  six  chemises.  Very  fine  longcloth  is 
generally  used  for  such  young  children  ;  a  shilling  a  yard 
is  not  too  much  to  give.  Some  persons  lay  out  one 
shilling  and  sixpence  on  it.  Half  a  yard  is  more  than 
sufficient  for  one.      Two  yards  and  a  half  of  thirty-two 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


237 


inches  wide  longcloth  (actual  measure)  will  make  six. 
Each  one  is  fifteen  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  sixteen 
wide  at  the  bottom.  Cut  the  shape  like  Fig.  8r,  that  is,  in 
the  same  way  at  the  top  as  the  short-coating  chemise, 
but  a  little  more  sloped  at  the  waist.  The  sleeves,  too, 
are  cut  as  before,  but  measure  eight  inches  long  when 
cut  out  like  Fig.  70,  which,  of  course,  is  double,  and 
is  reduced  to  four  before  it  is  inserted  in  the  form  of  a 
sleeve.  The  apparent  gaps  between  the  shoulders  and 
flaps  are  only  the  result  of  the  narrow  hem.  Run  and 
fell  the  side  seams,  A  to  B,  and  hem  the  bottom  half  an 
inch  wide.  Run  and  fell  the  sleeve  together,  and  also  into 
the  armhole.  Turn  down  and  stitch  the  edge  of  the 
sleeve  and  trim  it  with  lace— a  good  but  fine  tape-lace 
serves  the  purpose.  Our  readers  must  not  confound  the 
tape-lace  with  tape  trimming,  which  is  quite  another  thing. 


ming  both  sides  all  the  way  to  the  edge.  The  armhole  of 
the  shirt  must  next  be  finished  :— Take  a  strip  of  long- 
cloth,  cut  down,  not  across,  the  material,  two  inches  wide ; 
put  it  on  the  sleeve  inside  at  the  dotted  line,  A  to  B  and  E, 
in  Fig.  78,  running  it  first  to  the  edge  of  the  hole,  turning  it 
over,  and  hemming  it  down  finely  ;  afterwards  stitch  the 
edge  of  the  armhole  marked  by  the  dotted  line,  A  to  B,  on 
the  other  side  of  the  diagram.  Fig.  78.  Small  children 
may  not  need  such  large  armholes  or  sleeves,  and  three 
inches  doubled  or  six  long  in  the  cutting  will  suffice. 

The  next  thing  is  the  stay  body,  which  may  be  made  alike 
for  boys  and  girls.  The  bodice  is  generally  seven  or  eight 
inches  deep  and  twenty-four  long,  and  the  backs  wrap 
over  ;  some  children,  however,  are  small,  and  do  not  take 
them  larger  than  the  short  coat  bodies,  five  inches  deep  and 
twenty-two  long.    These  are  made  of  jean,  lined  with  soft 


Fig.  78. 


Fig.  7J- 


Fig.  Si. 


Jape  trimmings  are  very  pretty  to  look  at,  but  do  not  get 
up  easily. 

Figure  78  shows  the  shape  of  a  shirt  for  a  little  boy  of 
the  same  age ;  it  takes  the  same  quantity  of  material  as 
the  girl's  chemise ;  it  is  sixteen  inches  wide  all  the  way 
down.  Cut  it  with  the  longcloth  double  on  the  shoulders, 
A  A ;  leave  the  sides  open  as  far  as  B  B  (three  inches  and 
three-quarters  or  four  inches) ;  run  and  fell  the  rest  of  the 
seam  to  D  D,  and  leave  it  open  again  from  D  D  to  C  C  at 
each  side.  Let  in  a  little  three-cornered  gusset  at  F,  each 
side  (e  to  F  shows  the  side  of  the  shirt).  The  gusset  is 
double,  run  and  felled  in  very  narrowly  and  neatly,  and 
stitched  across  the  double  edge,  where  a  line  may  be 
noticed ;  then  hem  very  neatly,  and  as  narrowly  as  pos- 
sible, each  side  of  the  open  seam  from  d  to  F ;  afterwards 
hem  the  bottom  of  the  shirt  half  an  inch  wide.  Hem 
round  the  flaps  and  shoulders  very  fine,  button-hole  the 
comers,  and  sew  on  tapes  long  enough  to  tie  under  the 
arms.  Do  not  tie  these  so  as  to  confine  the  garment  to 
the  child,  but  loosely,  merely  to  keep  down  the  flaps. 
Tapes  are  sewn  on  quite  half  an  inch  down  the  flap,  hem- 


linen,  and  run  together  the  short  way  with  cords.  Tack 
jean  and  linen  together,  when  cut  out,  all  round  with 
coloured  cotton,  and  then  tack  the  places  to  be  run  be- 
tween the  cords  with  another  colour  ;  pull  out  the  first 
coloured  cotton,  that  fixes  jean  and  linen  together,  as  it  is 
not  now  needed,  and  is  in  the  way  of  running  the  cords 
between  the  tacking.  Put  in  the  first  cord  with  a  bodkin  ; 
finely  run  with  white  cotton  over  the  tacking;  put  in 
another  cord,  and  run  the  next  line,  and  so  on  till  all  the 
cord  is  in  ;  then  cut  it  even  at  the  edges  and  bind  the  body 
all  round  with  twilled  binding.  Make  the  straps  half  an 
inch  wide,  of  jean  and  linen,  bound,  and  sew  them  on. 
There  are  various  ways  of  running  the  bodies.  Fig.  73  is 
regularly  corded  close  together ;  Fig.  66  in  alternate  groups 
of  three  cords  and  a  space.  Either  tapes  or  buttons  may 
be  used  to  fasten  the  body,  but  tapes  are  best,  as  other 
buttons  must  be  sewn  on,  as  shown  by  four  a's,  both  in 
Figs.  73  and  66.  The  lower  and  smaller  row  of  these  is  for 
the  drawers ;  the  upper  for  the  flannel  petticoat  When 
the  drawers  or  petticoat  are  new  and  full  long,  place  these 
buttons  higher  up  ;  as  the  garments  get  short  for  the  child, 


238 


HOUSEHOLD   AMUSEMENTS. 


lower  the  buttons.     The  petticoat  is  buttoned  on  higher 
up  than  the  drawers. 

Cut  the  drawers  from  Fig.  79,  Each  leg  is  cut  sepa- 
rately, measuring  four  and  a  half  inches  across,  from  D  to 
D  (doubled,  or  nine  inches  open),  five  inches  and  three- 
quarters,  or  six  inches,  from  E  to  E  (doubled),  and  four 
inches  (doubled)  from  F  to  F,  sixteen  and  a  half  long  from 
D  to  F,  nine  inches  from  D  to  G,  and  on  to  E.  Run  and 
fell  each  leg  together  on  the  sloped  side,  from  E  to  F  ; 
then  join  them  together  down  three-fourths  of  the  length 
of  the  front,  leaving  the  rest  of  the  front  and  all  of  the  back 
open,  hemmed  each  side  as  narrow  jis  possible.  Cut 
open  the  sides  from  D  to  H  and  hem  them  narrowly,  putting 
in  a  little  gusset  at  the  corner.  Make  a  hem  and  four  tucks, 
each  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  with  scarcely  any  space 
between  ;  then  set  the  front,  in  a  band  twelve  and  a 
half  inches  long,  the  half  inch  to  be  turned  in  at  the 
ends,  and  two  inches  wide,  the  half  inch  to  make  the 
two  turnings.  To  do  this  pin  the  top  of  the  drawers  to 
one  edge  of  the  band,  run  together,  fulling  it  a  little 
to  get  it  in;  then  turn  down  the  opposite  edge  of  the 
band,  turn  it  over  and  pin  down  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
drawers,  turning  in  the  ends  also ;  hem  it  neatly  down, 
and  sew  the  edges.  Cut  two  bands,  each  six  and  a  half 
inches  long  and  two  wide  ;  run  and  hem  them  on  to  the 
two  halves  of  the  back,  in  the  same  way  as  with  the  front 
band  ;  make  large  button-holes  at  seven  places,  to  fasten 
the  drawers  to  the  stay  bodice.  Stout  children  may 
require  the  drawers  longer  in  the  body  from  the  slanting 
line,  D  to  E,  in  Fig.  79,  or  only  longer  at  the  back ;  in 
either  case  the  back  only,  or  both  pieces,  are  cut  by  the 
dotted  line,  D  to  M,  in  Fig.  79,  which  slopes  upward.  If 
they  are  wanted  wider,  the  width  must  be  allowed  from  D 
to  D  and  E  to  E;  and  the  leg  also,  F  to  F,  it  will  be 
well  to  increase  in  proportion.  This  may  be  done  by 
taking  the  sloping  and  curved  lines  on  one  side  of  the 
leg,  D  to  E  and  E  to  F,  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half 
longer  (doubled). 

The  flannel  petticoat  is  the  next  article  of  clothing. 
This  should  measure  nine  or  ten  inches  long  made  up, 
allowing  two  inches  for  a  tuck  and  one  for  a  hem,  that  is, 
twelve  inches  in  all.  It  is  well  to  make  a  new  one  with  two 
tucks,  or  fourteen  inches  long.  One  width  of  flannel 
suffices.  Run  and  fell  the  back  together,  Fig.  65,  half 
way  up  ;  make  a  wide  hem  on  one  side  and  a  narrow  one 
on  the  other  for  the  rest  of  the  seam,  folding  the  wide  one 
over  the  other,  and  stitching  it  down  across  at  A.  Make 
an  inch-wide  hem  and  then  one  or  two  tucks,  according 
as  the  material  has  been  allowed.  The  child's  waist,  over 
the  stay  bodice,  must  be  measured,  and  the  shirt  box- 
plaited  into  a  two-inch  wide  band,  half  an  inch  of  which 
is  allowed  for  turnings.  Five  button-holes  are  made  in 
the  band  at  the  five  b's  in  Figs.  65  and  67,  which  also 
show  the  plaiting.  There  is  one  button-hole  in  the  centre 
in  front,  one  exactly  over  each  hip,  and  two  at  the  two  ends 
behind  ;  these  last  two  are  fastened  on  the  one  button  at 
the  back.  A  yard  and  three-quarters  of  fine  Welsh  flannel 
is  sufficient  to  make  four  flannel  shirts,  which  will  be 
needed.  It  must  be  sloped  a  little  in  front  before  setting 
it  into  the  band. 

The  next  items  in  the  child's  wardrobe  are  its  white 
petticoats.  Two  widths  of  longcloth,  of  a  fine  quality, 
measuring  thirty-seven  inches  long,  will  be  required.  The 
exact  width  of  the  long-cloth  to  an  inch  does  not  signify, 
but  it  should  not  be  much  wider.  The  length  of  the  skirt 
is  ten  inches.  To  each  breadth  allowance  must  be  made 
for  the  width  of  the  hem  ;  for  a  half-inch  hem,  half  an 
inch  ;  a  half-inch  tuck  an  inch,  because  the  tuck  is  double. 
The  simplest  way  to  make  the  skirt  is  with  a  hem  and 
three  tucks,  each  an  inch  wide.  That,  with  the  turning  in  of 
the  hem  and  at  the  top,  makes  eighteen  inches,  or  half  a 
yard  ;  that  is,  a  yard  for  each  skirt ;  half  a  yard  for  the 
body  and  sleeves  will  probably  be  sufficient.     Either  run 


and  fell,  or  sew  the  skirt  seams  together.  For  tucks,  sewing 
is  the  neatest  and  best.  Make  the  hem  and  tucks  with  half 
an  inch  space  between  each.  Cut  open  a  slit  down  the 
back  for  the  placket-hole,  half  the  length  of  the  skirt. 
Make  a  broad  and  a  narrow  hem  on  the  respective 
sides,  as  shown  in  Fig.  yi.  Stitch  the  broad  over  the 
narrow  where  they  meet  at  A.  Petticoats  may  be  made 
with  a  number  of  narrow  tucks,  like  Fig.  74,  and  three 
narrow  and  a  broad  one  alternately,  for  variety.  Sew  the 
gathers  larger  at  the  back  and  closer,  and  finest  of  all  and 
plainest  in  front.  Over  the  hips  they  are  between  the 
two  in  size  and  fulness.  They  are  sewn  to  the  body,  after 
being  first  pinned  to  it.  To  make  the  body,  cut  the  fronts 
and  two  backs  like  Fig.  76.  From  A  to  B  the  body  mea- 
sures six  inches. 

To  make  the  size  of  the  body  more  easily  intelli- 
gible, we  give  the  following  instructions  :  draw  an  oblong 
on  paper,  measuring  nine  and  a  half  inches  wide,  by 
twelve  long,  G  G  G  G.  From  C  to  H,  down  the  centre,  there 
is  a  space  of  three  inches ;  measure  and  mark  this  with  a 
large  dot.  The  shoulders  rise  to  the  top.  It  is  easy  to 
draw  the  undulating  line  thus  assisted.  From  the  side  at 
D  to  the  line  E  there  is  a  space  of  an  inch.  Dot  it,  and 
get  the  curve  of  the  waist.  From  G  G  to  I  I,  under  the  arm, 
the  length  is  five  inches.  The  backs  are  cut  from  first 
drawing  the  oblong  of  nine  and  a  half  inches  high,  and 
six  and  a  half  inches  wide.  The  slope  at  the  neck 
is  two  and  a  half  inches,  the  shoulder  meeting  the 
top  line  G.  Draw  the  slope  at  the  waist;  the  back 
measures  five  inches  under  the  arm,  and  five  and  a  half  at 
the  back.  Having  drawn  these  pictures  on  paper,  cut 
them  out,  and  the  longcloth  by  them.  Both  backs  are 
alike,  but  reversed,  lefts  and  rights,  as  with  shoes  and 
gloves.  In  longcloth,  which  has  no  right  or  wrong  side, 
this  does  not  matter.  Run  and  fell  the  side  seams  and 
shoulders  of  the  body  together.  Hem  the  back  an  inch 
wide.  Hem  the  top  and  waist  each  half  an  inch  wide, 
and  run  strings  to  draw  in  both.  A  few  buttons  should 
be  placed  up  the  back  also.  The  sleeve,  Fig.  68,  is  eight 
and  a  quarter  inches  long  and  two  inches  and  a  half  wide 
in  the  broadest  part,  and  two  inches  at  the  narrowest. 
Run  and  fell  it  together  underneath,  run  and  fell  it  into  the 
armhole,  using  a  quarter  of  an  inch  for  this  purpose,  and 
make  a  hem  at  the  edge,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  and 
edge  it  with  narrow  work  or  lace.  Be  sure  in  cutting  the 
body  not  to  shape  the  armholes  too  large.  They  can 
always  be  increased  from  every  side  but  the  shoulder, 
which  must  not  be  made  too  narrow.  An  inch  should  be 
allowed  in  cutting  for  the  shoulder  width,  one  quarter  to 
fell  to  the  sleeve,  one  quarter  to  turn  down  for  the  hem, 
one  quarter  for  the  inner  turn  of  the  hem,  and  a  quarter 
left  for  the  strap  when  completed.  The  quantities  for 
turning  were  allowed  in  the  measurement  given  in  Fig.  76 
and  Fig.  78.  Fig.  69  shows  the  sleeve  ready  to  be  felled  in. 
A  in  Fig.  80  illustrates  the  manner  of  putting  in  the  sleeve. 
The  right  side  of  the  sleeve  is  outwards,  and  put  in  at  the 
right  side  of  the  body,  as  it  would  be  if  worn.  But  it  is 
run  and  afterwards  felled  from  the  back,  according  to  the 
diagram  at  A. 

HOUSEHOLD    AMUSEMENTS.— VI. 

Among  games  well  suited  to  a  mixed  company,  and 
capable  of  giving  rise  to  considerable  merriment,  a  place 
must  be  accorded  to  that  known  as 

The  Newspaper. — This  may  be  played  either  as  a  forfeit 
game  or  otherwise.  One  of  the  party  is  appointed  to 
"read  the  newspaper;"  the  others,  seated  before  him, 
assume  to  be  members  of  different  trades  and  professions — 
lawyer,  doctor,  draper,  grocer,  &;c.  The  reader  takes  up 
any  paper  that  may  be  at  hand,  and  selects  some  passage 
for  perusal.  The  peculiarity  of  the  game  is,  that  whenever 
he  pauses  and  looks  at  any  member  of  the  company,  that 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


239 


person  must  make  some  suitable  observation  appropriate 
to  his  particular  trade — the  more  incongruous  to  the  nar- 
rative or  dissertation  which  is  being  road  by  the  first  player, 
the  better.  The  penalty  of  a  forfeit  may  be  exacted  from 
any  person  who  docs  not  reply  when  appealed  to,  or  who 
makes  a  remark  not  connected  with  his  own  pursuit. 

To  give  our  readers  a  clear  idea  of  the  mode  of  playing 
the  game,  we  will  suppose  the  reader  lights  upon  a  narra- 
tive of  the  visit  of  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh  to  Calcutta. 
He  proceeds  thus — 

"A  guard  of  honour  composed  of"  (here  he  looks,  say, 
at  the  Oilman) — 

Oilman. — "  Tallow  candles" 

"Was  drawn  up  on  the  quay,  and  his  Royal  Highness 
on  landing  was  received  with  a  round  of" — 

Butcher. — "  Marrow  bones." 

"  DeHvered  in  true  British  fashion.  A  salute  of  twenty- 
one  guns  was  fired  from  the" — 

Draper. — "  Band-box," 

"  And  the  ships  and  forts  hoisted  their  " — 

Lawyer. — "  Affidavits." 

"  Every  house  in  the  vicinity  was  decorated  with  " — 

Grocer. — "  Treacle," 

"  And  the  windows  were  filled  with  elegantly  dressed" — 

Surgeon. — "  Compound  fractures." 

"  Escorted  by  the  Governor  General, his  Royal  Highness 
proceeded  to  the  " — 

Confectioner. — "  Mince-pies," 

•'  And  gracefully  bowed  his  acknowledgments  to  the" — 

ironmonger. — "  Fire-shovel." 

So  the  reading  continues,  until  each  member  of  the 
company  has  responded,  or  the  paragraph  is  closed,  when 
another  extract  may  be  commenced.  The  passages  most 
suited  for  perusal  are  those  which  p>ossess  some  degree  of 
gravity  in  tone,  without  being  too  serious  to  serve  as  a 
foundation  for  the  ridiculous  interpolations  to  which  the 
game  will  naturally  give  rise. 

Of  games  which  are  played  chiefly  to  extract  forfeits 
from  the  company,  a  very  good  one  is  known  as — 

The  Picnic. — One  of  the  players  volunteers  to  perform 
the  principal  part,  by  giving  an  account  or  description  of 
an  imaginary  picnic.  The  rest  allot  among  themselves  the 
names  of  the  individuals  supposed  to  be  present  at  this 
picnic,  or  the  eatables  and  other  articles  which  are  taken 
thereto.  Thus,  "  Mr.  Smith,"  "the  Misses  Brown,"  "  Mr. 
Jones,"  and  "  Mrs.  Robinson,"  with  as  many  more  names 
as  may  conveniently  be  shared  by  the  company,  may  figure 
in  the  narrative,  which  becomes  the  more  graphic  if  "  the 
pie,"  "the  champagne,"  "the  salt,"  "the  spoons,"  &c.,  are 
also  represented  by  different  members  of  the  company. 
Every  time  mention  is  made  of  the  name  allotted  to  one 
of  the  party,  he  or  she  must  rise  from  the  chair,  turn 
round,  and  then  resume  the  seat.  At  the  mention  of  the 
word  "  picnic,"  however,  every  one  of  the  party  must  do 
the  same.  Any  person  failing  to  rise  and  turn  when 
mentioned,  pays  a  forfeit. 

The  narrator  need  not  draw  very  highly  upon  his 
imagination  in  the  recital,  for  any  commonplace  story  in 
which  the  names  are  brought  in,  so  as  to  keep  the  different 
members  of  the  party  moving,  and  elicit  forfeits  from  some 
of  them,  will  sufficiently  answer  the  purpose.  He  may 
proceed  something  in  the  following  fashion.  The  reader 
must  suppose  that  the  names  italicised  have  all  been 
allotted  among  the  company,  and  that  their  representa- 
tives rise  and  turn  each  time  they  are  mentioned  : — 

"  Mrs.  Jones  and  Mrs.  Robinson,  having  several 
marriageable  daughters,  laid  their  heads  together  to  get 
up  a  picnic.  They  took  into  their  confidence  Uncle  John, 
Mrs.  Jones's  brother,  and  asked  him  to  invite  some  of  his 
young  friends  from  the  Waste  Paper  Office,  such  as  Mr. 
Brilliantspark,  Mr.  IValtzingion,  and  Mr.  Softspeeche 
Ogle.  To  make  the  affair  look  more  natural,  the  Misses 
Jones  invited  their  friends  Miss  Simpersweet  and  Miss 


Ttvinkletoe,  while  there  were  also  present,  &c.  &c.  Mrs. 
Robinson  provided  the  gatne  pic,  Mrs.  Jones  the  custard, 
and  Uttcle  John  brought  down  the  champagne,  the  knives 
and  forks,  the  pepper  and  salt,  and  so  on.  A  beautiful 
meadow  near  the  river  was  chosen  as  the  scene  of  the 
picnic,  and  when  the  party  arrived  a  dance  was  proposed 
and  carried  unanimously.  The  partners  were  (here  the 
names  may  be  called  over).  All  went  merry  as  several 
marriage  bells,  and  Mrs.  Robinson  was  just  remarking  to 
Mrs.  Jones  that  she  thought  Mr.  Drilliantspark  was  very 
much  taken  with  her  Seraphina,  but  that  Miss  Himper- 
sweet  really  gave  Mr.  Ogle  too  much  encouragement, 
when  the  proceedings  were  interrupted  by  a  very  unwel- 
come visitor.  This  was  no  other  than  Farmer  Beetroot^s 
cow,  which  had  been  leisurely  surveying  the  company  over 
a  stile,  and  now,  pushing  through  the  hedge,  seemed 
determined  to  make  one  of  the  pic7iic  party.  The  ladies 
screamed,  and  ran  towards  the  other  end  of  the  field, 
while  Mr.  Waltzington  put  up  his  eye-glass  and  remarked, 
"What  a  bo-aw  !"  "No,"  cried  Uncle  John,  who  was 
reputed  to  be  a  wit,  "  not  a  boar,  my  dear  fellow,  it's  a 
cow!'"  "Weally?"  said  Softspeeche  Ogle.  "  How  vewy 
wediculous !" 

The  narrator  may  continue  the  narrative  in  a  similar 
strain,  until  some  of  the  company,  less  on  the  alert  than 
others,  have  incurred  forfeits  enough  for  the  time  being. 

Similar  to  the  Picnic  is  another  game  called  The  Coach, 
in  which  the  party  represent  among  them  the  chief  parts 
and  appendages  of  a  coach,  with  the  driver,  guard,  and 
passengers.  Every  time  either  person  or  thing  is  men- 
tioned, its  representative  rises  and  turns,  as  in  the  game 
last  described.  The  narrator  gives  an  account  of  the 
incidents  of  a  coach  journey,  interspersing  it  with  such 
episodes  as  an  attack  by  highwaymen  or  a  toss  over  in 
the  snow.  A  third  game  of  a  very  similar  description  is 
known  as  The  Traveller,  the  story  in  this  case  relating  to 
the  arrival  of  a  traveller  at  an  inn,  and  the  various 
orders  he  gives,  with  their  execution. 


HOME     GARDENING. 

THE  VEGETABLE   GAJ^DEN  (continued). 

Gardett  Walls. — The  height  of  walls  is  more  commonly 
determined  by  the  size  of  the  garden  and  the  slope  of 
its  surface,  than  with  a  view  to  the  training  of  fruit  trees. 
A  small  spot  enclosed  with  high  walls  has  a  gloomy 
appearance,  but  if  the  walls  are  built  of  different  heights, 
this  will  be  considerably  relieved.  In  a  garden  of  an 
acre,  or  thereabouts,  square  in  shape,  and  slightly  elevated, 
the  north  wall  may  be  raised  to  fourteen  feet ;  the  east 
and  loest  walls  to  twelve  feet ;  and  the  south  wall  to  ten 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  If  the  garden  is 
larger,  the  walls  may  be  a  trifle  higher.  The  extreme 
height  of  the  north  wall  of  any  garden  should  not  exceed 
eighteen  feet,  the  cast  and  west  walls  fifteen,  and  the  south 
wall  twelve.  The  terms  north  and  south  wall  denote  the 
north  and  south  sides  of  the  garden  ;  but  in  speaking  of 
wall-fruit,  if  it  be  said  a  tree  requires  a  south  wall,  it  must 
be  understood  to  mean  a  wall  with  a  south  aspect.  The 
north  wall,  by  being  raised  higher,  shelters  the  garden 
from  the  northern  blast,  and  it  affords  ample  space  for 
training  the  finer  sorts  of  fruit  trees  on  the  south  side  of 
the  wall.  South  aspects  are  generally  deemed  the  best 
for  fruit  trees,  but  we  prefer  an  aspect  a  few  points  to  the 
east.  It  may  possibly  be  argued  by  some  that  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day  is  the  afternoon,  and  that  the  sun  shines 
stronger  at  that  time  than  in  the  morning,  and  so  it  does, 
but  it  is  not  so  healthy,  as  the  great  heat  of  the  sun  causes 
the  trees  to  exhale  their  juices  faster  than  their  roots  can 
absorb  them,  which  will  cause  the  fruit  to  be  smaller,  the 
pulp  harder  and  worse  flavoured.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
aspect  towards  the  south-east  will  catch  the  sun's  rays 


■240 


HOME   GARDENING. 


■earlier,  by  which  the  cold  night  dews  will  be  sooner  and 
more  gently  dissipated,  and  the  scorching  effects  of  the 
afternoon's  sun  earlier  off  the  trees. 

The  next  consideration  is  the  construction  of  these 
•walls  ;  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  judge,  the  upright 
form  is  preferable  to  any  other.  The  foundation  for  them 
should  be  dug  out  no  deeper  than  the  thickness  of  the 
soil  upon  the  surface,  in  order  that  no  more  of  the  wall 
may  be  lost  than  necessary,  or,  in  other  words,  that 
economy  may  be  studied  in  rearing  or  building  of  them. 
It  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  built  soHd,  that  is  to 
say,  on  a  good  foundation,  and  not  upon  arches,  as  ad- 
vised by  some,  for  when  so  built,  it  gives  the  roots  of  the 
trees  liberty  to  grow  out  at  the  back  of  the  wall. 

When  walls  are  of  any  length,  and  the  foun- 
dation  not  of  first-rate   quality,   they   may   be 
strengthened    by   projecting   buttresses,    set   at 
stated   intervals,   but   unless   such   support    be 
absolutely  necessary,  the  face  of  the  wall  pre- 
sents a  very  much  better  appearance  without 
them,    and    is    much    more 
convenient   for  wall   fruit   if 
it  be  perfectly  smooth   and 
even. 

As  regards  copings,  there 
are  many  opinions.  There 
can,  however,  in  our  opinion, 
be  no  objection  to  a  tempo- 
rary coping  of  boards,  pro- 
jecting a  foot  or  eighteen 
inches. 

We  come  to  another  point,  and  that  is,  the  materials 
necessary  for  the  construction  of  them.  Bricks  should  be 
'Chosen  for  the  superstructure,  and  stone  for  the  founda- 
tion and  basement.  If  the  wall  is  not  entirely  built  of 
brick,  it  should  at  least  be  faced  with  it  on  the  south-east 
and  west  aspects.  If  durable  stone  can  be  obtained,  the 
basement  of  the  wall  should  be  built  of  it,  in  preference  to 
bricks.  The  basement  of  all  walls  should  be  some  inches 
thicker  than  the  superstructure. 

Wooden  walls  are  sometimes  adopted 
gardens,  but,  although  good 
fruit  may  be  produced  from 
them,  they  are  not  durable, 
and  on  that  account  we  do 
not  undertake  to.  recommend 
them. 

Trenching,  Ridging,  Ma- 
nuring.— The  kitchen  garden 

should  include  herbs  and  vegetables  enough  to  furnish  an 
.  ample  supply  at  every  season  ;  and  it  must  also  be  kept 
.in  good  order.  The  soil  of  a  garden  should  be  frequently 
pulverised,  to  render  it  sweet,  free,  and  rich ;  or  it  will  not 
produce  early,  well-flavoured,  and  handsome  plants.  The 
soil  must  be  sweet,  that  the  nutriment  which  the  roots 
receive  may  be  wholesome  ;  free,  that  they  may  be  at  full 
liberty  to  range  in  quest  of  it  ;  and  rich,  that  there  may 
be  no  defect  in  the  food  produced.  Vegetables  cannot 
wander  in  search  of  food,  which  must,  therefore,  be  pro- 
vided for  them,  in  accordance  with  their  habits  and  con- 
stitutions. The  fibres  of  roots  take  up  the  nutriment 
which  they  find  in  the  soil,  and  the  freer  the  soil  is,  the 
more  the  absorbing  fibres  will  increase,  to  the  conse- 
quently greater  vigour  of  the  plants.  Hence  the  soil  is 
to  be  pulverised,  not  only  before  planting  or  sowing, 
but  during  the  growth  of  vegetables,  if  space  permits. 
The  depth  of  pulverisation  will  depend  on  the  nature  of 
the  soil ;  in  clayey  land  it  can  hardly  be  too  deep. 

Soils  are  greatly  improved  by  exposure  to  air,  hence 
the  importance  of  ridging  and  trenching.  Ridges  form  a 
series  of  nearly  equilateral  triangles  connected  at  their 
bases,  thus  doubling  the  surface  exposed  to  the  atmo- 
sphere.    (Fig.  2.)     Trenchitig  is  appropriate  on  all  soils, 


in     small 


and  helps  to  mix  and  pulverise  the  ground,  as  well  as  to 
change  the  surface.     (Fig.  i.)     Gardeners  complain  that 
their  ground   is  worn   out,  or  will    not   produce  certain 
kinds   of  vegetables,   when   it   is   neither   poor  nor  un- 
manured.       The    real    cause    is    neglecting    to    change 
the    surface.     The    best    method    with    which    we    are 
acquainted  for  the  preservation  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
is  this  :  to  take  three  crops  off  the  first  surface,  and  then 
trench  the  ground  three  spits  (or  spades)  deep,  which 
operation  is  performed  by  first  opening  a  trench  two  or 
three  feet  wide,  carrying  the  soil  so  taken  out  to  the  other 
end  of  the  plot,  where  the  work  will  necessarily  finish  ; 
then  another  strip  the  same  width  is  to  be  begun,  and  one 
spit  of  the  top  surface  {a.  Fig.  i)  is  to  be  thrown 
to  the  bottom  of  the  first  trench  (a).     The  next 
spit  under  {b),  must  be  cast  upon  the  first  in  the 
same  way,  and  the  third  {c)  upon  the  second,  by 
which  means  the  top  and  bottom  spits  are  re- 
versed, and  the  middle  remains  in  the  centre  as 
previously,  only   somewhat    displaced.      Three 
crops    should   be   taken    off 
this   surface  also,  and   then 
tivnched  two  spits  deep,  as 
before,  turning    the    surface 
spit  to  the  bottom,  and  the 
second  to  the  top,  by  which 
the  middle  becomes  the  top, 
and    the    top    the    middle. 
Take    also    three    crops    off 
this  surface,  and  then  trench 
three  spits,  by  doing  which, 
that  which  has  been  the  middle  and  the  top,  becomes 
the  bottom,  and  the  original  surface  now  becomes   sur- 
face again,  after    having   had    six  years'  rest.     Proceed 
in  this  manner  alternately,  trenching  one  time  two  spits 
deep,  and  the  next  three,  by  which  means  the  surface 
will   always    be    changed,   and   will   rest    six    years  and 
produce  three.     The  next  thing   to  claim  our  attention 
is  manure,   the  use  of  which  is  of   so  much  importance 
that    almost  everything  in  culture  may  be  said  to  de- 
upon  it.      When   manure    is    applied,  the  ground 
should    never    be   overdone 
with  it  ;   a    little  at  a  time, 
and    often,   is    much   better 
^^^'^oX —     than  an  abundance  at  once, 
and  only  now  and  then  ap- 
plied ;     for    when    used     in 
great   quantities,   and    lying 
in     lumps,     it     encourages 
worms,  grubs,  and  other  insects,  and  forces  the  plants 
to  grow  too  rampant  and  rank.     Vegetables  are  always 
sweetest  where  least  dung  is   used  at  once.     There  are 
various   ways   of    applying    manure,    depending    chiefly 
upon  the  season  of  the  year,  the  sort  to   be  used,  and 
the   condition   it   is   in.      When   the    superficial    soil   is 
much  exhausted,  it  is  a  good  way  to  dig  it  over  late  in 
the  autumn,  and   spread  some  good  rotten   manure  on 
the  surface,  and  to  let  it  lie  till  towards  spring,  or  till  the 
ground  is  wanted,  before  it  is  dug  in.     This  method  is 
particularly  suitable  for  land  on  which  superficial  growing 
crops,  such  as  leeks,  onions,  radishes,  and  the  like  are. 
When  the  ground  is  to  be  manured  at  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, the  best  way  is  to  spread  the  manure  on  the  surface, 
previous  to  digging,  and  to  dig  it  in  immediately,  and 
particularly  so  in  spring  and  summer,  for  if  left  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  air,  the  greater  portion  of  its 
nutritive  matter  will  be  lost  by  evaporation,  or  otherwise. 
Manure  may  be  applied  either  as  a  simple  or  as  a  com- 
pound, but  the  latter  is  the  most  eligible  where  a  well- 
flavoured  crop  is  the  leading  consideration,  for  if  it  has 
not  undergone  a  proper  fermentation,  its  effects  will  ne- 
cessarily give  the  vegetables   a  rank  and  disagreeable 
flavour. 


pend 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


241 


THE    TOILETTE. 

II,_THE   HAIR  AND   ITS    MANAGEMENT. 

Hair   always   has   been   accounted   an   orna- 
ment.     It  is   surprising,  however,  considering 
how    much    time,    trouble,    and    money    are 
lavished  upon  it,  that  the  public  are  so  utterly 
at  sea  in  the  nineteenth  century,  not  only  as  to 
Its  structure  and  its  physiology,  but  the  mode 
in  which  the  commonest  agencies  act  upon  it 
for  good  or  for  evil.     The  general  idea  seems  to 
be  that  the  hair  is  a  tube  which  can  imbibe 
nutritious  material  presented  to  it  from  within 
the  body  through  the  blood,  or  without,  through 
the   medium  of  pomades  or  washes  ;   that  it 
can   also,   if  cut   across,  let  out  the  nutrient 
juices    it    contains,    so    that    it    subsequently 
dies   and   falls   out.     This    is   about  the   best 
description     that    could    be    given    of    hair- 
dressers'   physiology,    and    upon    such    hypo- 
thetical assumptions  are  based  many  prepara- 
tions, which   too  frequently  do    an   infinity  of 
harm    to    the  hair  of  those  who    use   them. 
It  would   matter  very   little   if  the   prevailing 
fashions   of    dyeing,    bleaching,    and    curling, 
and  the  widespread  employment  of  spiritu- 
ous   and   stimulating   lotions   and   pomades 
were   in  all  cases  devoid  of  harm,  but   the 
reverse   is   the   case  ;    for  these   tWngs  are 
often   most   injudiciously   and    unfitly   used 
and   done,   both   as   regards   time   and   the 
nature   of    the  hair   disorder.       The  exist- 
ence  of  so  much   ignorance   in   regard    to 
the  management  of  the  hair  is  readily  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  it 
lias  as  yet  received  no  care  or 
attention  at  the  hands  of  those 
•who  are  possessed  of  scientific 
■knowledge.  The  physician  deems 
it  a  topic  scarcely  fit  to  employ 
his  time  and  thought,  and  hence 
it   is    left   to   be    discussed    by 
men  who,  nine  cases  out  of  ten, 
know  nothing  of  the  true  struc- 
ture of  hair,  and  certainly  less 
of  its  life  under  different  con- 
ditions, both  of  health  and  dis- 
ease,   and     who    consequently 
cannot  be  acquainted  with  the 
way  in  which  its  vigour  may  be 
promoted,  or  its  decay  stopped. 
Now  and  again  a  man  may  make 
what     is     generally     termed    a 
"lucky  hit,"  but   lucky    hitters 
are  not  always  right ;  and  often 
by  their  free  and  easy  handling 
of  remedies  of  which  they  know 
little,  do  an  infinity  of  harm. 

The  hair,  and  the  mode  in 
which  it  has  been  arranged, 
has  had  its  political,  its  religious, 
and  its  social  significance.  It 
■would  be  interesting,  but  out  of 
place,  to  go  into  that  subject  here. 
Suffice  it  to  say,  that  our  pur- 
pose is  to  give  an  account  as  brief  as  possible  of  what  the 
hair  really  is,  what  should  be  done  to  it  in  health  to  keep 
it  in  a  healthy  condition,  what  are  the  more  common 
diseases  to  which  it  is  liable,  and  the  means  to  be  adopted 
to  prevent  these  diseases,  or  biiing  back  the  hair  to  its 
proper  state  of  healthfulness  when  it  deviates  therefrom. 

Now,  as  regards  the  structure  of  the  hair,  a  short  de- 
scription may  suffice.     The  hairs,  seated  in  little  depres- 

YOL.   I. 


sions  of  the  skin  called  follicles,  are  m.idc  up 
of  cells  and  fibres,  the  latter  being  formed  by 
the  flattening  out  of  the  former.  Human  hair 
is  not  hollow,  though  the  central  portion  is  less 
dense  than  the  outer  portion.  In  each  hair 
follicle  at  its  upper  part,  two  little  fat  glands 
open,  so  that  the  hair  shaft  is  lubricated  by  the 
fatty  matter  secreted  by  the  glands.  The  cut 
annexed,  Fig.  i,  represents  a  section  of  skin  a 
good  deal  magnified,  so  as  to  show  the  hair 
in  its  follicle,  with  the  two  glands,  which  look 
like  bunches  of  grapes,  opening  into  its  upper 
part,  and  also  a  sweat  gland  running  by  its 
side. 

Hairs  are  technically  said   to  have  a  shaft, 

which  is  the  part  external  to  the  follicle;  a  root, 

which  is  buried  in  the  skin;    and   a   knob,   or 

the  termination  of  the  root,  which  is  attached 

to  a  little  projection  at  the  very  bottom  of  the 

follicle  from  whence  the  material  out  of  which 

the  hair  cells  are  formed  comes.    The  hair  shaft 

is  further  made  up  of  a  central  portion  or  pith, 

where  the  cells  are  loosely  packed  together,  and 

an  outer  portion,  where  the  cells  are  flattened 

out  into   fibres  very  closely    packed   together. 

All  this  may  be  seen  in  the  cut.  Fig.  2.     In 

the  centre  is  the  hair  with  its  root  and  knob  ; 

above,  the  hair  is  cut  across,  so  that  only  the 

beginning  of  the  shaft  is  seen  ;  in  the  centre  is 

the  pith,  and  outside  the  cortex,  as  it  is  termed. 

Below,  the  cells  are  very  plainly  visible,  and 

these  a  little  higher  up  are  seen  to  be  flattening 

out  into  fibres.     If  we  boil  a  hair  in  strong 

acid,  the   fibres    separate  very  quickly.     In 

the  pith  a  little  air  is  contained, 

as  a  rule.  The  colour  of  the  hair 

depends  upon   the    presence  of 

very  minute  particles  of  pigment 

scattered     in    varying     amount 

throughout  its  substance.     Now 

it  will  at  once  be  perceived  that 

thC'  hair  does  not  grow  by  the 

reception  of  nourishment  through 

its   centre    part  ;    but    the   cells 

which  go  to  form   the  pith  and 

the  fibres  of  the  outer  portion,  are 

originally   manufactured  at  the 

very  bottom  of  the  hair  follicle, 

and  are  pushed  up  from  below 

—  being  flattened  out  more  or 
less  into  fibres  as  they  advance 

—  by  others  which  continuously 
form  in  succession.  If,  there- 
fore, we  desire  to  increase  the 
growth  of  the  hair,  or  to  repair 
damage  done  to  it,  we  must 
operate — so  to  speak — upon  that 
portion  of  the  hair  follicle  where 
the  hair  cells  are  formed.  It  is  of 
little  use  to  try  and  rub  nourish- 
ing material  into  the  head,  rather 
must  we  improve  the  blood 
which  supplies  the  material  out  of 
which  the  hair  cells  are  originally 
formed.     The  hair  grows  at  the 

rate  of  about  one  to  one  and  a-half  lines  a  week,  or  six  or 
seven  inches  in  the  year.  The  average  length  of  hair  in 
women  is  perhaps  between  two  and  three  feet.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  if  the  beard  of  a  man  continued  to 
grow  from  its  first  appearance  till  death,  at  seventy  years  of 
age  it  would  be  about  twenty-seven  feet  in  length.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  however,  such  a  length  could  never  be 
reached,  owing  to  the  continual  falling  away  of  separate 

1 5 


242 


THE   REARLNG  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF   CHILDREN. 


hairs,  and  their  replacement  by  others,  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  already  laid  down.  Few  persons  have 
any  correct  notion  of  the  number  of  hairs  on  their  bodies. 
In  every  square  inch  on  the  head  it  is  said  that  on  an 
average  i,ooo  hairs  are  present,  or  120,000  in  the  whole 
head.  Red  hair  is  coarser  and  thicker  than  brown  or  black. 
Red-haired  people,  for  instance,  have  on  an  average 
but  80,000  ;  black,  103,000  ;  brown,  110,000  ;  and  blonde, 
140,000  hairs  in  the  scalp.  Curly  hair  is  in  great  measure 
due  to  its  flatness,  the  deficiency  of  gelatine,  and  the 
action  of  heat  and  dryness.  The  hair,  when  free  from 
fat,  absorbs  and  evaporates  moisture  very  rapidly,  accord- 
ing as  the  air  is  dry  or  impregnated  with  vapoury  matter. 
The  natural  fatty  matter  which  is  secreted  by  the  glands, 
prevents  any  sudden  change  in  this  respect,  and  pomade 
takes  the  place  of  the  natural  oily  secretion  when  this 
latter  is  deficient  in  amount. 

There  are  one  or  two  other  points  in  physiology  which 
we  need  to  be  acquainted  with,  in  order  to  understand 
the  every-day  management  of  the  hair.  Hair  is  regularly 
shed  ;  not  all  at  once,  but  whilst  some  follicles  are  devoid 
of  hairs,  others  are  filled  with  hairs  in  various  stages  of 
growth,  so  that  the  shedding  which  continually  goes  on  is 
unperccived  by  us  in  a  state  of  health.  The  hair  offei"s 
no  exception  to  the  rule  that  each  part  of  the  human 
body  has  a  definite  period  of  existence,  and  having  done 
its  work,  it  is  cast  off  as  useless.  We  are  not  speaking  of 
disease  now.  Hence  it  is  that  when  the  shedding  is  ex- 
cessive only,  we  can  regard  it  as  the  result  of  a  disordered 
health.  There  are  some  persons  who  are  very  anxious  if 
the  least  particle  of  hair  comes  away  with  the  comb  ;  let 
them  know  then  that,  in  moderation,  continuous  shedding 
of  the  hair  is  natural.  The  amount  of  hair  varies  in  dii^ 
ferent  individuals,  as  we  all  know,  but  it  is  of  importance 
to  remember  that,  both  in  regard  to  character  and  amount, 
hair  is  a  family  peculiarity.  Luxuriance  or  deficiency  of 
hair  supply  may  be  traced  through  successive  generations, 
as  much  as  peculiarities  of  feature,  colour,  or  mental  con- 
formation. This  being  the  case,  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  nature  can  be  so  far  altered  by  pomades  and  washes 
as  to  run  counter  to  a  strong  inheritance,  and  agree  to 
the  artificial  production  of  good  crops  of  hair  in  those 
who  have  no  ancestral  claim  to  it,  but  the  reverse.  Yet, 
how  pertinaciously  do  men  trust  in  the  thousand  and  one 
vaunted  panaceas,  under  these  very  circumstances  !  And 
it  is  the  more  necessary  to  notice  the  point,  because  the 
stimulation  usually  employed  is  likely  to,  and  indeed 
actually  does,  produce  harm  in  many  cases  ;  over-taxing 
the  naturally  enfeebled  powers  of  the  hair-forming  appa- 
ratus, and  leading  to  more  decided  baldness  or  thinning 
of  the  hair. 

Our  readers  must  likewise  remember  that  the  healthy 
growth  of  the  hair  is  distinctly  influenced  by  the  state  of 
the  bodily  powers,  so  that  anything  which  weakens  on 
the  one  hand  or  makes  strong  on  the  other,  is,  as  a  rule, 
the  cause  in  the  one  case  of  ill-nourishment  of  the  hair, 
and  in  the  other  of  its  vigorous  development.  It  follows, 
consequently,  that  one  of  the  most  common  causes,  both 
of  thinning  out  and  absolute  loss  of  hair,  is  disorder  of 
the  general  system,  accompanied  by  debility ;  and  it 
needs  the  knowledge  of  the  physician  surely  to  detect  and 
to  correct  those  errors  of  nutrition  upon  which  loss  or 
disease  of.  hair  depends.  What  those  conditions  are 
which  lead,  through  impairment  of  the  general  health,  to 
disease  of  the  hair,  will  be  specially  referred  to  hereafter. 
So  far  only  will  we  enter  into  the  structure  and  physiology 
of  the  hair.  Our  object  in  this  paper  is  to  show  that  every 
healthy  head  of  hair  is  undergoing  a  continual  but  gradual 
shedding,  and  that,  in  a  moderate  degree,  this  is  to  be 
welcomed,  because  it  shows  that  the  scalp  is  getting  rid 
of  that  which  is  worthless,  and  possesses  the  power  of 
producing  that  which  will  serve  as  well,  and  it  may  be 
better ;  that,  under  certain  conditions,  a  deficient  supply 


of  hair,  especially  in  men,  is  a  family  peculiarity,  against 
which  the  arts  of  man  are  practically  powerless  ;  and 
lastly,  that  there  are  a  host  of  disorders  which  indicate 
that  the  blood  and  general  state  of  nutrition  is  at  fault, 
and  which  require  not  local  treatment  so  much  as  the  use 
of  internal  tonic  and  other  remedies  for  their  cure.  The 
only  one  plan  of  treatment  for  all  hair  disorders  at  pre- 
sent in  vogue  amongst  hair  doctors,  is  stimulation.  But 
it  must  be  recollected  that  to  provoke  the  hair  follicles  to 
extraordinary  activity,  when  the  general  powers  are  ex- 
hausted, is  often  to  produce  harm. 

We  shall  next  take  up  the  daily  treatment  of  hair  in  a 
healthy  person. 


THE   REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF 
CHILDREN. 

VII. —  EXERCISE. 

During  the  first  few  weeks  of  life,  the  disposition  to  sleep 
indicates  the  necessity  for  avoiding  anything  like  excite- 
ment to  premature  activity.  With  limbs  and  muscles  un- 
developed, and  mental  powers  unformed,  the  only  exertion 
which  a  very  young  infant  ought  to  be  subject  to  is  that 
which  is  occasioned  by  being  washed  and  dressed. 
Gentle  chafing  of  the  limbs  before  a  fire  may  be  practised 
morning  and  evening  with  benefit  and  pleasure  to  the 
babe.  Not  until  an  infant  voluntarily  seeks  movement, 
or  the  dawning  intelligence  evinces  pleasure  in  passing 
objects,  should  any  attempt  be  made  to  disturb  the  order 
of  things  established  by  nature.  This  change  may  gene- 
rally be  observed  about  the  third  month.  In  the  mean- 
time, the  more  tranquil  an  infant  can  be  kept,  both  in 
mind  and  body,  the  greater  are  the  chances  of  unchecked 
development  at  the  proper  period. 

The  practice  of  too  many  nurses  is  at  variance  with 
these  simple  rules.  Uninformed,  generally,  respecting  the 
structure  of  the  human  frame,  they  are  apt  to  apply  prin- 
ciples of  exercise  which  are  totally  unfitted  to  the  tender 
organism  of  infancy.  Hence  the  objectionable  habit 
of  jog-trotting  on  the  knee,  and  rocking  the  body  to  and 
fro  with  an  infant  in  arms,  together  with  the  still  more 
pernicious  practice  of  inducing  the  babe  to  support  its 
head  before  the  spine  is  strong  enough  tg  bear  the  weight. 
For  some  time  after  the  rest  of  the  body  moves  freely, 
the  head  is  unequal  to  sustain  an  erect  posture.  The 
period  when  it  is  safe  to  encourage  an  infant  to  sit  upright, 
is  at  the  age  of  seven  months.  Previous  to  that  time  the 
body  should  be  held  only  in  a  semi-erect  posture,  either 
by  resting  across  the  nurse's  shoulder,  or  by  her  placing 
the  distended  palm  of  her  hand  against  the  child's  chest. 
It  IS  the  more  necessary  to  observe  these  precautions 
against  spinal  weakness  in  time,  because  children  that 
have  been  injudiciously  managed  at  the  outset,  become 
restless  when  it  is  attempted  to  keep  them  in  a  reclining 
posture. 

An  exercise  very  congenial  to  the  inclination  of  a  baby, 
consists  in  spreading  cushions  upon  the  floor  for  it,  upon 
which  to  stretch  itself.  If  no  cushions  are  at  hand,  a 
dean  cot  mattress  will  answer  equally  well.  All  little  ones 
revel  in  the  freedom  the  change  affords  from  the  restrained 
posture  in  the  nurse's  arms. 

The  above  exercise  is  the  first  step  towards  learning  to 
crawl — the  most  healthful  and  natural  mode  of  progression 
in  babyhood.  Some  over-anxious  parents  check  this 
habit,  lest  it  should  bring  the  infant  into  danger.  Harm, 
however,  seldom  results,  provided  common  precautions  be 
taken.  Another  prejudice  sometimes  entertained  against 
crawling  is,  that  if  a  child  finds  how  easy  it  is  to  get 
along  on  the  hands  and  knees,  it  will  not  try  to  walk. 
Here,  again,  the  fears  are  unfounded.  All  children  are 
anxious  to  get  upon  their  feet  as  soon  as  they  feel  them- 
selves strong   enough  to  do  so  ;    and  the  surest  way  to 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


243 


ensure  timely  walking  is  not  to  force  the  practice.  Many 
children  do  not  walk  before  they  arc  from  twelve  to 
fourteen  months  old.  In  the  interim,  crawling  exercises 
all  the  muscles,  and  brings  every  limb  into  play  in  a 
manner  proportionate  to  an  infant's  strength. 

The  best  dress  for  the  crawling  age  is  one  in  which 
little  French  children  arc  usually  attired — a  sort  of 
knickerbocker  suit,  wann  and  loose,  with  trousers  and 
vest  all  in  one  piece.  The  overall  pinafore,  so  much  in 
favour  in  our  nurseries,  is  a  capital  contrivance  for  keep- 
ing the  under-gamients  clean,  but  sadly  impedes  the  free 
movement  of  the  limbs  by  being  apt  to  get  twisted  round 
the  child's  legs.  Usefulness,  not  fashion,  should  be  the 
characteristic  of  all  infant  attire,  especially  such  as  is  worn 
in  the  nursery. 

The  stage  at  which  infants  begin  to  walk  is  an  anxious 
one,  and  demands  the  exercise  of  a  considerable  amount 
of  self-control  on  the  part  of  a  parent,  inasmuch  as  falls 
are  inevitable.  These  appear  to  a  looker-on  to  be  of  a 
more  serious  nature  than  they  really  arc.  Provided  a 
child  docs  not  fall  from  a  greater  elevation  than  its  own 
height,  injury  very  seldom  occurs  from  such  tumbles. 
The  most  dangerous  falls  arc  those  which  happen  from 
tumbling  off  spring  mattresses  and  scats.  The  sudden- 
ness of  the  jerk  prevents  a  child  from  saving  itself  by  the 
exercise  of  the  momentary  instinct  which  is  usually  dis- 
played in  other  cases  of  impending  danger.  '  Left  to 
themselves,  little  folks  generally  fall  neatly,  and  manage 
to  keep  their  heads  uppermost.  The  cry  which  is  heard 
after  these  accidents  arises,  more  often  than  not,  from 
surprise  and  mortification,  and  the  trouble  is  best  treated 
as  a  joke.  If,  instead  of  catching  the  child  up  in  her 
arms  and  smothering  it  with  caresses,  accompanied  with 
expressions  of  sympathy,  the  nurse  said,  in  a  cheerful 
voice,  "  Jump  up,  and  see  where  you  sat  last,"  the  child's 
mind  would  be  diverted  from  its  grief,  and  braced  to 
fresh  exertion. 

As  soon  as  a  child  is  able  to  leave  the  house  it  should 
pass  as  much  time  as  possible  in  the  open  air.  Even  sleep- 
ing out  of  doors  does  no  harm,  provided  proper  clothing 
be  worn.  Warm  covering  for  the  chest,  arms,  legs,  feet, 
and  loins  is  essential.  The  head  should  be  kept  cool, 
and  the  face  covered  with  a  light  gauzy  material  only. 
Cambric  Jiandkerchiefs  for  veils,  and  felt  hats  are  objec- 
tionable. As  a  general  rule,  the  head-gear  of  an  infant 
should  admit  of  the  free  passage  of  the  air  inhaled  and 
exhaled  both  by  day  and  night. 

Perambulators,  under  careful  guidance,  are  a  real  boon 
to  both  nurse  and  child.  If  a  babe  be  healthy,  and  the 
weather  suitable,  there  is  no  reason  that  i'nfants  should 
not  from  the  commencement  take  daily  exercise  in  a 
perambulator.  For  this  purpose  the  little  carriage  should 
be  fitted  up  with  a  movable  compartment,  admitting  of 
a  horsehair  mattress  and  pillow  being  placed  within. 
Any  light  frame-work,  if  wood,  will  suffice.  The  bottom 
of  the  compartment  should  be  made  of  perforated  zinc. 
From  the  writer's  own  experience  children  from  the  age 
of  six  weeks  thrive  better  when  exercised  in  the  open  air 
in  the  manner  described  than  when  carried  in  the  nurse's 
arms.  Less  fatigue  in  carrying  ensures  less  risk  from  the 
nurse  sitting  down  to  rest.  It  is  seldom  that  cold  is 
taken  when  passing  briskly  through  the  air  ;  standing  still 
in  draughty  places  is  always  most  carefully  to  be  guarded 
against.  The  portable  bed  has  also  the  advantage  of 
enabling  two  little  ones  to  be  exercised  in  a  double  peranir 
bulator  at  an  age  when  two  nurses  would  be  required  to 
afford  separate  exercise  to  each  child. 

When  the  exercise  of  walking  alone  ceases  to  be  a 
pleasurable  excitement,  some  inducement  is  generally 
needful  to  get  little  folks  along.  The  daily  walk  conse- 
luently  becomes  a  trial  of  pastime  to  nurse  and  child. 
i'he  best  way  to  obviate  this  difficulty  is  to  make  the 
walk  a  secondary  object,  and  some  attendant  amusement 


the  ostensible  one.  Playing  at  horses  is  an  excellent 
game,  and  so  likewise  is  the  wearing  of  a  bell  harness, 
composed  o<"  broad  woollen  webbing  across  the  shoulders, 
laced  in  front,  and  fastened  with  a  buckle  at  the  back. 
Pressure  upon  any  one  part  of  the  body  is  thus  avoided, 
and  by  means  of  the  front-lacing  the  harness  may  be  worn 
by  children  of  various  sizes.  The  glitter  and  jingle  of 
the  small  sledge  bells,  and  the  gaily-coloured  reins,  prove 
irresistibly  attractive  to  both  horse  and  driver. 

Muscular  exercise,  adapted  to  more  advanced  child- 
hood, has  received  an  important  accessory  in  the  form  of 
gymnastic  apparatuses,  of  great  variety  and  simplicity. 
They  arc  made  for  different  classes  of  strengfth,  and  are 
designed  to  bring  every  muscle  into  play. 

A  small  ranelagh  will  also  be  found  very  useful  for 
expanding  the  chests  of  children  after  long  sitting  over 
their  books  or  writing,  or  needlework,  and  possesses  the 
advantage  of  being  easily  suspended  on  a  hook  in  any 
room.  Girls  as  well  as  boys  should  be  accustomed  daily 
to  use  the  ranelagh  for  a  few  minutes  at  a  time.  Rane- 
laghs  may  be  purchased  at  very  trifling  cost  at  most 
india-rubber  warehouses. 


FURNITURE. 


III.— BEDROOM   FURNITURE   {continued). 

Medical  men  consider  it  the  more  healthy  plan  to  sleep 
on  beds  with  as  few  draperies  as  possible.  With  a  view 
to  promote  healthy  slumber,  and  yet  have  ornamental 
surroundings,  furniture-makers  have  again  brought  into 
general  use  the  Arabian  bedstead,  in  wood,  iron,  and 
brass,  which  they  term  "  half-tester,"  and  "  canopy," 
according  to  the  pattern.  No  matter  what  draperies  or 
hangings  these  bedsteads  have,  they  always  look  well. 
Some  draperies  are  enormously  expensive,  others  by  no 
means  costly,  and  with  the  slightest  addition  of  fringe  or 
band  of  pattern  of  colour  may  be  made  very  pleasing  to 
the  eye.  Of  the  latter,  undoubtedly  white  dimity — or  its 
equivalent  in  an  inwoven  pattern  of  white  with  alternate 
stripes  of  dimity — is  the  best.  It  is  easily  washed,  and 
then  looks  like  new  ;  and  it  'lasts  many  years.  The  out- 
side head  valance  should  have  a  deep  white  bullion  fringe, 
or  netted  lace  ;  the  inner  one  should  be  quite  plain. 

Another  variety  is  of  dimity,  with  a  chintz  or  coloured 
cambric  border,  about  three  inches  wide,  to  the  valance 
and  curtains,  either  of  scarlet  Turkey-twill  or  washing  • 
mauve  cambric.  Moreover,  these  white  har>gings  are 
helps  to  cleanliness  ;  not  a  speck  or  an  insect  can  sully 
their  purity  without  a  chance  of  speedy  discovery. 

Chintz  furniture  lined  with  a  complementary  colour  is 
handsome  and  fresh-looking.  The  expense  of  both  chintz 
and  lining  will  not  exceed  that  of  a  good  quality  of  dimity. 
In  towns,  and  places  where  white  rapidly  changes  to  a  dingy 
yellow,  chintz  is  to  be  preferred.  A  bedstead  of  iron,  similar 
to  that  in  page  184  (Fig.  2),  and  ornamented  in  colours 
and  gold,  can" be  purchased  for  £,z  8s.  Chintz  furniture, 
lined  and  made  for  the  same,  would  cost  ^3  17s.  6d. 
This  expense  would  of  course  vary  more  or  less  according 
to  the  colour  and  quality  of  the  material.  A  chintz  with 
several  colours  is  costly  ;  one  with  two  or  three  com- 
paratively less  so.  Care  should  be  exercised,  in  selecting 
lining  to  a  chintz,  to  have  a  tint  that  will  contrast  well 
with  the  complexion.  A  pale  green  will  impart  the 
cadaverous  hue  of  sickness  ;  a  buff  has  no  contrast  with 
the  skin.  A  pale  pink  or  blue  suits  well,  but  strong  dark 
colours  are  to  be  avoided.  When  chintz  hangings  are 
soiled  they  should  be  sent  to  a  cleaner's,  to  be  washed  and 
calendered  ;  but  if  this  process  be  too  expensive— ^about 
2^d.  or  3d.  a  yard — they  may  be  washed  at  home  in  a 
lather  made  with  hot  water,  ox-gall,  and  curd  soap,  and 
afterward  rinsed  in  alum-water,  and  dried  in  a  shady 
place.      The  o.x-gall   preserves  aU   colours,   but   articles 


244 


FURNITURE. 


washed  with  it  require  to  be  exposed  for  some  time  to 
the  air  to  destroy  the  peculiar  odour  of  the  gall,  but  not 
in  the  sun,  or  where  there  is  a  very  strong  light.  As 
calendered  or  glazed  articles  last  three  times  as  long  as 
when  unglazed,  the  ex- 
pense is  not  i:eally  so 
great  as  it  at  first  seems. 
Brass  bedsteads  are 
many  of  them  to  be 
greatly  admired  for 
their  exquisite  beauty 
and  lightness  of  appear- 
ance. They  are  some- 
tinijs  lacquered  to  pre- 
vent tarnishing.  They 
are  somewhat  expen- 
sive, varying  in  cost 
from'  £4.  15s.  to  ;^20 
for  one  of  full  size. 
The  difference  in  price 
arises  not  altogether 
from  the  more  or  less 
artistic  beauty  or 
elaboration  of  design, 
but  from  the  quantity 
of  iron,  instead  of  the 
more  costly  metal, 
which  is  used  in  their 
construction,  and  also 
the  greater  or  smaller 
diameter  of  the  head 
and  foot  pillars.  A  five 
feet  wide  bedstead — all 
brass — without  much 
ornament,  would  cost 


being  drawn  through  two  united  rings  of  some  fanciful 
flat  device,  or  as  a  true-lover's  knot,  or  any  other  quaint 
design,  so  that  it  be  not  a  single  ring.  This  support  for 
the  drapery  is  screwed  into  the  ceiling,  in  the  same  posi- 
tion and  distance  from 
the  wall  as  the  centre 
front  of  a  tester  would 
be  in  a  half-tester  bed- 
stead. The  hangings 
or  drapery,  in  two 
pieces,  cut  of  four 
breadths  wide,  are 
measured,  slanting 
over  the  bedstead, 
from  the  screwed 
ornament  slanting  to 
the  ground,  and  three- 
quarters  of  a  yard,  or 
more,  of  extra  material 
to  be  allowed  on  each 
piece  beyond  the  actual 
measurement.  This  is 
now  drawn  up  in  a 
bunch  —  not  on  the 
selvage  side — and 
thrust  through  one  of 
the  rings,  where  it  is 
secured  by  tying  a 
tape  round  the  mate- 
rial and  fastening  it  to 
the  ring,  but  conceal- 
ing the  tape.  The 
second  piece  is  ar- 
ranged in  the  same 
manner,  and  then  the 


Fig.  I. 


about  ;^I2  IDS. ;  but 
with  only  the  foot 
rail  of  brass,  and 
the  remaining  part  of 
iron,  the  difference 
less  in  expense  would 

be  ^4. 

One  word  may  b2 
said  here  about  the 
foot-rail  of  a  bedstead 
—  never  to  purchase 
one  without  it,  if  com- 
fort be  studied. 

For  entire  brass 
bedsteads,  hangings  of 
rich  striped  chintz,  with  pink  lining,  seem  to  be  the 
silk  and  lace,  with  cords  and  elaborate  tassels,  or  a 
only  appropriate  furniture  to  contrast  well  with  the  bril- 
liant brass-work.  The  illustration,  Fig.  i,  shows  such 
a  bedstead  with  hangings  complete. 

A  French  pattern  brass  bedstead,  with  hangings,    is 
elegant  when  the  hangings  are  disposed  artistically  by 


Fig.  3- 

two  puffs  are  pulled 
out  in  front  as  full  as 
possible.  Two  sides 
of  the  curtains  fall 
down  at  the  back,  and 
are  then  trimmed  to 
form  a  head  -  piece. 
The  remaining  portion 
falls  over  the  sides  of 
the  bedstead  in  two 
curtains,  which  are 
looped  back  in  the 
day  time,  each  by  a 
broad  band  of  ribbon 
bordered  with  silk 
gimp,  mounted  on  stiff  buckram,  and  looped  with  a 
concealed  cord,  the  colour  of  the  ribbon,  to  each  pillar  of 
the  bedstead. 

The  material  for  this  furniture  may  be  of  a  broad-striped 
chintz,  lined  with  pale  pink,  or  of  white  dimity,  or  damask 
dimity  bordered  with  a  handsome  stripe  of  chintz— of 
course  bordered  only  on  three  sides,  but  not  those  which 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


245 


^ 


arc  drawn  through  the  rings.  This  is  very  graceful,  is  strings.  The  white  dimity  is  now  put  on  outside  of  this, 
inexpensive,  and  when  washed  and  ironed,  always  looks  i  The  curtains  must  each  have  a  deep  hem,  to  allow  of  the 
as  good  as  new.  t  material  shrinking,  and  be  measured   from   the  highest 

In  France  great  taste  is  shown  in  the  arrangement  of  i  part  of  the  bedstead,  and  after  the  first  is  cut  and  slof>ed, 
the  drapery  of  a  bedstead.  It  is  often  placed  in  an  i  the  remaining  curtains  can  be  cut  from  the  dimity  so  as 
alcove  in  a  sitting-room,  one  side  of  the  bedstead  not  I  to  save  the  material,  by  utilising  the  space  occasioned  by 

the  slope  of  one  curtain  to  the  slope  of  another.  The 
curtains  should  be  sewed  on  to  be  easily  re- 
movable, but  must  be  first  gathered  to  the 
right  size,  and  bound  with  red  lace,  a  white 
binding  sold  for  the  purpose,  and  a  plain  band 
of  the  same  sewed  inside  the  binding,  and  by 
this  the  curtains  are  sewed  on.  As  the  bed- 
lace  shrinks  in  the  washing,  it  must  not  be 
strained  in  sewing  it,  but  rather  put  on  full. 

The    canopy    bedstead    is    an    extremely 

pretty  and  inexpensive  style.     One  six  feet  six 

in  length,  by  five  feet,  can  be  had  for  less 

than  forty  shillings  ;  with  this  the  drapery  is 

in    one   length,  and    secured   to    the    centre 

top  bar  by  strings  of  ribbon.     All  hangings 

of    this    kind    should    have    a   deep   bullion 

fringe   at    each    end,    to    keep    the   furniture 

even   and   heavy  where  most  needed.     The 

width  of  it  should   be  four  times  that  of  the  bedstead, 

and  this  will  admit  of  its  falling  over  on  each  side,  thus 

forming  a  curtain.     A  lining  may  be  added  in  the  same 

way  as  directed  for  the  tent  shape. 

Four-post  bedsteads,  of  mahogany  or  other  wood,  are 
even  now  by  many  persons  preferred 
to  a  less  heavy  form.     Those  who 
take  pride  in  a  large  and  imposing- 
looking  bedroom  will  find  a  hand- 
somely-carved bedstead  of  this  de- 
scription add  much  to  the  appearance 
of  the  apartment,  provided  it  be  fur- 
nished with  damask  hangings  of  wool 
or   silk,  the  valances  trimmed  with 
deep  fringe  of  the   same   colour  as 
the  damask,  and  relieved  by  silken 
cords    and    tassels    of    a    well-con- 
trasting colour.     The  foot  curtains, 
too,  may  be  useful  in  shutting  out 
the  light,  if  it  be  too  intrusive,  in- 
stead   of    using    very    dark   blinds, 
which   always    cast   a   gloom    over 
everything.     The  entire  absence  of 
bed  furniture  from   the   tester  wil\ 
effectually  prevent  that  closeness  in 
the  atmosphere  which  would  occur 
if  the  tester  were  covered,  and  the 
omission  will   detract   little   if  any, 
from    the  beauty  of    the  bedstead. 
Crimson   or    green   damask   should 
have   a  bullion  fringe  of   the  same 
shade  of  tint  as  the  material,  but  this 
should  be  relieved  by  maize-coloured 
silken  hangers,  which  are  sold  from 
ninepence  each,  and  upwards.  The  binding  also  should  be 
a  mixture  of  the  two  colours.     Such  would  cost  from  £\i 
to  ^20.     Whether  the  furniture  be  white  or  coloured,  it  is 
well  at  all  times  to  place  and  fasten  a  calico  sheet,  or  an 
equivalent  for  it,  entirely  over  the  tester,  if  there  be  one, 
and  down  the  back  of  the  head  of  the  bed,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  effectually  excluding  the  dust  ;  also,  for  the  same 
purpose,  the  bottom  valance  should  be  lined  with  dark 
glazed  lining. 

Instead  of  iron  rods,  formerly  in  use  for  the  curtains  to 
run  on,  when  attached  to  small  brass  rings,  and  which 
were  concealed  by  the  double  valance,  which  is  now  dis- 
pensed with,  large  and  handsome-looking  rods  or  poles  of 
the  same  wood  as  the  bedstead,  are  now  used.     On  these 


projecting  beyond   the    walls,   which   are   level  with    it. 
Overhead   hangs   a  drapery  of  silk,  relieved 
with  lace  or  white  muslin. 

A  most  convenient  form  of  bedstead,  and 
which  takes  up  but  little  room,  is  convertible 
into  a  couch  by  day,  and  can  be  shortened 
or  lengthened  at  pleasure,  to  form  either  a 
child's  cot,  or,  at  night,  a  bed  for  an  adult. 
The  mattresses  and  pillows  necessary  for  this 
arrangement  are  sold  with  the  bedstead,  which 
is  two  feet  six  inches  wide.  It  can  also  be 
folded  into  a  small  compass,  and  be  placed 
away,  or  taken  as  a  part  of  travelling  equi- 
page. 

The  best    form   we  have   seen   of  corres- 
ponding  good   taste,  with  the  advantages  of 
English  manufacture,  is   that  figured  in   the 
accompanying  cuts,  Figs.  2,  3,  4.      They  are 
manufactured  by  Messrs.  Burton,  of  Oxford  Street,  the 
well-known    ironmongers    and    general   furnishers,   who 
have  certainly  attained  a   high  degree   of  perfection  in 
every  department  of  bedroom  furniture. 

In  a  long  and  narrow  apartment — if  means  are  limited, 
so  that  one  room  only  can  be  used  for 
both  bed  and  sitting-room — the  space 
at  the  end  of  it  can  be  utilised,  and 
the  greater  equality  of  proportion  will 
make  the  toom  appear  more  square, 
and  longer  even  than  its  original  size. 
We  will  imagine  that  one  side  of  a 
bedstead,  whether  of  brass  or  iron,  is 
placed  against  the  centre  of  the  wall, 
at  the  head  a  portable  closet,  Figs. 
5  and  6,  with  shelves  and  a  deep 
drawer ;  at  the  foot  an  enclosed  wash- 
stand,  and  the  whole  hidden  by  a 
damask  curtain  of  the  width  of  the 
room ;  the  curtain,  hung  upon  a 
brass  or  mahogany  rod,  supported  by 
three  iron  staples  screwed  into  the 
joists  of  the  ceiling.  The  whole 
affair,  bedstead,  press,  washstand,  and 
curtain,  will  not  cost  more  than  ^10. 

Four-post  Bedsteads. — ^The  mate- 
rials composing  these  are  wood,  brass, 
and  iron,  or  a  combination  of  the 
latter  two.  They  are  of  two  shapes — 
the  oblong  tester  and  the  tent.  For 
the  latter,  the  whole  of  the  hangings, 
including  the  curtains,  are  generally 
made  in  one  piece,  but  in  this  way  the 
furniture  is  troublesome  to  wash.  It 
is  better  to  sew  the  curtains  on  to  the  head,  foot,  and  sides 
of  the  bedstead.  The  curved  iron  of  its  roof  is  to  be 
covered  with  list  or  strips  of  old  flannel ;  tapes  are  not  thick 
enough.  Each  curtain,  of  which  there  are  four,  is  made 
of  three  breadths  of  wide  or  four  of  narrow  dimity.  The 
measurement  for  the  hangings  commences  at  the  bottom 
of  the  head  part,  a  little  below  the  laths,  and  is  continued 
over  the  tester  or  domed  roof  to  the  foot  As  dimity 
shrinks  much  in  the  washing,  a  half  yard  extra  must  be 
allowed  for  it,  and  it  may  be  folded  in  at  the  head  or  foot. 
The  lining  should  be  measured  in  the  same  way,  the  posi- 
tion of  fhe  bars  of  iron  marked  in  it  by  creases.  Upon 
the  end  of  these,  four  strings  of  two  ends  each,  should  be 
sewed,  that  the  lining  maybe  tied  to  the  bars.    A  covered 


Fig.  6. 


button  on  the  right  side  conceals  the  sewing  on  of  th«    are  slid  wooden  rings  having  brass  eyelets,  through  which 


246 


HOME  GARDENING. 


the  hooks  in  the  curtains  are  passed.  One  great  disad- 
vantage of  these  wooden  rings  is,  that  with  a  shght  motion, 
even  that  caused  by  a  person  walking  overhead,  the  rings, 
if  close  together,  I'attle,  which  is  an  annoyance  even  to  an 
ordinary  sleeper,  and  is  a  weariness  to  an  invalid.  An 
improvement  upon  wooden  rings  is  to  have  them  of 
india-rubber.     Metal  rings  should  never  be  used. 


HOME   GARDENING. 

THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN   {coitthmcd). 

Rotation,  or  change  of  crops,  is  a  matter  of  much 
importance,  as  it  is  well  known  that  each  sort  of  plant 
requires  a  somewhat  different  nourishment,  so  that  one 
crop  may  immediately  succeed  another,  but  it  should  be 
contrived  that  a  wide  crop  should  follow  a  close  one,  or  a 
close  crop  a  wide  one.  The  seasons  for  planting  or  sow- 
ing the  different  vegetables  should  be  particuhirly  attended 
to,  in  order  that  each  may  be  obtained  as  early  as  its 
nature  will  permit.  Another  very  important  subject  is  the 
selection  of  seeds  of  the  best  kind.  The  quantity  of 
ground  to  be  sown  or  planted  with  each  kind  of  vegetable 
must  be  determined  not  only  by  the  size  of  the  garden, 
but  by  the  demands  of  the  family.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
advisable  to  sow  or  plant  rather  more  of  each  sort  than  you 
are  likely  to  want.  No  exact  rule  can  be  laid  down  in  order 
to  proportion  the  crops  properly,  or  as  we  could  really 
wish,  and  therefore  the  cultivator  must,  to  a  certain 
extent,  use  his  own  judgment. 

The  duration  of  crops  varies  to  a  very  great  extent.  The 
principal  or  best  time  for  propagating  the  different  kinds 
of  vegetables  is  in  the  spring  months — namely,  February, 
March,  and  April,  for  crops  to  come  on  in  summer  ;  while 
smaller  portions  for  succession  during  summer  and 
autumn  may  be  sown  or  planted  between  the  months  of 
April  and  October.  The  season  for  pricking  out  and 
planting  each  crop  must  be  well  attended  to,  doing  it  as 
soon  as  the  seedlings  or  plants  are  sufficiently  large  for  the 
purpose,  and  allowing  ample  room  between  each,  without 
which  they  will  neither  grow  large  nor  be  well  flavoured. 
The  thinning  out  of  the  various  seedling  crops  should 
likewise  be  attended  to  before  the  young  plants  have 
drawn  each  other  up  too  high.  All  kinds  of  vegetables 
grow  stronger,  and  arrive  at  greater  perfection  when  there 
is  a  free  circulation  of  air  between  them,  and  the  sun  is  not 
impeded ;  and  for  this  reason  we  advise  a  bountiful 
supply  of  both,  as  soon  after  the  plants  make  their 
appearance  above  ground  as  possible.  As  a  rule,  people 
are  afraid  of  taking  out  a  sufficient  number  of  seedling 
plants,  excusing  themselves  by  exclaiming,  "  What  a  pity 
to  pull  them  up  ;  what  a  waste  !"  and  so  forth  ;  but  they 
little  think  that  by  overlooking  or  neglecting  such  a  pre- 
caution they  frequently  lose  half  or  two-thirds  of  their 
crops.  But  we  consider  it  a  much  greater  pity  to  permit 
any  crop  to  grow  at  will,  so  that  plants  choke  or  destroy 
one  another.  Of  course  such  a  state  of  things  does  not 
exist  with  those  who  have  had  any  experience,  and  for 
this  reason  we  wish  to  impress  upon  other  minds  the 
importance  of  timely  thiiming  in  all  cases.  The  eradication 
of  weeds  is  of  equal  importance  ;  at  all  events,  where 
beauty  and  order  is  the  first  consideration  ;  and  it  should 
be,  both  as  regards  appearance  and  the  health  of  the 
plants.  Very  many  gardens  promise  to  supply  abundant 
crops,  and  would  do  so  if  the  cultivator,  either  from  negli- 
gence or  fear  of  expense,  did  not  expose  them  to  destruc- 
tion by  obnoxious  weeds,  and  his  ground  to  be  robbed  by 
them  of  its  richness.  The  best  way  to  get  rid  of  weeds  is 
either  by  hoeing  or  pulling  them  up  by  hand,  and  either 
to  expose  them  to  the  sun  and  air  to  wither,  or,  what  we 
consider  much  better,  to  burn  them  on  the  spot,  or  throw 
them  on  the  refuse  heap  and  kill  them  by  fermentation — 
so  long  as  they  are  deprived  of  vitality  it  does  not  matter 
by  what  means.    "Watering  is  a  matter  of  much  import- 


ance, as  it  not  only  affords  a  proper  degree  of  moisture 
but  is  of  service  in  bringing  the  soil  into  a  right  condition 
for  performing  its  various  functions  or  offices — in  a  word, 
dry  earth  of  itself  has  little  effect,  but  when  moistened  it 
has  the  property  of  decomposing  atmospheric  air,  and  of 
conveying  its  oxygen  (the  air  we  breathe,  and  which  is 
alike  essential  to  the  support  of  both  animal  and  vegetable 
life)  to  the  roots  of  those  plants  which  vegetate  within  it. 
It  also  performs  an  important  part  in  most  of  the  changes 
which  take  place  both  in  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms.  Watering,  however,  in  some  cases,  we  look 
upon  as  productive  of  more  harm  than  good  ;  as  in  using 
hard  or  calcareous  water,  which  if  abundantly  apphed  will 
taint  the  vegetables,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  injure  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  Rain  water  should  always  be 
used,  if  possible,  but  when  it  cannot  be  obtained,  resort 
must  be  had  to  pump  or  spring  water  that  has  been  ex- 
posed long  enough  to  become  impregnated  with  the  sun's 
rays.  The  time  of  watering  must  be  regulated  according 
as  the  weather  is  cold  or  warm — that  is  to  say,  water  ill 
the  evening  from  the  commencement  of  June  to  the  end 
of  September ;  but  at  any  other  time  of  year  we  prefer  the 
morning  for  the  operation,  although  it  is  safe  to  moisten 
anything  after  sunset.  Vegetable  crops  generally  are 
gathered  by  degrees,  or  we  may  say  the  gathering  should 
be  commenced  as  early  as  possible,  and  be  continued  as 
long  as  there  is  any  produce  left.  At  the  same  time  no 
portion  of  a  crop  should  be  touched  until  it  has  attained  a 
certain  or  proper  degree  of  maturity,  nor  after  it  has 
begun  to  decay.  In  respect  to  the  degree  of  maturity,  a 
line  must  be  drawn,  as  it  very  much  depends  upon  the 
particular  taste  of  the  growers  ;  as  in  the  case  of  cab- 
bages, some  esteeming  them  most  while  open  and  green, 
and  others  not  until  they  are  fully  headed  and  blanched. 
The  operation  of  gathering  vegetables  is  performed  either 
by  cutting,  as  in  the  case  of  cabbages;  by  pulling  or 
breaking,  as  in  the  case  of  peas,  beans,  and  similar  pro- 
ductions ;  or  by  drawing  or  digging  up,  as  in  the  case  of 
turnips,  onions,  carrots,  parsnips,  potatoes,  celery,  and  the 
like.  In  the  performance  of  these  operations  due  regard 
should  be  had  to  those  roots  that  will  ultimately  have  to 
be  stored  away  for  future  use — such  as  carrots,  parsnips, 
potatoes,  &c.,  so  as  not  to  bruise  them,  as  in  such  case 
they  will  either  rot  or  lose  their  tlavour.  As  soon  as  each 
crop  is  over,  the  roots  and  other  remains,  which  domestic 
animals  will  not  eat,  should  be  removed  to  the  compost 
heap  or  dung  yard,  as  such  refuse  is  unsightly  on  the 
ground,  but  invaluable  as  manure. 

Mmiure. — This  is  one  of  the  most  important  requisites 
for  the   garden  ;    the   productive  power  of    the  soil   is 
continually  weakened,  and  its  nutriment  extracted  by  the 
crops  grown  upon  it,  and  it  is  necessary  to  replace  this 
by   artificial  means.      Any  substance   which,    by  being 
mixed  with  soil,  promotes   vegetable  growth,  is  called  a 
manure.     Various  substances  are  so  employed  ;  some  in 
their  natural  state,  others  in  a  manufactured  condition, 
and   act   upon   the   productive   power   of   the  soil    with 
different  degrees  of  intensity.     For  the  ordinary  vegetable 
garden  the  simplest  manures  are  most  generally  used,  as 
being  most  easily  obtainable,  and  satisfying  every  require- 
ment.    Horse  manure  is  the  most  generally  used  of  these 
fertilising   substances,   and   it   is    generally  found    most 
advantageous  to  use  in  a  half-rotted  condition.     As  a  rule, 
the  better  the  horses  are  fed  the  more  valuable  is  the 
manure.     It  is  certainly  most   economical  to  use  it  as 
fresh  as  possible  ;  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  work  it  into 
the  ground  satisfactorily,  as  it  is  apt  to  clog  the  spade, 
and   render  the  digging   a    difficult    process.       Where 
possible,  the  best  mode   of    applying  horse   manure    is 
to  dig  it  in  an  inch  or  two  below  the  surface  of  the  soil 
along  each   side  of  the  plants  it  is  intended  to  benefit. 
Cow  manure    is   frequently  employed    in    the   garden  ; 
but  its  fertilising  powers  are  by  no  means  so  great  as 


CASSELL'S  HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


247 


that  of  horse  manure.  It  is  most  frequently  used  as  an 
ingredient  in  composts  for  potted  plants.  Cow  manure 
should  be  gathered  fresh,  kept  in  a  dry  place,  often 
turned  over,  and  broken  into  small  pieces  before  using. 
The  other  unmanufactured  manures  generally  available, 
arc  those  from  the  piggery  and  hen-roost,  which  arc  very 
valuable,  and  often  the  only  manures  obtainable  by  the 
cottager.  Licfuid  manure,  either  specially  manufactured 
from  fertilising  substances  in  a  dry  state,  or  merely  as 
the  drainings  from  the  manure  heap,  is  most  generally 
used  for  stimulating  the  growth  of  fruit  and  flowers.  Of 
the  special  application  of  other  manures  and  fertilisers, 
such  as  lime,  salt,  guano,  sand,  peat,  and  the  like,  we 
shall  speak  when  we  have  to  discuss  the  treatment  of  the 
various  plants,  for  which  they  arc  specially  valuable.  It  is 
only  of  late  years  that  attention  has  been  turned  to  the 
employment  of  sewage  as  a  manure — in  this  country,  at 
least,  for  in  many  others  its  value  has  long  been  recog- 
nised. Its  disagreeable  odour  long  prevented  its  being 
generally  employed  ;  but  great  ingenuity  was  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  subject  of  deodorising  it.  Mr.  Moule,  by 
his  simple  invention  of  the  earth  closet,  has  at  last 
succeeded  in  reducing  all  the  drawbacks  of  sewage 
manure  to  a  minimum,  utilising  valuable  substances 
hitherto  wasted,  and  removing  from  our  houses  noxious 
smells  which  poisoned  fresh  air,  and  produced  diseases 
innumerable.     Mr.  Moule  thus  states  his  case  : — 

"  The  earth  of  the  garden,  if  dried — or  dried  and  pow- 
dered clay — will  suck  up  the  liquid  part  of  the  privy-soil  ; 
and,  if  applied  at  oiice  and  carefully  mixed,  will  destroy 
all  bad  smell  and  all  nasty  appearance  in  the  solid  part, 
and  will  keep  all  the  value  of  the  manure.  Three  half- 
pints  of  earth,  or  even  one  pint,  will  be  enough  for  each 
time.  And  earth  thus  mixed  eveti  once  is  very  good 
manure.  But  if,  after  mixing,  you  throw  it  into  a  shed 
and  dry  it,  you  may  use  it  again  and  again  ;  and  the 
oftener  you  use  it,  the  stronger  the  manure  will  be.  I 
have  used  some  seven,  and  even  eight  times  ;  and  yet, 
even  after  being  so  often  mixed,  there  is  no  bad  smell 
with  the  substance  ;  and  no  one,  if  not  told,  would  know 
what  it  is. 

"  The  proper  way  to  apply  it  to  your  garden  is  either  to 
powder  or  sift  it,  and  scatter  it  in  small  quantities  over 
your  seed  beds  of  cabbage,  turnips,  onions,  or  lettuces. 
Or,  if  you  are  putting  in  peas  or  beans,  then  mix  with 
water  about  half  a  pound,  according  to  its  strength  and 
the  length  of  your  drill,  and  put  it  in  with  five  or  six 
gallons  of  water.  If  you  are  putting  in  plants,  use  water 
in  the  same  way.  Make  a  good  hole  with  your  setter, 
and  fill  it  with  the  thin  mud.  One  pound  weight  of  that 
■which  has  been  mixed  five  times  is  quite  enough,  if  used 
in  this  way,  for  six  dozen  broccoli  or  cabbage  plants. 

"  But  now,  how  is  this  plan  to  be  worked  out  ?  At  once 
fill  up  your  privy  vault.  Let  the  seat  be  made  in  the  com- 
mon way,  only  without  any  vault  beneath.  Under  the  seat 
place  a  large  bucket  or  box,  or,  if  you  have  nothing  else,  an 
old  washing-pan.  A  bucket  is  the  best,  because  it  is  more 
easily  handled,  only  let  it  have  a  good  sized  bail  or  handle. 
By  the  side  of  the  seat  have  a  box  that  will  hold  (say)  a 
bushel  of  dried  earth,  and  a  scoop  or  old  basin  that  will  take 
up  a  pint  or  a  pint  and  a  half,  and  let  that  quantity  of  earth 
he  thrown  into  the  bucket  or  pan  evcrj'  time  it  is  used. 
The  bucket  may  be  put  in  or  taken  out  from  above  by 
liaving  the  whole  cover  moved  with  hinges,  or  else  through 
a  door  in  front  or  at  the  back. 

"  If  you  can  make  a  place  into  which  you  could  go  from 
your  upstairs  room,  there  would  be  no  need  of  a  bucket 
or  pan  ;  earth  and  all  might  fall  into  the  place  below 
(which  would  of  course  be  enclosed),  and  there  it  might 
at  once  be  mixed  and  dried." 

In  our  articles  on  the  Construction  of  the  House  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  allude  again  to  the  employment  of 
this  valuable  invention. 


THE     HOUSE. 

DRAINAGE.  -     ; 

In  building  or  purchasing  a  house  in  London  and  Other 
large  towns,  wc  usually  find  some  system  of  general 
drainage,  if  the  roads  have  been  formed,  and  therefore 
we  may  confine  our  attention  solely  to  the  proper  draifi- 
age  of  the  house.  ' 

In  country  places  where  there  is  no  system  -  ;(e, 

each  house  has  to  be  drained  separately,  nni'  ct 

being  more  complicated,   professional   advir  be 

taken  as  to  the  best  mode  of  disposing  of  the 

There  are  two  systems  of  drainage  generally  an'^picd  in 
the  country— viz.,  by  draining  into  some  adjacent  water, 
or  by  cesspools  and  liquid  manure  tanks.  The  first  mode 
of  getting  rid  of  the  drainage  is  generally  considered  pre- 
ferable to  that  of  cesspools,  provided  that  the  water  we 
drain  into  is  some  river  or  running  stream  of  sufficient 
depth  and  velocity  to  carry  off  "the  drainage  ;  for  if  the 
water  be  shallow,  or  merely  a  pond  that  is  likely  to 
become  stagnant,  we  are  in  danger  of  poisoning  not  only 
the  water  but  the  air  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  so  of 
becoming  a  serious  nuisance  to  our  neighbours. 

Cesspools  should  be  carefully  constructed  of  good 
substantial  brickwork,  built  perfectly  impervious,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  possibility  of  escape  of  liquid  sewage  ;  for 
this  reason  they  should  be  sufficiently  far  removed  from 
the  nearest  point  of  any  dwelling-house — at  least,  a  hun- 
dred feet — to  allow  of  the  cesspool  being  periodically 
opened  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing  or  emptying.  Care 
should  also  be  taken  that  the  cesspool  is  not  constructed 
near  any  well,  where  water  might  become  contaminated 
by  any  percolation  of  drainage  matter  from  the  cesspool. 
The  drain-pipes  from  the  house  in  connection  with  the 
cesspool  should  not  be  laid  along  the  walks  in  the  garden, 
or  in  any  position  where  it  may  be  inconvenient  to  open 
up  the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  examining  them.  If 
possible,  every  cesspool  should  have  an  overflow  pipe  to 
take  off  the  surplus  liquid  matter,  which  is  comparatively 
innocuous,  and  can  be  drained  off  into  some  neighbouring 
ditch  or  water  or  liquid  manure  tank.  By  this  means  the 
contents  of  the  cesspool  can,always  be  maintained  at  the 
same  level,  and  all  danger  of  an  overflow  is  avoided ; 
moreover,  the  necessity  of  frequent  emptying  is  obviated, 
a  practice  always  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

The  uses  of  cesspools  in  conjunction  with  open  priNies 
in  London  and  other  large  towns,  is,  we  are  thankful  to 
say,  now  almost  unknown  ;  and,  indeed,  where  there  is  a 
general  system  of  drainage,  such  a  practice  is  illegal,  and 
cannot  exist.  But  where  such  things  do  still  exist,  every 
precaution  should  be  taken  not  only  that  the  pri\y  is 
properly  trapped,  but  that  it  should  be  supplied  with 
water,  and  the  cesspool  substantially  constructed  of  brick- 
work with  an  overflow.  For  cottages  in  rural  districts  the 
cesspool  might  take  the  form  of  a  liquid  manure  tank, 
one  of  which  might  be  made  large  enough  to  serve  two  or 
three  cottages.  The  liquid  contents  can  be  drawn  up  by 
means  of  a  well  and  pump,  but  whether  a  cesspool  or 
manure  tank  be  employed  to  take  the  soilage,  in  both 
cases  the  water-closet  should  be  trapped  with  an  ordinary 
syphon  trap,  and  if  constructed  over  the  cesspool  or  tank, 
an  extra  length  of  pipe  should  be  affixed  to  dip  into  the 
sewage.  By  this  means  the  air  of  the  cottage  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  is  kept  comparatively  pure. 

Construction  of  House  Drains. — House  drains  arc 
generally  constructed  of  two  materials-  viz.,  of  brick,  or 
earthenware  and  stoneware.  The  chief  point  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  construction  of  drains  is,  that  they  should 
be  perfectly  air  tight  and  thoroughly  efficient — that  is  to 
say,  they  should  offer  no  impediment  cf  any  kind  to  the 
easy  passage  of  any  sewage  matter  that  may  have  to  pass 
through  them.  Drains  constructed  wholly  of  brick  op 
this  account  are  unsuitable  for  ordinary  drainage,  par- 


248 


THE    HOUSE. 


ticularly  in  small  houses,  as,  from  their  mode  of  construc- 
tion (of  rectangular  bricks  and  mortar  or  cement)  they 
cannot  efficiently  fulfil  these  requirements  ;  they  cannot  j 
be  made  perfectly  air  tight,  thus  allowing  the  escape  of  ] 
noxious  gases  and  perhaps  liquid  matter,  and  the  imper- 
fections and  irregularities  which  necessarily  occur  in  the 
construction  of  the  joints,  seriously  interfere  with  the  easy 
and  free  passage  of  sewage  matter,  particularly  when  it  is 
reduced  to  small  quantities  of  semi-liquid  matter.  There  , 
is  no  portion  of  ordinary  house  building  so  likely  to  be 
neglected  and  carelessly  done  as  the  construction  of  the 
drains,  and  unless  the  workmen  are  thoroughly  super- 
intended, constant  mistakes  will  occur  which  cannot  be 
rectified  after  the  drains  are  covered  in  and  the  house 
inhabited,  without  great  annoyance  and  discomfort  to  the 
inmates  ;  thus,  we  have  known  instances  where  drains 
have  become  choked  up,  causing,  of  course, 
the  most  unpleasant  smells  in  the  house 
(which  are  very  often  put  down  to  other 
causes),  merely  through  the  carelessness  of 
the  workmen,  who  in  building  the  drains, 
have  allowed  large  pieces  of  mortar  to  tumble 
into  the  drain — this  is  a  very  common  occur 
rence  in  brick  drains.  For 
these  and  other  reasons  we 
confidently  recommend  pipe 
drainage  as  being  in  every 
way  preferable  to  brick,  par- 
ticularly for  ordinary  sized 
houses  ;  great  care,  however, 
should  also  be  taken  in  their 
construction.  We  think  the 
best  drain-pipes  that  are  now 
made  are  the  vitrified  stone- 
ware ;  these  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  glazed  earthen- 
ware pipes  which  are  cheaper, 
but  are  neither  so  strong 
nor  durable  as  the  vitrified, 
and  the  inside  is  apt  to 
become  corroded  with  the 
sewage  matter,  which,  when 
removed,  causes  the  half- 
burnt  earthenware  to  ab- 
sorb the  foul  water,  and  thus 
the  pipe  soon  becomes  de- 
cayed and  worthless.  There  can  be  no  falser  economy 
than  the  use  of  inferior  materials  for  drains,  for  if  they  are 
not  properly  constructed  in  the  first  instance  and  of  good 
materials,  they  are  sure  to  become  an  endless  source  of 
annoyance.  Soil  pipes  from  water-closets  when  possible 
should  be  of  lead,  not  iron  or  earthenware,  the  latter  are 
of  course  cheaper  than  lead,  and  galvanised  iron  pipes  are 
therefore  very  commonly  used  in  flieaply  built  houses. 
They  are  not,  however,  to  be  recommended,  as  they  are 
sure  to  corrode  in  the  inside  and  require  repair,  which, 
from  the  ordinary  position  of  soil  pipes  inside  houses, 
either  in  angles  or  in  chases  in  the  walls,  is  always  to  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible.  Waste  water-pipes  from 
sinks  may  be  of  lead  or  earthenware,  though  lead  are  of 
course  preferable  ;  great  care  should  be  taken  that  they 
are  not  made  too  small,  as  from  the  greasy  matters  that 
are  sure  to  pass  through  them,  they  are  soon  apt  to  get 
choked. 

Size  of  Drains. — With  respect  to  the  size  of  drains,  the 
chief  point  to  be  remembered  is  that,  whilst  they  are  made 
sufficiently  large  to  ensure  an  immediate  discharge  of  all 
the  matter  that  may  have  to  pass  through  them,  at  the 
same  time  care  should  be  taken  that  they  are  not  made 
too  large  to  ensure  this  object.  There  is  quite  as  much 
danger  in  having  the  drains  too  large  as  too  small,  as  in 
the  former  case,  when  the  sewage  matter  is  reduced  in 
quantity  it  is  apt  to  become  sluggish,  and  will  not  pass 


freely  through  the  drains,  particularly  when  the   fall  is- 
very  small,  as  is  but  too  often  the  case. 

Fall. —  House  drains  should  not  have  a  fall  from  their 
head  to  the  junction  with  the  sewer  of  less  than  one  inch 
in  every  ten  feet,  and  more  than  this  where  possible  ; 
unfortunately,  however,  from  the  prevailing  custom,  par- 
ticularly in  London,  of  having  all  the  kitchen  offices  in 
the  basement  of  the  house,  and  below  the  level  of  the 
streets,  there  is  great  difficulty  in  getting  a  good  fall  for 
the  house  drains,  which  are  often  laid  with  little  or  na 
fall  at  all.  We  think,  however,  that  for  small  houses 
containing  from  eight  to  twelve  rooms,  a  six-inch  pipe 
drain  (if  laid  to  a  proper  fall)  will  be  found  amply  suffi- 
cient, whilst  a  nine-inch  drain  will  suffice  for  houses  of 
the  largest  size.  Pipes  of  larger  size  than  this  can  only 
be  required  in  very  exceptional  cases,  such  as  schools^ 
hospitals,  and  manufactories,  or  where  there 
may  be  large  quantities  of  water  used.  A 
five-inch  soil  pipe  will  be  found  sufficient  for 
water-closets,  and  from  one  and  a  half  to 
three  inches  for  the  waste  pipes  of  sinks- 
Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  joints 
of  the  drain  pipes  are  properly  executed  in 
cement  of  the  best  quality, 
and  not  in  clay  or  mortar, 
it  being  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  any  escape  of  effluvia 
or  liquid  matter  through  the 
joints.  The  pipes  should  be 
laid  with  their  socket  joints 
in  the  direction  of  the  fall. 
In  cheaply  built  houses  it  is 
not  an  uncommon  practice 
for  workmen  to  connect  to- 
gether drain  pipes  of  unequal 
diameter,  concealing  the  ill- 
fitting  joints  by  cement.  We 
need  not  say  that  such  a 
dangerous  practice  will  be 
sure  to  attract  attention 
sooner  or  later,  as,  in  truth, 
all  the  dodges  that  may  be 
resorted  to  by  careless  work- 
'•  men     in     indifferently    built 

houses.  The  connection  be- 
tween the  house  drain  and  the  public  sewer  is  a  matter  of 
such  importance  that  it  is  now  generally  undertaken  by 
the  district  board  of  works,  under  the  direction  of  their 
own  surveyor  and  workmen ;  and  in  London  and  most 
towns  it  is  the  duty  of  the  board  of  works  to  see  that 
all  house  drains  are  properly  constructed  and  trapped, 
and  they  have  power  to  compel  the  owners  to  have  the 
same  altered  and  improved  when  not  so  done.  We  may 
add  that  the  level  of  the  drains  should  always  be  kept 
as  high  as  possible,  so  that  the  connection  with  the  main 
sewer  may  be  above  the  invert.  It  is  not  an  uncommon 
practice  to  find  houses  built  in  new  districts  before  the 
roads  are  properly  formed  and  the  main  drainage  com- 
pleted, and  in  such  cases  cesspools  are  made  in  the  rear 
of  the  houses  to  receive  the  drainage  until  the  main  sewer 
is  formed ;  and  when  the  connection  is  made  between 
the  house  drainage  and  the  sewer,  the  cesspool  is  apt  to 
be  forgotten  or  not  properly  emptied  and  filled  up,  thus 
causing  great  annoyance. 

Traps, — We  come  now  to  perhaps  the  most  important 
portion  of  our  subject — viz.,  the  trap-ping  of  drains  or  the 
means  that  are  generally  taken  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
foul  air  from  the  drains  or  sewers  into  houses  or  yards. 
The  preservation  of  the  purity  of  air  in  every  house,  and 
therefore  to  a  great  extent  the  health  and  comfort  of  the 
inmates,  depends  ver\'  much  up®n  this  apparently  simple 
question.     In  the  first  place,  as  simplicity  should  be  the 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


249 


guiding  principle  in  everything  connected  with  house 
drains,  so  the  number  of  connections  that  may  have  to  be 
formed  with  the  drain  should  be  as  few  as  possible,  as 
each  junction  will  require  to  be  separately  trapped  in 
addition  to  the  connection  between  the  drain  and  the 
main  sewer.     The  traps  shoukl  be  of  the  simplest  form, 


lead  into  the  water-closets  to  assist  in  flushing  the  pipes. 
There  is  also  a  junction  between  the  rain-water  pipe  and  the 
drain.  In  addition  to  this  the  head  of  the  drain  would  be 
ventilated  by  the  rain-water  pipe,  of  which  we  shall  speak 
presently.  All  the  traps  are  indicated  on  the  plans  by  the 
letter  T.  The  water-closet  on  the  ground  floor  is  trapped 
and  the  least  expensive  ;  perhaps  the  best  form  of  trap  \  with  a  D  trap  (as  being  a  superior  closet),  while  the  other 

in   the   basement 
a  stoneware  pan 


and  the  least  liable  to  get  out 
of  order  or  require  cleaning 
is  the  common  syphon  trap, 
made  of  the  same  material  and 
of  the  same  length  as  the 
drain  pipe.  One  of  these  traps 
should  be  inserted  at  the  foot 
of  every  soil  or  waste-water 
pipe  where  it  is  connected  with 
the  house  drain,  and  also  at 
the  junction  with  the  sewer. 
Should    there     be    only    one 

water-closet  to  the  house,  it  may  be  situated  near  to  the 
sink,  so  that  the  refuse  water  may  enter  the  same  trap  as 
the  water-closet,  and  so  help  to  flush  the  drain.  In  all 
cases,  however,  the  drain  should  be  flushed  with  water 
along  its  entire  course,  and  where  the  waste  from  the  sink 
or  a  rain-water  pipe  may  not  be  sufficient,  a  supply  must 
be  procured  from  the  cistern  by 
means  of  the  over-flow  pipe,  of 
which  we  shall  speak  presently. 
With  respect  to  the  ordinary  bell 
traps  for  sinks  and  areas,  much 
objection  has  been  found  in  con- 
sequence of  the  facility  with  which 
they  are  apt  to  get  out  of  order  ; 
this  more  often  arises,  however, 
from  their  misuse  than  from  any 
great  fault  in  their  construction. 
Thus,  through  the  carelessness 
of  servants,  the  waste  pipes  often 
get  choked  up  with  grease  and 
other  matter  which  should  not  be  allowed  to  enter  the 
trap  at  all.  The  bell  trap  is  then,  of  course,  removed 
in  order  to  clear  away  the  obstruction,  and  put  on  one 
side  for  a  time  (perhaps  gets  broken),  allowing,  of  course, 
the  free  ingress  of  foul  air  into  the  house  not  only  from 
the  house  drain,  but  the  sewer.  The  remedy  adopted  in 
some  cases  of  soldering  the  top 
of  the  bell  trap  down  is,  per- 
haps, worse  than  the  disease, 
as  this  will  not  prevent  the  ac- 
cumulation of  grease.  Various 
improvements  have  been  made 
in  the  ordinary  bell  traps. 

The  accompanying  drawings 
show  the  complete  arrange- 
ment of  the  drainage  for  water- 
closets,  lavatory,  sink,  and  yard 
for  an  ordinary  house,  in  which 
the  chief  object  has  been  to 
collect  all  the  waste-water  pipes 
at  the  head  of  the  drain  behind  the  water-closets,  in  order 
to  flush  the  drains  along  their  entire  length. 

The  basement  plan,  Fig.  4,  shows  a  scullery  twelve  feet 
by  eight  feet  six  inches,  with  copper  and  sink  ;  behind  this 
there  is  a  water-closet  for  servants  ;  on  the  ground  floor 
above,  Fig.  3,  a  smoking  or  gentleman's  room,  with  fireplace 
and  lavatory;  and  another  water-closet  above  the  one  below. 
The  other  plan.  Fig.  2,  shows  the  lead  or  zinc  flat  above, 
with  a  cistern  to  supply  the  two  water-closets,  lavatory,  and 
sink,  also  a  small  skylight  to  light  the  water-closet.  The 
section,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i,  is  taken  through  the  two  rooms 
and  both  the  water-closets,  and  is  intended  to  show  the 
various  soil  and  water  pipes  with  their  connections,  &c. 
The  waste  pipes  from  the  lavatory  and  sink  are  intended  to 


water-closet 
would  have 

and  syphon  trap  ;  there  would 
be  a  syphon  trap  also  at  the 
foot  of  the  rain-water  pipe,  and 
there  should  also  be  a  cast- 
lead  syphon  trap  to  the  lava- 
tory and  sink,  but  no  belb 
traps  are  used,  the  sink  having 
merely  a  grating  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  rubbish.  Under- 
neath the  foot  of  the  rain-water 
pipe,  a  small  brick  cesspool  about  fourteen  inches  square 
should  be  constructed,  covered  with  a  five-hole  sink  stone 
to  receive  all  rubbish  that  is  sure  to  be  washed  down  the 
pipe,  and  which  it  is  desirable  to  exclude  from  the  drain. 
The  cesspool  can  easily  be  cleaned  out  by  merely  re- 
moving the  stone  covering.  A  syphon  trap  is  fixed  ir» 
the  same,  and  connected  with 
the  drain.  This  arrangement  is 
shown  in  the  illustration,  Fig.  4. 
The  Ventilation  of  Drains  is 
another  matter  that  is  not  so 
generally  attended  to  as  its 
importance  deserves.  In  most 
houses  the  only  mode  of  ven- 
tilating the  drains  is  by  means 
of  the  rain-water  pipes  ;  when 
this  is  the  case,  the  head  of  the 
rain-water  pipe  should  on  no 
account  be  situated  near  any 
window  (as  is  very  often  the 
case),  thus  allowing  the  entry  of  foul  air  direct  from  the 
drains  into  the  bedrooms.  The  better  plan  is  to  construct 
a  proper  ventilating  pipe  or  shaft  direct  from  the  drains, 
and  terminating  above  the  roof,  where  the  foul  air  is  per- 
fectly harmless  ;  another  plan  would  be  to  utilise  tall 
chimneys  as  ventilating  shafts  ;  in  any  case  the  ventilation 
of  drains  is  a  most  important 
matter,  and  should  be  as  near 
the  head  of  the  drain  as  pos- 
sible. Traps,  however  good 
may  be  their  construction,  are 
always  liable  to  get  out  of 
order,  and  cannot  be  implicitly 
relied  upon  to  prevent  the  pas- 
sage of  foul  air,  as  the  water 
in  them  may  become  dried  up 
by  evaporation. 

Inspection  of  Drains.  —  In 
concluding  these  remarks  upon 
drainage,  we  would  add  that  it 
is  most  important  to  have  ready  access  to  the  drains  for 
the  purpose  of  inspecting  or  cleansing  them.  Most  people 
are  acquainted  with  the  serious  inconvenience  of  being 
obliged  to  have  the  drains  uncovered ;  thus  it  is  most 
important,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  drains  should  be  so 
laid  as  to  cause  the  least  possible  inconvenience  when 
this  is  required  to  be  done  ;  and  we  should  very  strongly 
urge  every  one  who  rents  or  purchases  a  house  to  pro- 
cure from  the  builder  a  rough  plan,  the  preparation 
of  which  need  cost  but  very  little,  showing  the  complete 
system  of  the  drainage.  Some  people  are  of  opinion  that 
drains'should  never  be  laid  inside  the  house  at  all,  and  that 
all  water-closets  and  sinks  should  be  situated  close  to  an 
external  wall,  so  that  the  soil  and  refuse  water  may  be 


250 


THE    HOUSEHOLD  MECHANIC. 


discharged  into  the  drain  outside  the  house.  No  doubt 
this  would  be  an  excellent  plan,  as  it  would,  in  a  great 
measure,  prevent  much  annoyance  to  the  inmates  of  a 
house;  but,  unfortunately  for  many  reasons,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  carry  out,  more  particularly  in  towns,  where 
the  water-closet  is  often  placed  in  the  yard,  or  in  the  rear 
of  the  house,  and  has  to  be  connected  with  the  main 
sewer  which  runs  along  the  street  in  front.  We  think, 
however,  that  the  inconvenience  of  the  plan  now  generally 
adopted  in  towns,  viz.,  of  carrying  the  drain  through  the 
house,  is  capable  of  being  reduced  to  a  minimum  by 
simply  adopting  ordinary  precautions,  and  seeing  that  the 
work  is  thorojcghly  and  efficie^itly  carried  out. 

We  have  endeavoured  in  these  remarks  upon  drainage 
to  render  the  subject  as  intelligible  as  possible  to  our 
readers.  In  conclusion,  we  would  again  say  that  it  is  a 
matter  that  should  never  be  neglected,  and  we  earnestly 
recommend  any  of  our  readers  who  may  intend  purchasing, 
renting,  or  building  a  house,  to  ascertain  that  at  least 
three  conditions  have  been  fulfilled  with  regard  to  the 
drainage : — 

1.  That  the  house  has  a  separate  and  distinct  drainage, 
properly  connected  with  the  main  sewer. 

2.  That  the  house  drain  is  efficiently  constructed  of 
proper  stoneware  pipes  laid  to  a  sufficient  fall. 

3.  That  all  connections  with  the  drain  are  properly 
trapped  to  prevent  the  escape  of  foul  air. 


THE  HOUSEHOLD  MECHANIC. 

GAS. 
A  PROPER  and  correct  understanding  of  the  composition 
of  gas,  and  the  best  appliances  for  the  obtaining  of  arti- 
ficial light  and  heat  from  it,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  domestic  economy  ;  and  when  we  consider 
the  frightful  waste  resulting  from  a  want  of  appreciation 
of  its  principles,  and  of  the  danger  of  fire  or  explosion 
which  may  arise  to  a  community  from  ignorance  or  care- 
lessness on  the  part  of  any  single  individual,  we  feci  sure 
that  it  is  impossible  to  make  the  subject  too  plain,  or  to 
bestow  too  much  attention  upon  it.  How  many  lament- 
able accidents  would  have  been  avoided,  even  by  a  most 
superficial  knowledge,  it  is  needless  to  mention  ;  but  we 
feel  that  few  people  appreciate  the  necessity  of  economy 
of  gas  as  its  real  importance  and  magnitude  would  war- 
rant. Coal  gas  is  obtained  from  various  kinds  of  coal  by 
distillation  at  a  great  heat,  different  varieties  of  that 
mineral  producing  more  or  less  economical  results.  We 
do  not,  however,  intend  even  to  touch  on  the  manufacture 
of  gas  in  the  present  paper,  although  we  may  in  some 
future  paper  give  sufficiently  clear  instructions  to  enable 
those  of  our  correspondents  who  live  in  neighbourhoods 
where  gas  is  not  procurable,  to  make  it  for  themselves. 
We  have  here  to  deal  with  the  consumption  of  the  manu- 
factured article  in  the  best  possible  way.  Nor  is  it  for 
us  here  to  deal  with  the  chemical  composition  of  gas, 
except  just  so  far  as  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to 
understand  the  principles  of  its  combustion,  though  we 
shall  have,  in  the  course  of  our  article,  to  consider  the 
use  of  gas  in  the  house,  whether  for  warming  or  lighting, 
and  its  bearing  on  the  health  of  the  occupants. 

Coal  gas,  or  carburetted  hydrogen,  is  a  certain  known 
combination  of  the  gaseous  element  hydrogen  and  par- 
ticles of  carbon  in  a  volatile  form.  Other  elements  mixed 
with  the  gas  in  its  first  stage  of  manufacture  are,  to  a 
certain  extent,  although  not  altogether,  cleared  away  in 
the  after  process  of  purification.  Pure  hydrogen,  by  itself, 
is  incombustible,  and  will  only  burn  when  in  combination 
with  oxygen  gas  or  atmospheric  air  containing  oxygen. 
Again,  pure  hydrogen,  when  burnt  in  combination  with 
air,  gives  only  a  very  small  amount  of  light,  yet  it 
evolves  great  heat  ;  but  when  a  proper  amount  of  car- 
boniferous particles  are  laixed  up  and  burnt  with  a  suffi- 


cient quantity  of  hydrogen  to  make  them  perfectly 
incandescent — that  is,  white  hot — the  greatest  possible 
light  is  obtained.  We  therefore  see  that  we  can  burn 
gas  in  two  totally  opposite  ways,  the  object  being  to 
produce  perfect  combustion,  and  the  utter  consumption 
of  the  carbon  therein  contained,  thereby  obtaining  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  heat  ;  the  other  being  the 
burning  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  just  such  proportions 
as  will  produce  the  greatest  incandescence  in  the  par- 
ticles of  carbon,  and  consequently  the  greatest  light. 
Let  us  illustrate  this  by  a  simple  experiment.  Light  an 
ordinary  burner,  turn  it  up  to  the  best  light  it  will  give, 
and  examine  it  closely.  At  the  lower  portion  of  the  flame 
an  intense  blue  colour  appears  for  some  distance  up,  where 
the  heat  of  the  combustion  has  been  sufficient  to  liberate 
the  innumerable  solid  particles  of  carbon,  and  to  make 
them  white  hot.  Now  turn  up  the  burner  to  it?  highest 
extent,  and,  if  the  pressure  is  sufficient,  the  gas  will  rush 
out  with  violence,  combining  with  the  air  imperfectly, 
the  carbon  not  being  exposed  to  the  heating  action 
sufficiently  long  to  become  incandescent.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  that  the  quantity  of  gas  consumed  is  no  cri- 
terion to  the  amount  of  light  produced.  If  this  fact  is 
borne  in  mind,  it  will  explain  the  reason  for  the  precise 
fonns  of  gas-burners  we  shall  have  to  refer  to  hereafter. 

It  will  be  necessary,  for  distinction's  sake,  to  divide  the 
whole  subject  into  two  heads — viz.,  lighting  by  gas  and 
heating  by  gas.  Let  us,  however,  first  look  into  the  more 
practical  question  of  getting  a  supply  of  gas  to  burn, 
and  examine  the  network  of  pipes  which  bring  it  to  us, 
before  we  go  too  deeply  into  theory.  We  will  suppose 
that  our  reader  has  taken  a  house  into  which  gas  is  not 
laid,  and  we  will  trace  through  each  detail  he  will  have  to 
look  to  in  order  to  get  it.  First  find  out  the  gas  company 
who  have  mains  on  the  road,  to  whom  write  and  state  the 
number  of  burners  required.  The  company  will  then 
take  the  expense  and  responsibility  of  bringing  in  a 
service  from  their  main  into  the  house.  It  is  necessary 
for  them  to  communicate  with  the  parish  authorities  before 
disturbing  the  roadway ;  but  the  householder  has  no 
trouble  whatever  in  the  matter.  The  company  will  also 
supply  a  meter  (properly  tested  and  attested  by  a  Govern- 
ment inspector)  at  a  certain  fixed  charge^  or,  if  the  con- 
sumer desires  it,  at  a  regular  yearly  rental ;  or  the  consumer 
may  supply  his  own  meter  if  he  likes,  but  in  any  case  the 
inspector's  seal  is  necessary  before  fixing.  The  service- 
pipe  once  inside  the  house,  and  the  meter  brought,  the 
responsibility  falls  on  the  householder,  whose  gas-fitter 
now  takes  up  the  matter.  A  tap  should  be  fixed  on  the 
service-pipe  as  soon  after  its  entry  into  the  house  as  pos- 
sible, as,  in  case  of  fire  or  escape  of  gas,  it  should  be 
altogether  turned  off  at  the  tap.  From  the  tap  proceeds 
a  pipe,  usually  of  lead,  to  the  inlet  hole  of  the  meter,  and 
from  the  outlet  another  pipe  of  lead  communicates  with 
the  in-door  service  of  pipes.  The  reason  for  these  pipes 
being  of  lead  seems  to  be  for  the  convenience  of  bending 
them  into  the  curves  almost  always  required ;  but 
where  the  substitution  of  iron  pipes  is  possible,  such  a 
course  would  be  desirable.  Concerning  meters  we  will 
say  nothing  at  all  now,  as  we  intend  to  devote  a  chapter 
entirely  to  the  subject.  The  service  consists  of  a  series  of 
pipes  of  various  dimensions,  and  should  be  contrived 
after  the  manner  of  the  arteries  and  veins  in  the  human 
body — viz.,  that  each  set  of  pipes  should  be  diminished  in 
size  as  successive  branches  off"  on  either  side  reduce  the 
work  it  has  to  do.  In  an  ordinary-sized  house  of  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  burners,  a  one-inch  main  would  be  ample, 
and  a  twenty-light  meter  ;  but  it  would  only  be  necessary 
to  continue  such  a  size  and  bore  a  small  portion  of  the 
whole  length,  the  pipe  gradually  tapering  down  to  the 
smallest  size  of  composition  pipe,  which  is  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  internal,  and  the  bore  must  be  in  proportion  as 
the  successive  points  of  consumption  are  supplied. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


251 


HOUSEHOLD   AMUSEMENTS.— VH. 

Impromptu  Romance. — This  is  a  pastime  well  suited  to 
"  children  of  a  larger  growth,"  and  a  company  of  intelli- 
gent young  men  and  women  may  find  it  very  attractive. 
The  person  who  commences  the  game  undertakes  to  relate 
a  story,  or  rather  to  begin  the  narrative,  for  the  story 
must  be  taken  up  and  continued  by  other  members  of  the 
party.  The  first  narrator  assigns  to  others  different  cha- 
racters in  the  tale,  or  objects  to  be  incidentally  mentioned 
in  it ;  and  whenever  one  of  these  characters  or  ol)jects  is 
named,  the  person  who  represents  it  must  immediately 
take  the  narrator's  place  and  proceed  with  the  relation  as 
best  he  may,  until  he  can  shift  the  burden  in  like  manner. 
If  his  imagination  is  not  very  fertile,  or  he  is  unpractised 
at  the  game,  he  can  relieve  himself  of  the  task  by  men- 
tioning, as  soon  as  possible,  an  object  which  has  its  repre- 
sentative before  him  ;  but  whenever  somebody  more  ready 
or  more  experienced  is  called  upon,  he  will  do  well  to  keep 
the  narrative  up  for  a  short  time,  by  some  play  of  his 
fancy,  before  passing  it  on  by  the  introduction  of  another 
name. 

Throughout  the  game  some  degree  of  consistency  must 
be  preserved  by  the  various  impromptu  reciters,  so  that 
the  so-called  story  may  be  connected  in  its  various  parts, 
however  ludicrous  may  be  some  of  the  turns  in  the  tale 
during  its  passage  from  mouth  to  mouth. 

The  rules  of  the  game  are,  first,  that  any  one  who  fails 
to  take  up  the  relation  immediately  the  name  he  has 
adopted  is  uttered,  incurs  a  forfeit.  Next,  that  the  nar- 
rator may  at  any  time  pause  and  point  to  one  of  the  com- 
pany to  supply  him  with  a  word,  contrary  to  the  sense  of 
what  has  gone  before,  which  must  be  immediately  dorie, 
under  penalty  of  a  forfeit ;  but  the  word  given  must  at 
once  be  introduced  into  the.  narration,  and  this  must  go 
on  smoothly  notwithstanding,  or  a  forfeit  is  paid  by  the 
narrator.  To  call  for  a  word  is  therefore  an  experiment 
which  should  not  be  tried  by  an  unpractised  story-teller, 
but,  in  the  hands  of  an  expert  who  has  sufficient  dexterity 
to  turn  an  awkward  word  to  good  use,  adds  greatly  to  the 
general  amusement. 

To  make  our  description  more  clear  by  illustration,  we 
will  suppose  one  of  a  company  to  commence  a  romance, 
which  he  entitles,  "  The  Lovely  Pettina  ;  or,  the  Merchant, 
the  Prince,  and  the  Pirate  Chief"  He  allots  some  of  the 
characters,  assuming  to  himself,  say,  the  7ncrchant,  while 
the  company  suggest  others,  and  also  objects  to  be  intro- 
duced, such  as  sea,  ships,  bales,  black  flag,  cutlass,  dagger, 
&c.,  until  every  one  present  is  provided  with  a  name,  to 
which  he  must  respond.  The  first  narrator  then  proceeds 
in  something  like  the  following  strain  : — 

"  Once  upon  a  time  there  dwelt,  in  the  city  of  Nowhere- 
in-Particular,  a  merchant,  who  traded  with  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  was  renowned  for  his  wealth.  Besides  heaps 
of  money,  he  had  vast  stores  of  Indian  shawls,  nose-rings, 
tomahawks,  jews'-harps,  guano,  and  anchovies,  with  dia- 
monds, rubies,  macadamised  flints,  and  other  precious 
stones.  But,  above  all  his  possessions,  he  prized  his  only 
daughtor,  Pettina," — 

Pettina. — "  The  fame  of  whose  beauty  had  gone  where- 
ever  his  ships  " — 

Ships. — "  Had  sailed.  She  was  believed  to  be  the  love- 
liest girl  in  the  world.  When  she  walked  in  the  garden 
the  flowers  turned  their  heads  to  look  at  her,  and  drooped 
t'leir  own  afterwards,  while  the  birds  admiringly  called 
after  her,  "  Sweet,  sweet,  sweet  !  "     The  merchant " — 

Merchant. — Loved  her  even  more  for  her  amiable  quali- 
ties than  for  her  beauty,  and  when  he  looked  at  her  he  felt 
— (here  he  nods  at  some  one  for  a  word,  and  receives 
"  disgusted ")  disgusted  at  the  thought  that  she  had 
attained  twenty  summers  without  some  sovereign  having 
offered  to  share  with  her  his  throne.  At  length  the  news 
came  one  day  across  the  sea  " — 


Sea. — "  That  her  fame  had  reached  the  court  of  the 
Emperor  of  all  the  Indies  and  of  several  other  places 
besides,  and  that  his  eldest  son  was  on  his  way  to  seek 
her  for  his  wife.     The  name  of  this  prince  " — 

Prince. — "Was  Ramjamjee  Howareyoumabhoy,  and 
when  he  heard  of  her  charms  he  had  (looks  for  a  word, 
and  gets  "  skedaddled")  skedaddled  as  quickly  as  possible 
into  his  father's  presence,  and,  knocking  his  head  twelve 
times  on  the  floor,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  country, 
humbly  asked  permission  to  go  and  pay  court  to  the 
beautiful  Petttna." — 

Pettina. — "The  Emperor  was  in  one  of  his  most  amiable 
moods.     The  merchant" — 

Merchant. — "  Had  just  sent  him  twelve  tons  of  explosive 
lollipops,  of  which  he  was  very  fond,  but  they  had  nar- 
rojvly  escaped  falhng  into  the  hands  of  Crossbones,  the 
pirate  chief" — 

Pirate  Chief. — "  Waving  his  sceptre  three  times  round 
his  head,  the  emperor  looked  at  the  firiftce  " — 

Prince. — "And,  smiling  affectionately,  pointed  to  the 
door  with  the  simple  remark,  '  Hook  it ! '  Ramjamjee 
obeyed,  and  as  he  vanished,  the  emperor,  with  great  dig- 
nity, took  off  his  slipper,  richly  adorned  with  jewels,  and 
threw  it  after  him,  for  luck.  The  prudent  lad  hastily 
picked  it  up,  and  put  it  in  his  pocket  to  help  to  pay 
expenses,  for  it  was  his  intention  to  take  with  him  several 
bales"— 

Bales. — "  Of  Cashmere  nightcaps  for  the  giants  of  Pata- 
gonia, where  he  intended  to  touch  on  his  way.  As  soon 
as  possible  he  started,  but  not  without  taking  with  him  a 
wonderful  dagger," — 

Dagger. — ''  Which  had  been  given  to  him  by  his  grand- 
mother, and  which  was  said  to  have  been  fashioned  by  a 
great  magician.  This  dagger  had  the  peculiar  power  of 
twisting  itself  up  into  three  knots  in  the  body  of  a  person 
struck  with  it,  so  that  it  made  a  very — ^(looks  for  a  word, 
and  has  given  him  "  beautiful ")  beautiful  case  for  a  doctor, 
and  few  people  who  ran  against  it  wished  to  try  it  a  second 
time.     Very  proud  of  it  was  the  prince," — 

Prince. — "And  he  had  made  some  verses  upon  it,  which 
were  set  to  music  by  a  composer,  very  celebrated  in 
those  countries,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Oftenbark. 
He  had  gone  some  distance  oh  his  journey,  and  was  one 
evening  whistling  *  The  Dagger  of  my  Grandmother '  on 
the  quarter-deck  of  his  ship," — 

Ship. — "When,  low  on  the  horizon,  there  appeared  a 
(nods  for  a  word,  and  "  porcupine  "  is  given  him)  porcu- 
pine-like object,  which  proved  to  be  the  vessel,  bristling 
with  masts,  of  the  pirate  chief." — 

Pirate  Chief. — "  He  had  heard  of  the  sailing  of  Ram- 
jamjee Howareyoumabhoy,  and  had  sharpened  his 
cutlass," — 

Cutlass.— ^^  Making  a  solemn  vow  to  take  his  vessel, 
kill  him,  and  sell  all  his  treasures  for  the  improvement 
of   his   own   model  fann.     So   now,   hoisting   the  black 

A.iT,"- 

Blackflag. — "  He  made  all  sail  after  his  prey,  and  a 
terrific  combat  ensued." 

Here  we  may  leave  the  story,  as  the  reader  will  guess 
how  the  prince  would  probably  be  made,  in  the  course  of 
the  narrative,  to  vanquish  the  pirate,  and  to  be  successful 
in  his  suit  for  the  hand  of  the  fair  Pettina.  We  have 
given  no  indication  of  the  incidental  forfeits,  but  the 
game  would  scarcely  proceed  so  far  as  this  without  giving 
rise  to  several.  It  will  be  observed,  too,  that  the  cha- 
racter of  Pettina,  for  instance,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
assigned  to  a  lady  unfamiliar  with  the  game,  who  is  there- 
fore anxious,  as  soon  as  the  narration  comes  to  her  turn, 
to  pass  it  on  to  some  one  else. 

Any  degree  of  humour  or  gravity  may  be  imported  into 
the  pastime,  according  to  the  disposition  of  the  company, 
who  may,  if  they  please,  choose  some  sentimental,  his- 
torical, or  fairy-taie  subject,  as  that  of  their  "  romance." 


DOMESTIC    SURGERY. 


DOMESTIC  SURGERY. 

VARIOUS     LOCAL    AILMENTS. 

A  Cold  in  the  Eye. — This  is  a  very  common  affection, 
and  consists  in  an  inflamed  condition  of  the  membrane 
covering  the  eye-ball  and  lining  the  eye-lids,  and  is  often 
due,  as  the  name  implies,  to  exposure  to  a  draught.  The 
patient  feels  as  if  some  dust  had  got  into  the  eye,  and  can 
sometimes  be  hardly  persuaded  to  the  contrary ;  the  white 
of  the  eye  itself  is  seen  to  be  reddened,  and  there  is  a  con- 
stant flow  of  blinding  scalding  tears.  The  best  treatment 
is  to  foment  the  eyes  with  pure  warm  water,  or  better, 
with  water  in  which  two  or  three  crushed  poppy-heads 
have  been  boiled  for  half  an  hour,  to  extract  their  sedative 
qualities.  A  shade  should  be  worn  over  the  eyes  in  the 
intervals  of  fomenting,  and  a  dose  of  rhubarb  and  mag- 
nesia should  be  administered.  If  the  inflammation  does 
not, subside  in  a  day  or  two,  a  doctor  should  be  consulted, 
if  possible  ;  but,  if  this  is  not  possible,  good  Avill  probably 
be  done  by  dropping  into  the  eyes,  two  or  three  times  a 
day,  some  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  or  white  vitriol,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  grain  to  two  table-spoonfuls  of  water. 

Strumous  children,  especially  when  improperly  fed, 
often  suffer  from  another  form  of  inflammation  of  the  eye, 
in  which  the  chief  symptom  is  intolerance  of  light,  the 
child  using  its  hands  to  exclude  the  light  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, or,  if  in  bed,  burying  its  head  beneath  the  clothes. 
These  cases  require  careful  local  and  constitutional  treat- 
ment, for  which  medical  advice  should  be  sought ;  but, 
wanting  this,  the  little  patient  will  be  much  relieved  by 
having  its  eyes  frequently  bathed  with  cold  water,  and 
wearing  a  green  shade  over  them. 

New-born  children  occasionally  suffer  from  another 
disease  of  the  eye,  of  which  the  chief  symptom  is  a  dis- 
charge of  yellow  fluid  ox  pus  from  beneath  the  lids,  which 
are  apt  to  be  glued  together  by  the  discharge  drying  on 
them.  This  is  a  very  serious  affection,  since  the  sight  of 
the  eye  may  be  utterly  lost  if  it  is  neglected,  and  medical 
advice  should,  therefore,  be  obtained.  In  its  absence,  the 
eye  should  be  carefully  washed  out  several  times  a  day 
with  warm  water,  and  a  lotion  of  alum,  in  the  proportion 
of  ten  grains  to  an  ounce  of  water,  be  thoroughly  applied. 
In  doing  this,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  not  to  con- 
vey any  of  the  yellow  fluid  into  the  eye  of  another  person, 
since  it  is  highly  contagious,  and  will  certainly  lead  to 
violent  inflammation  of  any  eye  it  happens  to  touch. 

In  washing  a  child's  eye,  the  best  plan  is  for  one  person 
to  hold  it  firmly  on  its  back  with  its  head  secured  between 
the  knees  of  the  nurse  who  is  to  wash  it,  and  its  body  rest- 
ing on  the  knees  of  the  assistant.  Gently  separating  the 
eye-lids  with  the  fore-finger  and  thumb,  the  nurse  then  lets 
the  water  or  lotion  trickle  in  between  them  from  a  small, 
clean,  and  soft  sponge,  then  wipes  the  lids  gently  with  the 
sponge,  and  repeats  the  operation  on  the  opposite  eye. 
When  eye-drops  have  to  be  applied,  the  same  position 
should  be  adopted,  and  the  drops  may  be  conveniently 
extracted  from  the  phial  and  inserted  between  the  lids 
with  an  ordinary  quill-pen,  the  nib  of  which  has  been 
rounded  off.  In  making  a  shade  for  the  eye,  a  piece  of 
card-board  large  enough  to  cover  both  eyes,  and  shaped 
out  so  as  to  fit  the  forehead,  should  be  covered  with  green 
silk,  and  attached  by  a  ribbon  round  the  forehead. 

A  Stye  in  the  Eye  is  a  little  abscess  formed  at  the  edge 
of  the  eye-lid  by  the  inflammation  of  one  of  the  little 
follicles  which  lubricate  its  edge.  It  generally  occurs  in 
persons  out  of  health,  or  in  strumous  children,  and  is  apt 
to  occur  again  and  again  until  the  health  is  improved.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  disorder,  the  part  is  sure  to  be 
swollen  and  red,  and  feels  hot  and  uncomfortable  to  the 
patient ;  then  it  begins  to  throb,  and  matter  forms,  as  is 
shown  by  the  yellow  point  in  the  centre  of  the  "  stye." 
When  this  is  let  out,  or  discharges  itself,  the  inflammation 
subsides,  and  the  lid  gets  well  rapidly.     In  the  early 


stage,  the  only  treatment  is  to  bathe  the  eye  frequently 
with  hot  water,  and  at  night  to  put  a  bread  and  water 
poultice  over  it.  When  the  matter  forms,  it  may  be 
pricked  and  let  out  with  a  needle,  if  the  patient  will  be 
steady  enough  to  allow  this  to  be  done  without  danger  to 
the  eye,  though  there  is  a  popular  but  unfounded  preju- 
dice that  any  interference  with  a  stye  leads  to  the  forma- 
tion of  others. 

The  formation  of  an  abscess  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
eye,  close  to  the  nose,  is  a  much  more  serious  thing,  as  it 
involves  the  passage  by  which  the  tears  reach  the  nose, 
and  will  require  early  and  careful  surgical  treatment,  or  a 
very  disfiguring  scar  may  result. 

Whitlow  is  a  very  common  affection,  and  one  which, 
in  its  simpler  forms,  may  be  treated  domestically  without 
danger.  The  simplest  kind  of  whitlow  is  that  which 
forms  about  the  root  of  the  nail,  and  which  may  or  may 
not  depend  upon  some  trifling  injury,  or  upon  the  intro- 
duction of  some  irritating  substance  beneath  the  skin.  At 
first  the  finger  is  found  to  be  tender  and  hot,  and  soon  a 
sense  of  throbbing  is  experienced  in  it.  This  is  relieved 
by  holding  the  inflamed  part  in  hot  water,  and  by  poultic- 
ing ;  but,  in  all  probability,  matter  will  form,  and  will  be 
seen  as  a  white  fluid,  either  beneath  the  nail  itself,  or 
raising  the  skin  around  its  root.  The  pain  is  now  severe, 
owing  to  the  matter  being  pent  up,  and  immediate  relief 
will  be  obtained  as  soon  as  it  is  evacuated.  If  beneath 
the  nail,  the  best  plan  is  to  remove  a  small  wedge-shaped 
piece  of  the  nail  with  sharp  pointed  scissors,  so  as  to 
reach  the  point  where  the  matter  lies,  and  this  can  be 
generally  effected  without  pain  to  the  patient.  If  the  skin 
around  the  nail  is  distended  with  the  matter,  it  should  be 
freely  incised  with  a  lancet  or  sharp  and  clean  penknife, 
and  this  operation,  though  much  dreaded  by  the  patient, 
is  absolutely  painless,  the  skin  having  already  lost  its 
sensibility. 

The  more  severe  forms  of  whitlow  require  prompt 
surgical  attendance.  In  one,  the  end  of  the  finger 
becomes  violently  inflamed  and  swollen,  the  mischief 
beginning  in  the  membrane  covering  the  bone.  Then  an 
early  and  free  incision  down  to  the  bone  is  absolutely 
necessary,  in  order  to  save  it  from  destruction  ;  but  fortu- 
nately, even  in  neglected  cases,  it  is  seldom,  if  ever, 
necessary  to  perform  amputation  for  this  complaint,  the 
surgeon  being  able  to  extract  the  piece  of  dead  bone,  and 
leave  a  very  useful  though  somewhat  shortened  finger. 
In  another  and  more  severe  form  of  whitloAv,  the  matter 
forms  in  the  finger  and  palm  of  the  hand,  both  of  which 
become  immensely  swollen  ;  and  here  a  skilful  incision  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  evacuate  the  matter  without  damag- 
ing the  important  structures  of  the  palm  of  the  hand,  or 
leading  to  stiffness  of  one  or  more  of  the  fingers.  In  case 
the  assistance  of  a  surgeon  cannot  be  obtained,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  proper  place  to  incise  this  form  of 
whitlow  is  in  the  central  line  of  a  finger,  and  just  at  the 
point  where  it  joins  the  hand.  The  incision  should  be 
not  more  than  half  an  inch  long,  and  should  always  be  on 
the  palmar  surface,  or  under  side  of  the  finger. 

Abscesses  may  form  in  any  part  of  the  body,  and  are 
often  only  evidences  of  deeper-seated  mischief,  for  which 
medical  advice  should  be  at  once  procured.  In  cases  of 
disease  of  the  spine,  leading  to  projection  of  the  bone, 
and  what  is  commonly  called  "  broken  back,"  an  abscess 
very  commonly  forms,  without  any  special  pain,  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  thigh,  and  the  same  kind  of  thing  may 
be  witnessed  in  other  parts,  the  patient  experiencing  no 
pain,  but  having  an  elastic  swelling,  in  which  the  peculiar 
and  characteristic  sensation  due  to  the  fluctuation  of  the 
contained  fluid,  may  be  readily  felt  with  the  fingers. 
These  chronic  or  cold  abscesses  should  always  be  sub- 
mitted to  a  medical  man,  as  they  may  be  of  great  import- 
ance, and  their  treatment  requires  skill  and  attention. 
The  more  acute  abscesses  have  much  the  same  symptoms 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


253 


as  whitlows,  there  being  heat,  redness,  and  tenderness  of 
the  P'Ut,  followed  by  a  throbbing  pain,  and  tension  of  the 
skin  from  the  prespnce  of  matter  within.  Poulticing  and 
fomentations  form  the  appropriate  treatment,  and,  if  pur- 
sued long  enough,  will  no  doubt  lead  to  the  breaking  of 
the  abscess  and  the  relief  of  the  patient.  Many  days  will, 
however,  be  consumed  in  the  process,  during  all  which 
the  patient  will  be  worn  out  with  pain  and  want  of  rest, 
whilst  a  momentary  incision  by  a  surgeon's  skilful  hand 
will  give  immediate  and  permanent  relief.  It  is  very  mis- 
taken kindness  for  the  friends  to  abet  a  patient  in  refusing 
to  submit  to  a  moment's  pain  in  order  to  obtain  a  cure; 
and  the  patient  is  usually  ready  enough  to  express  grati- 
tude to  those  who  have  been  "  cruel  only  to  be  kind," 
the  moment  the  relief  is  experienced. 

Milk  Abscess  is  one  of  the  most  common  forms  of 
abscess,  and  is  met  with  in  mothers  who  either  have  been 
obliged  to  wean  their  child  suddenly,  or  who  suffer  from 
"  sore  nipples,"  which  incapacitate  them  from  nursing. 
Sore  or  chapped  nipples  are  more  apt  to  arise  after  a  first 
than  after  a  subsequent  confinement, 
and  may  be  generally  avoided  by 
taking  the  precaution  to  harden  the 
nipple  by  bathing  it  with  weak  brandy 
and  water  for  a  few  days  before  the 
birth  of  the  child.  If  the  nipple  is 
very  much  flattened,  it  should  be 
drawn  out  with  a  breast-pump  or 
glass,  or  a  healthy  child  of  a  few 
months  old  may  be  put  to  the  breast 
as  soon  as  there  is  any  milk.  When 
the  nipple  has  unfortunately  become 
sore,  the  best  plan  is  to  protect  it 
with  a  nipple-shield  of  glass,  and  to 
dry  it  thoroughly  after  being  used. 
Almost  any  stimulating  lotion  will 
then  effect  a  cure :  borax,  alum,  or 
white  vitriol,  in  solution,  are  all 
favourite  remedies  ;  but  perhaps  the 
most  successful  is  the  application 
of  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
(two  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water) 
with  a  camel's-hair  brush,  three  or 
four  times  during  the  day. 

When  from  any  cause  a  mother 
is  unable  to  nurse  her  child,  the 
breast  is  apt  to  become  gorged  with 
milk,  and  unless  this  is  got  rid  of, 
inflammation  and  abscess  are  pretty  sure  to  follow.  By 
the  use  of  the  breast-pump,  or  gentle  and  equable 
pressure  with  the  hands,  much  relief  can  be  afforded, 
and  attention  must  then  be  directed  to  diminishing 
the  flow  of  milk  to  the  breast  by  rubbing  it  with  wann 
sweet  oil,  or  better,  by  smearing  it  with  extract  of  bella- 
donna mixed  with  equal  parts  of  glycerine.  At  the  same 
time  the  diet  of  the  patient  should  be  reduced,  and  a  dose 
of  Epsom  salts  given  every  morning.  By  these  means  a 
milk-abscess  may  often  be  averted,  particularly  if  the 
breast  is  well  supported  in  a  sling,  arranged  as  follows  : — 
A  large  handkerchief  being  folded  so  as  to  form  a  triangle, 
should  be  applied  obliquely  across  the  chest,  with  the 
straight  part  immediately  below  the  breast,  one  end  passing 
over  the  opposite  shoulder,  and  the  other  through  the  arm- 
pit of  the  same  side,  and  the  two  being  tied  behind  the 
back.  The  handkerchief  being  now  slightly  unfolded,  can 
be  made  to  support  the  breast  comfortably  at  any  height 
desired,  and  the  top  corner  can  be  brought  up  over  the 
shoulder,  and  fastened  round  the  neck,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  But  if  an  abscess  unfortunately  forms,  as 
will  be  known  by  the  occurrence  of  a  shivering  fit  and  the 
throbbing  pain  in  the  breast,  the  advice  of  a  surgeon 
should  be  immediately  sought,  if  it  has  not  been  before, 
in  order  that  he  may  give  relief  by  an  early  incision.     The 


patient  is  often  so  much  reduced  by  the  pain  she  has 
undergone  as  to  be  unable  to  nerve  herself  to  sustain 
this  necessary  operation,  unless  her  friends  are  very  firm 
in  supporting  the  surgeon  in  doing  his  duty.  A  milk- 
abscess,  like  any  other,  may,  as  already  mentioned,  break 
under  prolonged  poulticing,  but  only  at  the  expense  of 
great  suffering  and  very  considerable  permanent  damage 
to  the  breast,  owing  to  the  matter  burrowing  in  several 
directions.  I  n  some  cases  it  may  be  advisable  to  administer 
chloroform  to  the  patient  before  interfering  surgically,  but 
the  necessity  and  advisability  of  this  must  be  left  entirely 
to  the  medical  man. 

Boils  are  very  common,  and  very  painful  affections,  and 
are  usually  found  in  persons  who  have  got  into  a  low  state 
of  health.  A  boil  very  generally  begins  in  a  little  pimple, 
and  if  this  is  protected  from  irritation  by  being  covered 
with  a  piece  of  soap-plaister,  whilst  the  general  health  is 
improved  by  change  of  air  and  altered  diet,  very  probably 
there  will  be  no  further  trouble.  If,  however,  a  regular 
boil  forms  with  a  red  surface  and  great  tenderness,  it  had 
better  be  poulticed,  and  either  allowed 
to  break,  or — a  great  saving  of  time 
and  pain — a  narrow  knife  or  a  sharp 
blade  of  a  pair  of  slender  scissors 
being  pushed  into  the  centre  of  it, 
and  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch,  will 
allow  the  matter  to  escape  with  im- 
mediate relief.  Prolonged  poulticing 
of  a  boil  is  apt  to  bring  out  a  crop  of 
troublesome  pimples  around  it,  and  it 
is  well,  therefore,  to  protect  the  sur- 
rounding parts  with  a  piece  of  linen  in 
which  a  hole  is  cut  to  fit  the  inflamed 
surfaceand  allow  of  the  poult  ice  reach- 
ing it.  When  a  boil  has  broken,  it 
heals  up  readily  enough  under  any 
simple  dressing — either  a  little  sper- 
maceti ointment  or  a  piece  of  wet 
lint  under  oil-silk.  The  nostrums 
vulgarly  employed  to  "  bring  boils 
to  a  head" — such  as  soap  and  sugar, 
or  the  yellow  basilicon  ointment — 
are  useless,  and  much  better  avoided, 
as  they  only  serve  to  irritate  the 
skin. 

Carbuncles  are  much  more  senous 
affections  than  boils,  which,  however, 
they  much  resemble,  except  in  being 
larger,  and  therefore  more  dangerous  to  the  patient.  Car- 
buncles usually  attack  the  nape  of  the  neck,  the  back,  &c., 
in  old  people,  and  as  the  most  careful  treatment  of  these 
affections  is  required  from  their  very  commencement,  no 
time  should  be  lost  in  consulting  a  medical  man. 


COOKING. 


BROTHS. 

In  England,  a  large  quantity  of  good  wholesome  broth 
is  thrown  away,  or  given  to  the  pigs.  The  poor  will 
hardly  accept  it  as  an  addition  to  their  usual  fare  ;  they 
only  care  to  have  it  when  they  are  ill,  to  be  taken  medi- 
cinally, as  a  sudorific.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  south 
of  France  especially,  no  broth  that  is  eatable  is  wasted. 
Even  after  boiling  fish,  the  liquor  is  carefully  set  aside, 
for  the  purpose  of  making  bouilli-baisse  and  other 
fish-soups. 

It  is  on  account  of  the  uneatableness  of  the  broth  and 
its  consequent  loss,  that  smoked  and  salted  meats  are  less 
economical  for  family  use  than  fresh  meats.  Through  the 
peculiar  manner  in  which  they  must  be  boiled,  a  great 
quantity  of  nutriment  passes  into  the  broth,  which  is 
therefore  absolutely  unusable.      Not  only  is  the  liquid  too 


254 


COOKING. 


heavily  charged  with  salt,  but  it  has  taken  from  the 
smoked  meat  rancid  particles  which  render  it  unwhole- 
some. Even  with  our  moderately  salted  boiled  beef  and 
legs  of  pork,  the  boilings,  otherwise  good,  are  so  salt  that 
only  a  small  proportion  of  them  can  be  used  for  making 
pea-soup,  &c.  Better  soups  of  that  class  are  made  by 
using  fresh  meat,  and  salting  them  to  taste.  Dried  meats 
not  salted,  are  not  open  to  the  same  objection. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  a  slice  of  corned  beef  or  of 
salted,  unsmoked  boiled  leg  of  pork,  makes  now  and  then 
a  very  pleasant  morsel  to  eat.  But  families  whose  means 
are  not  too  ample,  but  who  still  wish  to  support  their 
health  and  strength  by  a  plentiful  supply  of  nutriment, 
might  do  well  to  consider  whether  they  should  not  make 
that  savoury  morsel  only  an  occasional  treat,  and  boil 
their  beef  unsalted,  as  is  customary  over  a  great  part  of 
the  Continent.  The  boiled  beef  need  not  be  always  an 
insipid  dish,  and  the  nutriment  contained  in  the  broth  is 
very  considerable. 

Amongst  other  offices  which  our  food  has  to  fulfil,  is 
the  very  important  one  of  wanning  our  bodies.  Now  the 
heat  taken  in — to  say  nothing  of  the  nourishment — in 
broths,  soups,  and  warm  beverages,  is  a  saving  of  just  so 
much  fuel-food  ;  apropos  of  which,  we  will  quote  the 
following  from  the  appendix  to  Dr.  Edward  Smith's 
"  Practical  Dietary  : " — 

"There  is  less  waste  in  boiling  than  in  roasting  food, 
and  still  less  in  gently  stewing  than  in  boiling  or  roasting 
it,  since  the  fluid  in  which  it  is  stewed  contains  the 
nourishment  which  has  been  drawn  out  of  the  food,  and 
is  eaten.  Do  not  purchase  salted  meat.  Hot  food  is  both 
more  agreeable  and  digestible  than  cold  food.  Eat  hot 
food  generally,  and  particularly  in  cold  weather,  except  in 
the  case  of  bread,  where  it  would  be  wasteful  to  do  so. 
Children,  and  old  and  feeble  people  need  hot  food  more 
than  strong  adults.  When  you  are  very  poor,  and  have 
not  enough  to  eat,  do  not  drink  cold  fluids." 

French  cooks  occasionally  put  a  bit  of  salt  pork  into 
their  pot-au-feie,  always  into  their  cabbage  soup  ;  but  it 
is  quite  a  small  piece,  just  big  enough  to  render  the  sea- 
soning with  salt  unnecessary.  A  good  deal  of  the  salt 
given  out  by  the  bacon  is  absorbed  during  the  long 
process  of  cooking,  by  the  much  larger  proportion  of  fresh 
meat  and  vegetables  which  attract  it. 

When  such  things  as  a  leg,  neck,  or  shoulder  of  mutton, 
a  breast  or  knuckle  of  veal,  or  a  couple  of  fowls  are  served 
as  "  boils,"  the  boilings  may  be  converted  into  stock  broth 
for  diluting  sauces,  and  forming  the  groundwork  of  many 
soups.  Those  from  calf's  head  and  ox  cheek  require 
peculiar  treatment,  which  will  be  indicated.  Those  from 
turkey  have  a  decided  flavour  of  the  bird,  which,  however, 
is  not  distasteful  to  many.  The  stock-pot  may  also 
receive  any  lean  trimmings  of  meat,  giblets  of  poultry  and 
game,  bones  in  general  (crushed  or  chopped)  if  sweet, 
and  any  other  well-flavoured  remnants.  Many  butchers 
sell  bones  for  soup  making,  but  it  is  not  an  economical 
plan  to  buy  them. 

Stock  broth  should  be  kept  simmering  as  long  as  the 
kitchen  fire  is  in.  It  is  improved  by  the  addition  of  good 
vegetables,  and  slight  yet  perceptible  seasoning.  It  lends 
its  aid  to  all  kinds  of  soups,  from  pea-soup  to  mock- 
turtle.  Many  things  cannot  be  done  without  it  ;  it  lends 
an  additional  charm  to  many  more.  And  yet  broth  is 
held  to  be  only  the  A  B  C  of  cookery. 

If,  instead  of  using  for  broth  what  you  happen  to  have, 
you  set  to  work  to  make  it  with  fresh  materials,  you 
cannot  do  better  than  adopt  the  pot-au-feii. 

The  Pot-au-Feu  (or  the  pot  on  the  fire)  is  the  name  of 
a  mode  of  making  soup  and  cooking  meat  and  vegetables, 
which  is  practised  in  France  by  every  family  which  is 
raised  above  absolute  poverty.  Beef  is  generally  the 
foundation  of  the  pot-au-feu.  Choose  a  fresh-killed  piece, 
weighing  three  or  four  pounds,  of  the  "  round,"  in  default 


of  which,  the  shoulder  is  to  be  taken,  or  a  couple  of  thick 
slices  of  the  shin.  We  often  use  the  loin,  cutting  out  the 
fillet  for  steaks  or  roasting,  and  making  soup-with  the  bone 
and  upper  portion  boiled  entire.  Now,  although  the  poi-att- 
feit  may  be  made  with  beef  alone,  other  things  may  be 
added,  as  the  size  of  the  vessel  admits,  as  a  small 
joint  of  lean  mutton,  a  little  bit  of  salt  pork,  and  a 
fowl — which  latter  should  be  old  ;  an  old  partridge  or 
pigeon,  or  both,  give  the  finishing  touch  as  far  as  meat  is 
concerned.  A  wild  rabbit  is  quite  admissible.  If  you 
have  fresh  bones,  put  them  in,  too.  Put  these  on  in  your 
soup-kettle,  allowing  not  more  than  one  quart  of  cold 
water  to  each  pound  of  meat.  While  it  is  coming  to  a 
boil,  or  before,  peel  and  prepare  your  vegetables,  and 
throw  them  into  cold  water ;  three  or  four  carrots 
halved  lengthwise  ;  from  four  to  six  whole  onions  ;  three 
or  four  leeks  ;  a  stick  of  celery ;  one  bay -leaf ;  a  small 
bunch  of  parsley  and  thyme.  You  may  add  two  or  three 
turnips  shced  ;  but  note  that  turnips  put  into  soups  or 
stews  cause  them  to  turn  sour  sooner  than  they  otherwise 
would.  Skim  the  pot  as  it  comes  to  a  boil  (the  slower 
the  better)  ;  when  no  more  scum  rises  and  it  boils,  throw 
in  your  vegetables,  then  skim  again  if  necessary.  You 
may  put  in  a  few  cloves  and  peppercorns,  but  a  pot-au-feu 
should  not  be  highly  seasoned.  Colour  with  some  sort  of 
browning — caramel  or  burnt  sugar  is  sometimes  used. 
Burnt  onions  are  better.  A  bit  the  size  of  half  a  walnut 
suffices.  A  nice  browning  for  soup  may  be  made  from 
pea-shells.  After  shelling  peas,  choose  the  cleanest  and 
freshest  looking  shells,  and  put  them  (not  heaped)  on  a 
coarse  earthen  dish  into  a  slow  oven,  and  bake  them 
gently  till  they  are  crisp  and  brown.  They  will  then  keep 
for  some  time  in  paper  bags  in  a  dry  place.  From  four  to 
six  pea-shells  will  brown  a  pot  of  soup.  Five  or  six  hours 
of  slow  but  constant  boiling  are  requisite  to  bring  the 
broth  to  perfection.  Some  epicures  let  it  simmer  as  long 
as  seven  or  eight.  It  should  then  be  clear,  limpid,  of  a 
golden  amber  colour,  exhaling  pleasantly  the  combined 
aromas  of  the  various  meats  and  vegetables.  This  is  the 
true  French  bouillon.  At  the  bottom  of  the  soup-tureen 
put  two  or  three  crusts,  or  some  toasted  bread,  or  a  penny 
roll  cut  in  halves  lengthwise  and  re-baked.  Over  the  top 
of  the  tureen  hold  a  fine-holed  cullender,  and  into  this 
ladle  the  soup  till  the  tureen  is  full.  All  floating  scraps 
or  shreds  will  thus  be  strained  off".  Before  serving,  let  the 
tureen  stand  near  the  fire  until  the  bread  is  thoroughly 
soaked.  Some  pi-efer  the  bouillon  the  first  day,  some  the 
second.  In  the  south  of  France  it  is  often  slightly 
flavoured  with  garlic,  which  has  the  same  inconvenient 
effect  as  turnips,  of  making  the  broth  turn  sour  sooner. 
If  other  meats  besides  beef  are  used,  they  are  reserved  to 
make  their  appearance  under  different  disguises.  After 
the  soup,  the  boiled  beef  is  served  alone- — the  bouilli — 
accompanied  by  the  vegetables  cooked  with  it  handed 
round  in  a  separate  dish.  As  condiments  for  this  simple 
dish,  mustard,  gherkins,  and  other  pickles  may  be  used  ; 
during  the  season,  slices  of  melon ;  and  in  the  South,  ripe 
fresh  figs.  It  is  understood  that  as  soon  as  the  skimming 
is  done,  the  pot-au-feu  is  to  be  covered  down  close  with 
the  lid  ;  that  it  is  always  kept  boiling  gently,  and  never 
galloped ;  and  that  both  meat  and  vegetables  are  the 
freshest  that  can  be  had.  One  tainted  bone  or  strong 
stale  turnip  would  spoil  the  soup  to-day,  and  make  it  still 
worse  to-morrow. 

Ratatouille. — This  is  a  popular  French  mode  of  making 
a  savoury  mess  out  of  remnants  of  cold  meat,  especially 
of  cold  bouilli,  or  beef  which  has  passed  through  the 
pot-au-feu.  It  is  not  essential  that  the  meat  should  be 
all  of  the  same  kind,  or  of  the  same  date  ;  but  it  must  be 
perfectly  sweet.  If  the  cold  meat  has  little  or  no  fat  of 
its  own,  procure  a  small  quantity  of  uncooked  fat  meat, 
such  as  the  thin  ends  of  the  ribs  of  beef,  or  a  cut  out  of 
a  loin  of  veal.     Cut  all  the  meat  into  pieces  of  a  size  to  be 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


255 


helped  as  portions  with  a  spoon.  At  the  bottom  of  a 
stevvpan  (or  better,  of  an  iron  round-bottomed  pan)  put  a 
good  lump  of  butter,  or  roast-meat  dripping,  on  it  slice 
one  or  two  large  onions,  brown  them,  then  put  in  your 
uncooked  meat,  if  any,  and  brown  it.  Dust  in  a  dessert- 
spoonful of  llour,  brown  it  also  with  the  meat  and  onions, 
stirring  all  the  while.  Then  pour  in  gradually,  continually 
stirring,  as  much  water  or  broth  as  will  nearly  cover  the 
whole.  Have  ready,  freshening  in  cold  water,  a  few 
peeled  potatoes,  whole  if  very  small,  or  otherwise  halved, 
quartered,  or  sliced  ;  half-a-dozen  or  more  middle-sized 
onions  ;  a  turnip  sliced  ;  a  sliced  carrot  ;  a  small  stick  of 
celery;  a  bay-loaf  and  a  bunch  of  sweet  herbs.  In  fact, 
you  may  use  almost  any  vegetables,  only  avoiding  those 
which  discolour  or  give  a  bad  flavour  to  the  water  in  which 
they  are  boiled.  When  green  vegetables  are  scarce,  you 
may  help  them  out  with  dry,  as  haricots  steeped  over- 
night and  perhaps  ready  cooked.  Put  all  these  into  the 
preparatory  stew  in  ihc/att-tout,  and  stir  from  time  to  time, 
to  prevent  burning,  and  to  bring  them  all  successively  in 
contact  with  the  heat.  When  done,  season  sparingly  with 
salt,  but  rather  liberally  with  pepper,  to  give  a  decided 
relish.  Then  put  in  your  cold  meat,  stirring  till  it  is 
equally  distributed  amongst  the  vegetables.  Take  the 
fait-toiit  off  the  fire,  as  it  must  not  boil  any  more.  Stir 
now  and  then,  to  help  the  meat  to  get  impregnated  with 
the  sauce.  Let  it  stand  simmering  at  the  side  of  the 
stove  until  the  liquor  is  so  reduced  by  evaporation,  that 
the  dish  in  which  the  ratatouille  is  to  be  served  will  con- 
tain it  all,  vegetables,  meat,  and  gravy.  You  may  then 
dish  it  up. 

Ratatouille  Curry. — Some  persons  do  not  like  curry  ; 
those  who  do,  are  not  agreed  as  to  its  degree  of  heat.  To 
please  all  tastes,  before  reducing  the  gravy  of  your  rata- 
touille, take  out  a  teacupful  and  stir  into  it  gradually  a 
dessert-spoon  or  more,  of  curry  powder.  You  can  keep 
this  warm  in  a  sauce-boat  plunged  in  hot  water.  At 
the  time  of  serving  your  ratatouille,  send  up  with  it  this 
curry  sauce,  and  a  vegetable-dish  containing  boiled  rice. 
Those  who  like  curry,  can  make  one  on  their  plate 
with  the  meat  and  vegetables  from  the  stew 

Chicken  Broth. — This  is  best  made  from  an  old  cock  or 
hen,  but  quickest  from  a  young  one.  In  cither  case  let 
the  fowl  be  fresh  ;  it  may  be  used  immediately  after  killing. 
Empty  and  singe  it.  Save  the  heart  and  liver,  clean  the 
gizzard,  cut  off  the  neck  close  to  the  body,  and  the  legs 
at  the  knee-joints ;  cut  the  neck  into  three  pieces,  split  the 
head,  cut  off  the  beak,  take  out  the  eyes.  If  you  do  not 
mind  the  trouble,  cut  off  the  claws,  and  scald  the  feet  and 
legs  to  remove  the  outer  scaly  skin.  If  you  mean  to  throw 
away  the  fowl  afterwards  (which  no  French  cook  would 
do),  you  may  cut  it  up  into  joints ;  if  not,  truss  the  wings, 
and  tie  it  into  a  presentable  shape  with  string  previously 
rinsed  in  warm  water.  Set  on  the  fowl  and  its  appen- 
dages, in  a  boiler  or  large  saucepan,  with  plenty  of  cold  soft 
water  without  salt.  As  it  comes  to  a  boil,  skim  carefully. 
Afterwards  let  your  fowl  boil  or  simmer  over  a  gentle  fire 
for  six  hours  if  the  bird  was  old  ;  for  a  less  time  if 
younger.  Take  out  the  liver  after  half  an  hour's  boiling. 
Steep  a  coffee-cupful  of  rice  in  cold  soft  water,  set  it  on  the 
;  re  in  cold  water  ;  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  boil,  strain  off 
ilie  water,  and  throw  the  rice  into  the  broth  a  good  hour 
before  the  broth  is  done.  Instead  of  rice,  a  little  pearl 
barley  or  oatmeal  groats  maybe  used.  Besides  rendering 
the  broth  more  nutritious,  they  will  absorb  or  mechanically 
I  ombine  with  a  portion  of  the  chicken  fat,  thus  making  U 
moother,  less  oily,  and  consequently  lighter  of  digestion. 
When  the  fowl  is  tender,  without  bciwg  boiled  to  rags,  take 
it  out  whole  ;  if  not,  let  it  boil  to  rags.  Take  the  broth  off 
the  fire,  let  it  stand  an  hour  to  settle,  then  skim  off  the 
surface  fat  and  set  it  aside  with  a  small  quantity  of  the 
broth.  Pour  it  off,  leaving  only  the  sediment  at  the 
bottom  :  broths  for  invalids  are  not  the  better  for  being 


clear.  It  is  then  ready  either  for  immediate  use  in  the 
shape  of  broth,  or  to  ser\e  as  the  basis  of  a  variety  of 
soups.  Season  with  salt  (and  pepper,  if  wished)  at  the 
time  of  serving.  Catchup  may  be  added  at  the  rate  of  a 
teaspoonful  to  each  half-pint  of  broth. 

Boiled  Fowl  and  Rice. — When  your  fowl  is  done  tender, 
take  it  out.  Fasten  the  liver  and  heart  to  one  wing,  the 
gizzard  to  the  other.  Have  steeped  a  good  quantity  of 
rice.  Boil  it  in  water,  beginning  cold.  When  all  but 
cooked,  or  in  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  pour  off  the 
water,  let  the  saucepan  stand  at  the  side  of  the  stove  with 
its  lid  raised  to  dry  the  rice,  shaking  it  occasionally. 
Then  add  to  it  a  portion  of  the  broth  and  its  surface  fat 
which  you  had  set  aside,  together  with  a  good  lump  of 
butter.  Stew  the  rice  in  this  till  it  is  completely  done, 
moistening  with  broth  if  it  become  too  thick.  Season 
with  salt,  a  little  pepper,  and  a  very  little  grated  nutmeg. 
A  boiled  white  onion  mashed  to  a  pulp  may  also  be  stirred 
up  with  it.  When  thoroughly  hot  and  the  rice  quite 
tender,  lay  it  on  a  dish  under  and  around  your  fowl, 
saving  a  little  to  spread  over  its  upper  surface  to  mask 
any  breakage  in  the  skin  or  flesh. 

N.B. — Butter  or  some  other  form  of  fat  should  always 
enter  liberally  in  the  sauces  or  accompaniments  for  meats 
which  have  been  deprived  of  it,  as  well  as  of  other  parts 
of  their  constituents,  by  boiliit^i^,  for  the  case  is  not  the 
same  with  stewing.  This  is  important,  not  merely  as  a 
question  of  taste,  but  as  an  essential  of  sound  nourishment. 


ODDS    AND    ENDS. 


To  Clean  Alabaster. — Brush  the  alabaster  with  warm 
soap  and  water,  and  wash  it  afterwards  with  clean  water. 
Finish  with  clean  dry  flannel.  Alabaster  may  be  brightened 
up  with  a  paste  of  milk,  whiting,  and  soap.  After  rubbing 
it  with  this  composition,  finish  with  clean  dry  flannel. 

Cheese  Cetnetit. — Take  some  good  fresh  cheese  and  pound 
it,  wash  it  with  warm  water  until  all  the  soluble  matter  is 
removed.  Strain  it  thoroughly,  and  it  will  then  crumble 
hke  stale  bread.  Dry  it  upon  blotting-paper,  and  it  will 
keep  good  for  a  long  time.  When  required  for  use,  a 
portion  of  the  prepared  cheCse  is  pounded  with  a  little 
quicklime,  which  changes  it  into  a  sticky  mass.  It  may 
then  be  brought  to  a  proper  consistence  by  means  of 
warm  water.  When  ready  it  must  be  applied  at  once,  as 
it  soon  dries,  and  cannot  be  melted  again.  This  is  a 
strong  and  valuable  cement  for  china,  earthenware,  glass, 
wood,  (S:c.  The  quicklime  and  prepared  cheese  can  be 
kept  together  in  a  well-stoppered  vessel,  if  mixed  quite 
dry  and  in  a  fine  powder ;  or  they  may  be  kept  in  separate 
vessels  ready  for  amalgamation. 

Whiteivash. — Whiting  is  to  be  mixed  with  warm  water 
to  the  consistence  of  cream.  A  little  melted  size  is  then 
stirred  into  the  mixture.  The  addition  of  two-and-a-half 
pounds  of  powdered  alum  to  every  pailful  of  whitewash 
will  make  it  bind  better  and  go  farther. 

Wax  for  Modelling. — To  prepare  this,  take  equal 
quantities  of  bees-wax.  Burgundy  pitch,  and  diachylon  ; 
melt  them  together,  and  incorporate  as  much  chalk  as  will 
form  the  mixture  into  a  stiff  paste.  It  is  rollud  into  sticks 
of  convenient  size  and  kept  for  use  as  wanted. 

Putty  and  Paint,  to  so/ten.— U\x  with  a  solution  of 
caustic,  soda,  or  potash,  some  soft  soap,  and  lay  it  over  old 
putty  or  paint,  and  it  will  soon  soften  them.  A  paste  of 
pearlash  and  slacked  lime,  with  a  little  water,  will  have 
the  same  effect. 

/ron  Pipes,  to  preserve. — It  is  well  known  how  rapidly 
iron  pipes  rust  in  the  ground,  or  when  exposed  unprotected 
to  the  damp  of  the  atmosphere.  Many  may  be  glad  to 
learn  that  iron  pipes  coated  with  gas  tar  have  lain  for 
twenty  years  in  the  ground  without  being  rusted.  The 
iron  should  be  quite  dry  when  the  gas  tar  is  applied. 


356 


HINTS    ON    CARVING. 


Fig.  27, 


HINTS   ON   CARVING. 

Whiting. — Whiting  are  correctly  brought  to  table  fried 
in  Ggg  and  bread-crumbs,  with  the  tail  in  the  mouth, 
secured  by  means  of  a  tiny  wooden  skewer.  These  are 
served  whole,  one  to  each  guest,  who  must  be  careful  at 
once  to  remove  the  wooden  skewer. 

Pike. — Pike  are  split  open  if  baked, 
and  as  few  bones  as  possible  served 
with  each  piece. 

Cod. — Cod  deserves  a  place  of 
honour  next  to  turbot,  if  we  observe 
precedence  amongst  the  dishes.  A 
cod's  head  and  shoulders  is  a  noble 
dish,  and  a  very  wholesome  one.  Fig. 
29.  First  sever  the  slices  that  are 
already  partly  cut,  and  marked  by 
five  'A's  to  the  five  corresponding  b's. 
At  least  cut  as  many  of  them  as  you 
have  friends  to  supply.  Then  sever 
them  completely  by  a  transverse 
stroke  of  the  fish-knife  from  D  to  C. 
A  little  of  the  light  gelatinous  substance,  called  sounds, 
should  be  served  to  each  person.  This  will  be  found 
at  E,  just  inside  the  fish  under  the  back-bone.  Care  must 
be  observed  not  to  break  the  flakes  in  serving  the  fish. 

Flat  Fish. — A  turbot,  a  large  plaice,  a  brill,  and  a  John 
dory,  are  in  all  cases  carved 
in  the  same  manner.  The 
use  of  the  fish-slice  will  now 
be  needed.  First  of  all  long 
cuts  are  made  from  end  to 
end  of  the  fish,  as  marked  in 
Fig.  28,  A  to  n.  Cut  the  fish 
quite  down  to  the  bone.  Then 
make  a  number  of  slices  from 
C  to  D,  shown  by  dotted  lines. 
A  steel  knife  must  next  be 
used,  and  sever  completely 
through  the  bones  at  every 
cut  made  where  it  is  necessary. 
Resign  it  again,  and  resuming 
the  fish-slice,  cut  quite  through 
the  other  side  down  to  the 
napkin  on  which  the  fish  is 
laid,  and  serve  the  pieces, 
bones  and  all.  A  little  of  the 
parsley,  which  will  be  ob- 
served lying  on  the  fish  and  round  the  dish,  must  be  laid  on 
each  plate.  The  bones  are  regarded  as  dainties.  When 
flat  fish  are  too  small  to  serve  in  this  way  they  are  cut  in 
three  across  the  short  way,  shown  at  the  dotted  lines  A 
to  B  and  C  to  D,  in  Fig.  28, 
■which  represents  a  sole.  The 
centre-piece  is  considered 
the  best.  Smaller  soles  are 
cut  only  in  half,  and  very 
small  ones,  and  flounders, 
served  whole. 

Pigeons,  &^c.  —  Pigeons, 
when  roasted,  afford  a  deli- 
cious and  savoury  though 
but  a  slight  dish.  Cut  each 
pigeon  in  half  exactly  through 
the  middle,  as  shown  by  the 

line  from  A  to  B,  in  Fig.  28.  It  is  easier  to  cut  a  pigeon  in 
half  when  laid  flat  on  its  back  upon  the  dish,  going  boldly 
quite  through  the  breast  with  sufficient  weight  of  hand  to 
divide  the  bones  at  once.  Other  birds,  when  about  the 
size  of  the  pigeon,  may  be  carved  in  a  similar  way,  by 
simple  division.  .Small  birds,  such  as  snipes,  landrails, 
wheatears,  and  larks,  are  served  whole.  A  great  deal, 
however,  depends  on  the  size  of  the  birds. 


Fig.  28. 


Mackerel. — To  carve  mackerel,  divide  them  down  the 
bone  from  head  to  tail,  taking  the  slice  of  meat  entirely 
off  the  upper  side  of  the  bone.  Cut  this  sHce  in  half 
before  removing  it,  and  serve  the  pieces  separately,  the 
upper  being  esteemed  preferable  to  the  tail  end.  Then 
put  the  bone  aside,  and  cut  the  other  portion  in  half  • 
also.  The  fish-slice,  or  a  silver 
knife,  must  be  used. 

Pilchards,  Herrings,  S^nel/s,  White- 
bait, Sprats. — All  such  small  fish  as 
these  are  served  whole ;  the  very 
small  ones  several  at  a  time.  Eels 
and  conger-eels  are  divided  before 
they  are  cooked.  If  stewed,  they 
are  served  with  a  spoon  ;  and  when 
fried,  with  a  slice. 

Loin  of  Pork  is  served  by  simply 
cutting  off  the  chops  as  a  loin  of 
mutton  is  cut,  only  there  is  no  top 
part  to  remove.  If  the  pork  is  not 
well  scored  before  dressing,  it  can 
never  be  properly  managed  at  table. 
Aitch-bone  of  Beef  is  the  only  joint  which  now  remains 
to  be  mentioned  :  this  is  simply  cut  from  end  to  end  of  the 
joint  in  thin  slices,  serving  fat  with  the  lean.  A  single, 
though  rather  thick,  slice  is  cut  off  first  from  the  centre 
of  the  top  of  the  joint,  and  laid  aside  in  the  dish  till 
it  becomes  cold.  The  gravy 
will  be  found  in  the  succeed- 
ing slices. 

Round  of  Beef,  which  is 
generally  salted,  is  cut  in  thin 
slices  the  entire  size  of  the 
meat ;  a  little  of  the  fat  cut 
thicker,  and  a  trifle  on  the 
slant,  is  placed  on  each  slice 
of  the  lean.  Carrots  are  usually 
ranged  round  the  dish  cut  in 
short  pieces.  One  or  two 
of  these  are  also  placed  in 
every  plate. 

Ribs  of  Beef  rolled  are 
carved  in  the  same  way  as 
the  round  of  beef,  with  this 
exception,  that  there  is  no 
fat  to  cut  separately  ;  the  fat 
is  streaked  with  the  lean. 
Neither  are  carrots  served  up, 
as  ribs  of  beef  is  a  roast  joint.  There  is  gravy  in  the 
dish,  which  should  be  served  over  each  slice  of  meat,  and 
if  there  is  any  garnishing  of  horse-radish,  a  little  may  be 
gathered  up  between  the  carving-knife  and  fork,  and, 
if  desired,  furnished  to  the 
guests. 

Several  of  the  dishes,  for 
the  carving  of  which  we  have 
set  forth  directions  in  this 
and  previous  papers,  will  be 
found  represented  in  the 
coloured  plate  opposite  page 
193.  A  reference  to  this  will 
enable  our  readers  to  see  at 
once  what  ought  to  be  the 
appearance  of  such  dishes 
when  brought  to  table,  and 
also  assist  them  in  practically  carrying  out  the  instructions 
and  hints  embodied  in  our  observations  on  this  subject. 
The  flat  fish,  Fig.  28,  is  shown  in  Fig.  7  of  the  coloured 
frontispiece  to  the  work.  In  our  next  article  upon  this 
subject  we  hope  to  complete  our  remarks  upon  this  very 
important  branch  of  domestic  art,  which  is  in  too  many 
instances  disregarded,  as  if  it  were  a  matter  of  no  im- 
portance. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


257 


THE    HOUSE. 

WATER  SUPPLY  {continued). 

It  is  somewhat  strange  that,  notwithstanding  the  number 
of  valuable  discoveries  in  metallurgical  chemistry  which  are 
day  by  day  brought  to  the  notice  of  tlie  scientific  world, 
lead,  as  a  material  for  the  manufacture 
of  water-pipes,  cisterns,  conduits,  &c., 
remains  unsuperseded.  Its  unfitness  for 
such  a  purpose  is  beyond  dispute,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  great  num- 
ber of  obscure  ailments  and  protracted 
diseases  (which,  although  combated  with 
all  the  appliances  and  remedies  at  the 
command  of  medical  science,  obstinately 
retain  their  hold  on  the  constitution  of 
the  sufferer)  might  be,  by  the  aid  of  care- 
ful analysis,  traced  to  minute  proportions 
of  the  salts  of  lead  held  in  solution  by 
the  water  in  common  use,  and  with  it 
passed  into  the  system.  The  quantities  of 
metallic  salt  thus  held  and  borne  onwards 
by  water  are  not    imfrequently 

so    infinitesimal    that    ordinary 

tests  for  its  detection  fail,  until   ^ 
large  quantities  of  the  water  to 
be  experimented  on  are  reduced 
and  concentrated  by  the  process 
of  evaporation.      Yet   it  is  by  the 
continued  introduction  of  homoeo- 
pathic doses  of  metallic  poison,  that 
the  strongest  constitutions  are  gra- 
dually broken  down  by  causes  which 
lie   beyond   the  ken   of  friends,  or 
even  medical  men  ©f  average  attain- 
ments. 

The  ease  with  which  the  metal 
lead  can  be 
bent,  conver- 
ted into 
tubes,  fused, 
cut,  soldered, 
and  jointed, 
tends  greatly 
to  induce 
those  en- 
gaged in  lay- 
ing down  a 
water-  supply 
to  make  use 

of  it  in  preference  to  other 
materials,  and  so  long  as  lead 
water  -  pipes  can,  without  a 
breach  of  the  law,  be  cramped 
to  our  walls  and  made  to  invade 
our  dwellings,  so  long  shall  we 
have  to  contend  with  the  evils 
they  bring  with  them.  And  here 
we  may  repeat  a  remark  made  in 
a  former  paper  that  the  wide- 
spread notion  that  filters  possess 
the  power  of  freeing  water  from 
mineral  impurities,  is  entirely  erroneous.  Gaseous  and 
some  other  contaminations  are  to  be  removed  by  care- 
fully-conducted filtration,  but  solutions  of  mineral  salts 
remain  as  such,  and  are  unacted  on  by  any  filter  properly 
so  called.  However,  it  is  not  our  intention  here  to 
enter  into  a  discussion  on  filters,  as  their  mode  of  con- 
struction and  management  will  be  fully  considered  as  we 
proceed  with  our  subject.  Earthenware,  iron,  wood,  glass, 
and  zinc  are  all,  in  addition  to  lead,  more  or  less  made 
use  of  as  materials  for  the  manufacture  of  water-pipes, 
according  to  the  position,  &c.,  in  which  they  arc  to  be 

VOL.  I. 


placed.  Hollow  bamboos  are  extensively  used  in  tropical 
countries  in  lieu  of  artificial  tubing,  for  the  conveyance 
and  protection  of  water  for  both  domestic  and  agricul- 
tural purposes.  In  this  country  much  outlay  of  money, 
inconvenience,  and  uncertainty  are  saved  by  the  enterprise 
of  public  water-companies,  who  do  that  for  the  house- 
holder which,  in  a  colony  or  partially- 
settled  district  he  would  have  to  do  for 
himself — viz.,  discover  a  source  from 
which  a  supply  of  moderately  pure  water 
can  be  obtained,  and  then,  by  the  use 
of  pipes,  tubes,  or  other  contrivances, 
bring  it  to  his  own  door. 

We  will  leave   a  consideration  of  the 
sources  from  which  water  is  best  obtained 
for    a    future    paper,    and    deal    with    a 
case  in  which  water  has  been  laid  on  in 
the  usual  manner,  subject  to  the  periodical 
turnings   on  and  off  by  the  water  com- 
pany's  servants.     In  order  that  a   suffi- 
cient supply   should  be  collected   during 
the  influx  to  last  until   the   time   arrives 
for    a   further   supply,    cisterns,    barrels, 
tanks,  and  a  whole  host  of  other  reser- 
voirs   are   had   recourse  to.      In  bygone 
days    it   was   the  custom    to    watch   the 
supply-pipe  during  the  period  of  inflow, 
and  when  the  store  vessel  was  filled,  a 
tap  was  turned,  in  order  to  prevent 
overflow,  waste,  and  inconvenience. 
This    system,     although     efficient 
enough  when   strictly   carried  out, 
led  to  endless  domestic  strife  when 
neglected.    Water  turned  on  during 
the    absence   or    slumbers   of   the 
watcher  overflowed  the   barrels  or 
cisterns,  deluged  the  house  or  court, 
and     caused 
confusion 
worse      con- 
founded. The 
labours  of  the 
i  nge  nious 
were     there- 
fore directed 
to  the  manu- 
facture of  an 
automaton, 
or    self-  act- 
ing      water- 
watcher,  which  should  be  always 
on   the   alert   and   prepared   to 
govern  the  supply,  come  when  it 
would.     This  important  duty  is 
to  some  extent  perfonned  by  the 
conmion  form  of  ball-cock.  This 
arrangement,  although  extremely 
simple  in  its  mode  of  action,  is 
so  little  understood  by  the  ma- 
jority of  housQ-kecpers,  that  it 
2.  may  be  well   to  make    its  per- 

formances and  shortcomings 
clear  to  even  the  most  unmechanical.  In  order  to  do 
this,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Fig.  i  in  the  annexed 
illustration.  This  shows  the  cistern  at  a  low  ebb,  the 
surface  of  the  water  having  sunk  to  a  low  level.  The 
hollow  metal-ball,  A,  which  floats  on  and  is  supported  by 
it,  sinks  also  and,  as  it  drops  lower  and  lower,  its  sterji  or 
lever  n  is  also  depressed,  and,  like  a  long  powerful  cross 
handle,  gradually  turns  the  barrel  of  the  cock,  or  tap,  to 
which  it  is  secured  by  a  square  and  pin,  and  thus  causes 
the  water  to  flow.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  Fig.  i 
the  cistern  is  shown  as  nearly  empty,  the  ball  being  sunk 

17 


^58 


COOKING, 


as  low  as  it  is  possible  for  it  to  go.  This  tap,  C,  although 
placed  sideways,  is,  in  internal  arrangement,  exactly  like 
a  common  beer  or  spirit-cock 

As  the  supply  of  water  increases  in  bulk,  and  height 
of  surface,  the  ball,  like  a  metal  bubble,  forces  its  way 
upwards  with  the  rising  tide,  until  at  length,  on  reach- 
ing the  position,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the  inward  flow 
is  stopped  by  the  turning  of  the  tap  to  the  shut 
position.  So  it  will  be  at  once  seen  that,  high  or  low, 
the  ball  follows  the  line  of  surface.  This  condition 
of  affairs  would  be  satisfactory  enough,  provided  it  would 
always  last.  Unfortunately,  however,  certain  chemical 
laws  step  in  and  upset  mechanical  arrangements.  Con- 
stant exposure  to  air,  moisture,  and  the  acid  impurities 
held  in  solution  by  water,  causes  oxidation  of  the  metal 
composing  the  ball  to  take  place.  Minute  pin-hole-like 
orifices  rapidly  form,  and  through  these  water  freely  passes. 
Tht;  ball,  instead  of  a  float  becomes  a  sinker,  keeping  the 
supply-tap  always  open,  and  if  a  capacious  waste-pipe,  as 
a  precaution  in  event  of  accidents,  has  not  been  thought- 
fully provided,  not  only  unnecessary  expenditure  of  water, 
but  destruction  of  valuable  propsrty  by  wet  may  be  the 
result. 

Not  only  the  metal  globe,  but  the  tap  as  well,  is  not 
unfrequently  so  much  oxidised  as  to  become  inefficient. 
The  barrel  of  the  tap  at  times  becomes  so  tight  in  its 
cylinder  from  this  cause  that  the  lever  is  not  powerful 
enough  to  turn  it.  In  this  case,  too  much  or  too  little 
water  maybe  suffered  to  pass  through  it,  just  as  the  orifice 
in  the  barrel  happened  to  be  turned  large  or  small  when 
motion  ceased.  So  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ball-cock  is 
liable  to  derangement  from  several  causes,  which,  being 
familiar  to  the  , reader,  admit,  in  many  cases,  of  remedy, 
or  at  least  palliation.  Modern  engineering  skill  has, 
however,  stepped  in  to  the  aid  of  the  consumer  of  water, 
and  a  far  more  perfect  form  of  both  supply  and  expense 
tap  than  that  just  described  has  lately  been  introduced  '.o 
our  notice.  This  arrangement,  appropriately  named  the 
"  Economiser,"  is  represented  in  the  accompanying 
illustrations.  Fig.  3  is  a  sectional  view  of  the  supply- 
regulating  apparatus.  Instead  of  acting  as  a  tap,  the 
Economiser  works  as  a  valve,  which'drops  by  its  own 
weight  and  is  raised  by  a  floating  cup,  E,  placed  at  the  end 
of  the  lever,  instead  of  a  hollow  ball.  The  advantages 
gained  over  the  old  arrangement  by  the  new  one  are  as 
follows  :— Perfect  freedom  from  the  chance  of  the  float 
becoming  a  sinker  by  oxidation  and  .perforation;  self- 
power  of  closing  the  valve  in  event  of  the  lever  being 
broken  ;  freedom  from  liability  to  become  fixed,  or  "  stuck," 
as  it  is  called  ;  and  rapidity  and  delicacy  of  regulating 
power,  which  is  so  great  that  on  a  decrease  of  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  of  water  taking  place  in  the  cistern  the  Econ- 
omiser is  in  a  position  to  pour  in  a  supply  to  the  extent  of 
its  full-bore  capacity  as  a  compensation.  Instead  of  metal 
bearing  against  metal,  as  in  a  common  tap,  the  bearing- 
flange  of  the  Economiser  rests  on  a  thick  seating  of  india- 
rubber,  as  shown  at  D,  in  Fig.  3— which  is  a  sectional  view 
of  the  Economiser  as  applied  to  the  inflow — F,  its  lever, 
shown  broken  on  account  of  its  length.  Fig.  4  repre- 
sents the  arrangement  as  used  for  drawing  off  liquids 
by  hand.  On  the  lever,  G,  being  pressed  backward, 
the  valve  is  opened,  and  when  the  pressure  is  reversed, 
it  falls  back  to  its  closed  position  by  self-action,  thus 
guarding  against  all  loss  by  waste. 

The  subject  of  cisterns  and  water-reservoirs,  to  which 
contrivances  such  as  those  just  described  can  be  applied, 
will  be  treated  of  in  a  future  paper. 

We  shall  thus  exhaust  the  subject,  as  far  as  those  of 
our  readers  are  concerned  who  have  to  depend  upon  a 
public  company  for  their  water  supply.  We  shall  then 
pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  wells  and  pumps,  and  the 
sources  from  which  water  is  best  obtained,  both  as  regards 
its  quantity  and  purity. 


COOKING. 

BROTHS    AND    SOUPS, 

Roast  Boiled  Fowl  {afte?-  Chichcn  Broth). — If  the  fowl 
is  hot,  take  cold  butter  ;  if  it  is  cold,  melt  some  butter  in  a 
cup.  Smear  the  fowl  all  over  with  this,  dredge  it  with 
flour,  and  put  it  to  roast  with  a  bottle-jack  before  a  brisk 
fire.  As  soon  as  it  begins  to  brown,  baste  it  well  with  a 
little  of  the  reserved  broth  and  surface  fat.  A  lump  of 
butter  rolled  in  flour  and  laid  in  the  catchpan  will  greatly 
help  the  effect  of  the  basting.  Have  ready  a  warm  dish, 
in  the  middle  of  which  you  place  a  bed  of  the  freshest, 
well-drained  watercress.  As  soon  as  the  fowl  is  nicely 
browned,  and  frothing  all  over,  lay  it  on-the  watercresses, 
and  serve,  after  pouring  over  it  the  contents  of  the  catch- 
pan.  For  sauce  to  be  sent  up  at  the  same  time :  To  a 
breakfast-cup-full  of  rich  melted  butter,  put  two  dessert- 
spoonfuls of  pickled  button  mushrooms  (if  you  have  not 
them,  one  pickled  walnut,  or  a  few  gherkins  cut  in  pieces, 
may  be  used  instead),  one  dessert-spoonful  of  the  pickle 
vinegar,  and  two  ditto  of  catchup. 

Mutton  Broth. — Take  a  pound  of  neck  of  mutton 
without  the  outer  layer  of  fat ;  cut  it,  bone  and  all,  into 
thin  slices  or  cutlets.  Set  it  on  the  fire  in  a  quart  of  cold 
water,  and  let  it  boil  gently  for  six  hours.  When  it  is 
reduced  to  a  pint,  prevent  its  further  diminution  by  filling 
up  with  hot  water  from  time  to  time.  When  presented  to 
the  patient,  he  will  season  it  with  pepper  and  salt  to 
taste.  The  fat  may  be  partially  removed  by  skimming 
while  hot,  and  entirely  when  cold  ;  but  the  broth  will  be 
more  nourishing  if  it  is  made  to  combine  during  the 
cooking  with  some  farinaceous  substance,  as  pearl  barley 
or  oatmeal  groats. 

Another  Recipe. — To  three  quarts  of  cold  soft  water,  put 
two  pounds  of  scrag  of  mutton,  cut  up  with  the  bones 
into  pieces  half  the  size  of  a  walnut,  two  table-spoonfuls 
oi  pearl  barley,  a  dessert-spoonful  of  washed  rice,  a  large 
teaspoonful  of  oatmeal  groats,  an  onion  sliced,  a  leek  cut 
into  lengths,  a  leaf  of  celery  (the  green  tip  as  well  as  the 
blanched  stalk),  half  a  turnip  and  a  small  carrot,  or  half  a 
large  one  cut  into  dice,  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a  sprig 
of  thyme.  Boil  gently  till  all  the  solid  substances  have 
fallen  to  pieces,  then  stra;n  through  a  coarse  cullender. 

White  Veal  Broth. — Take  either  neck  or  knuckle  of 
veal,  and  treat  exactly  as  for  mutton  broth.  Veal  is  not 
usually  put  into  the  pot-au-feu,  its  broth  being  reserved 
for  invalids. 

Brown  Veal  Broth. — Fry  sliced  onions  in  butter  till 
they  are  browned,  not  burnt.  For  three  quarts  of  water, 
take  two  pounds  of  veal  in  slices  with  a  fair  proportion  of 
cartilage  and  bone  ;  brown  them  on  both  sides  in  the 
butter  and  the  frying-pan  which  cooked  the  onions.  If 
you  have  a  cold  (fresh,  not  stale)  roast  meat  bone  (not 
mutton  nor  pork)  or  a  few  remains  of  cold  roast  fowl  or 
game,  you  may  add  them.  Then  proceed  as  for  the 
mutton  broth,  maintaining  the  quantity  at  two  quarts. 
When  done,  a  tablespoonful  of  catchup  is  a  nice  addition. 

Dr.  DobeWs  Beef  Tea. — Put  one  pound  of  minced 
rumpsteak  into  an  equal  weight  (one  pound)  of  water  ; 
macerate  it  for  two  hours  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding 
one  hundred  and  fifty  degrees  Fahrenheit,  to  yield  one 
pint  of  beef  tea. 

Beef  Tea, — Use  for  this,  not  an  iron  saucepan,  but  an 
earthen  pot  with  a  well-fitting  lid,  which  will  stand  without 
cracking  the  heat  of  the  iron  plate  on  the  top  of  th-e 
cooking-stove.  Fill  it  from  one-third  to  a  quarter  full  of 
good  lean  beef  cut  into  shapely  pieces  the  size  of  a  small 
walnut,  in  order  that  they  may  be  presentable  afterwards 
in  a  ratatoitille,  or  as  potted  beef,  seasoning  slightly  with 
salt  and  a  few  whole  peppercorns.  Then  pour  on  cold 
water  nearly  to  the  brim,  and  set  it  on  the  plate  or  top  of 
a  cooking-stove  to  simmer  gently  several  hours,  taking  off 
any  scum  and  fat  that  may  rise.     The  beef  is  not  to  be 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


259 


overdone,  but  is  to  be  left  in  the  pot  until  all  the  beef-tea 
from  it  is  finished.  Stir  with  a  spoon  before  serving  a 
portion,  in  order  to  have  the  nutritious  particles  suspended 
in  the  tea  which  have  sunk  to  the  bottom.  Where  there 
is  no  cooking-stove,  the  bccf-tea  may  be  slowly  cooked 
by  setting  the  earthen  pot  containing  it  in  a  large  iron 
vessel  of  boiling  water  (as  "jugged  hare"  is  cooked),  or, 
if  the  lid  is  luted  down  with  paste,  it  may  be  made  in  a 
very  slow  oven. 

Van  Abbot's  Invalid's  Soup. — Into  three  quarts  of  cold 
water,  cut  small  one  pound  of  gravy  beef,  one  pound  of 
scrag  of  mutton,  and  a  half  or  quarter  of  a  calf's  foot 
(for  which  two  ounces  of  isinglass  may  be  substituted). 
Gradually  boil,  skimming  well.  Then  add  three  ounces 
of  vermicelli,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  mushroom  catchup, 
twenty-four  corns  of  allspice,  and  a  sprig  of  sage.  Simmer 
four  or  five  hours,  till  reduced  to  one  quart.  Strain  through 
a  fine  hair  sieve,  and  carefully  remove  all  fat ;  add  salt  to 
taste.  This  soup  may  be  taken  either  cold  as  a  jelly,  or 
warm  as  a  soup  ;  but  note  the  importance  of  warm  food 
for  all  persons  of  weakly  constitution. 

Meagre  Soup  {Soupe  Maigre).  —  Before  beginning, 
wash  thoroughly  all  your  green  vegetables,  peel  your  roots, 
and  throw  them  into  cold  water.  The  proportions  of  each 
must  depend  very  much  upon  what  you  can  get.  The 
soup,  when  finished,  should  be  of  the  thickness  of  ordinary 
pea-soup  Take  five  or  six  handfuls  of  common  sorrel, 
two  large  lettuces,  from  which  the  withered  leaves  only 
have  been  removed,  a  small  bunch  of  chervil,  and  two 
or  three  sprigs  of  parsley.  Shred  all  these  very  fine. 
Slice  and  chop  onions,  carrots,  and  leeks,  very  fine. 
Throw  all  these  into  your  soup-kettle  of  boiling  water 
with  some  whole  potatoes  of  a  mealy  sort,  a  bay-leaf,  a 
sprig  of  thyme,  and  a  good  lump  of  butter.  Season  with 
pepper  and  salt.  Stir  from  time  to  time,  to  prevent  any 
of  the  ingredients  from  sticking  to  the  bottom.  When 
they  are  all  thoroughly  cooked,  crush  as  many  potatoes  as 
you  want  to  thicken  the  soup  ;  the  others,  if  it  is  a  meagre 
day,  may  be  served  up  with  fish  or  eggs ;  if  not,  with 
meat.  The  soup  may  be  also  thickened  with  bread — 
which  makes  it  more  nourishing — steeped  in  a  little  of 
the  liquor,  and  then  broken  up  and  mixed  with  the  soup. 

Sorrel  and  Potato  Soup. — Stew  a  couple  of  handfuls  of 
sorrel  in  butter,  then  add  enough  water  to  make  your 
soup,  and  mealy  potatoes  cut  in  slices.  Stir  frequently. 
When  the  potatoes  are  cooked,  crush  and  mix  them  with 
the  soup.  Season  with  pepper  and  salt.  Throw  in  a  few 
very  thin  slices  of  bread.  When  they  have  soaked  and 
boiled  up  once,  serve  your  soup. 

Small  White  Onion  Soup. — Take  a  soup-plate  full  of 
small  onions  such  as  you  would  pickle.  Peel  them,  throw 
them  into  boiling  water,  and  let  boil  a  min«te.  Then  fry 
them  in  butter  with  a  dust  of  sugar  sprinkled  over 
them.  Brown  a  little  flour  in  the  butter.  Fry  also  a  few 
slices  of  bread,  and  pour  over  all  a  sufficiency  of  stock  broth. 

Leek  and  Potato  Soup  {Meagre). — Cut  eight  fine  leeks 
into  pieces  an  inch  long.  Peel  and  slice  an  equal  quan- 
tity (by  measurement,  not  number)  of  white,  mealy 
potatoes.  Set  them  on  the  fire  in  a  saucepan  with  water, 
salt,  and  pepper.  Boil  until  the  leeks  are  quite  tender 
and  the  potatoes  can  be  easily  crushed  with  a  spoon. 
Add  a  good  lump  of  butter,  and  stir  well  'lO, ether.  Put 
a  few  very  thin  slices  of  bread  at  the  bottom  of  your 
soup-tureen.     Pour  the  soup  over  them,  and  serve. 

Turnip  and  Potato  Soup  {Meagre). — Put  a  lump  of 
butter  at  the  bottom  of  your  stew-pan,  and  in  it  brown  a 
couple  of  sliced  onions.  Stir  in  as  much  water  as  you 
want  to  have  soup.  Add  an  equal  quantity  of  sliced 
turnips  and  mealy  potatoes  and  a  few  slices  of  bread. 
^  When  all  is  thoroughly  cooked,  pass  it  through  a  cullender, 
season  with  pepper  and  salt  ;  give  it  a  boil  up,  and  serve. 
— N.B.  This  soup  is  not  certain  to  keep  good  beyond  the 
second  day. 


Carrot  Soup. — Made  as  above,  only  the  carrots  take 
longer  to  cook.  Besides  pepper  and  salt,  flavour  with  a 
couple  of  bay  leaves,  a  bunch  of  sweet  herbs,  and  two  or 
three  cloves. 

Onion  Soup. — Cut  a  dozen  middle-sized  onions  into 
shreds.  Brown  them  over  the  fire  with  a  good  lump  of 
butter,  turning  them  constantly  till  they  aje  tender  and 
nicely  browned.  Add  a  dessert-spoonful  of  flour  ;  let  it 
brown  too.  Stir  in  water  gradually  (or  broth,  if  meagre 
soup  be  not  preferred).  Season  with  pepper  and  salt,  and 
let  it  boil  up  a  little  while  ;  then  add  a  little  sliced  bread  ; 
let  it  soak  for  awhile,  and  serve. 

Rice  and  Onion  Soup,  Brown. — Prepare  your  onions 
as  before  ;  stir  in  hot  water  or  broth.  Boil  till  the  onions 
are  quite  tender  ;  season,  crush  all  through  a  cullender. 
Set  it  on  the  fire  again,  with  the  addition  of  rice  that  has 
been  previously  steeped  in  cold  water.  When  the  rice  is 
tender,  the  soup  is  cooked. 

Rice  and  Onion  Soup,  White. — Take  an  equal  quantity 
of  chopped  onions  and  steeped  rice.  Boil  them  till  tender 
in  water,  or  veal  or  chicken  broth.  Season  with  pepper, 
salt,  and  a  blade  of  mace.  Add  new  milk  to  your  soup  in 
the  proportion  of  one-third.  As  soon  as  it  boils  up  (not 
over),  it  is  ready.  All  the  above  soups  require  assiduous 
stirring. 

Green-Pea  Sotip  {French  way). — Fry  or  brown  in  the 
saucepan  in  butter,  some  sorrel,  and  chervil— a  handful 
of  each.  Stir  in  the  required  quantity  of  water.  Season 
with  salt,  pepper,  and  a  lump  of  sugar.  When  it  boils, 
throw  in  your  green  peas.  Put  a  few  thin  slices  of  bread 
at  the  bottom  of  your  tureen,  and  when  the  peas  are 
cooked,  pour  the  soup  over  them. 

Pumpkin  Soup. — Take  half  or  quarter  of  a  pumpkin, 
according  to  size.  Peel  it,  and  remove  the  pips.  Cut  it 
into  pieces  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  set  them  on  the  fire 
with  water  in  a  soup-kettle.  When  the  pumpkin  is 
completely  reduced  to  a  pulp,  add  four  ounces  of  butter 
and  a  little  salt.  Stir  it  while  it  boils  a  minute  or  two 
longer.  Boil  a  quart  of  milk  with  a  little  sugar  and  a  pinch 
of  salt,  and  then  mix  it  with  your  pumpkin  puree.  Put 
bread  dice  (toasted  or  not)  at  the  bottom  of  your  soup- 
tureen,  and  pour  over  them  the  mixture  of  pumpkin  and 
milk.  This  soup  may  be  further  flavoured  with  a  dessert- 
spoonful of  orange-flower  water. 

Cauliflower  Soup  is  a  very  striking  instance  of  conti- 
nental economy  in  "  boilings."  After  boiling  cauhflowers, 
add  to  the  water  a  pinch  of  chopped  parsley  and  a  lump 
of  fresh  butter.  Season  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  boil  for 
a  few  minutes.  Put  bread  at  the  bottom  of  your  tureen 
and  pour  the  soup  over  them.  It  will  be  still  better  if  you 
brown  sliced  onions  and  flour  and  stir  in  your  soup  on 
them  as  a  foundation  after  proceeding  as  before.  "When 
the  soup  is  quite  done,  it  is  usual  to  throw  in  a  few  sprigs 
of  cauliflower. 

Provenr^al  Sotip. — Boil  six  or  eight  cloves  of  garlic  in 
water  with  a  little  salt,  and  a  sprig  of  summer  savory 
{Satureijii  hortensis).  Cut  thin  slices  of  bread  into  your 
soup-tureen,  dust  them  with  a  pinch  of  pepper,  pour  over 
them  olive  oil  in  proportion  to  their  quantity,  and  pour 
the  broth  over  them,  leaving  out  the  garlic  and  the 
savory. 

A  Garbure  is  another  southern  dish,  which  is  some- 
thing between  a  soup,  a  stew,  and  a  bake.  It  is  one  of 
those  messes  into  which  you  may  put  anything;  only 
there  must  be  meat,  there  must  be  vegetables,  and  there 
should  be  brown  rye-bread.  To  make  such  a  dish  pro- 
perly a  very  large  vessel  is  required.  It  is  seldom  made 
in  this  country. 

Garbure  d.  la  BdarncUse  {after  the  fashion  of  B^am). — 
Scald  the  hearts  of  four  cabbages  and  of  a  dozen  cabbage- 
lettuces.  Take  a  good  bit  of  bacon,  lay  it  on  its  back, 
and  slice  it  down  to  the  rind  without  cutting  through  it  ; 
put  it,  with  the  cabbages  and  lettuces,  into  a  soup-kcttlc. 


26o 


COOKING. 


with  a  thick  sausage  made  with  the  legs  of  a  goose,  and  a 
thick  shce  of  ham,  well  steeped  to  draw  the  salt  out.  Do 
not  use  garlic.  Cover  with  good  fresh  broth,  and  stew  the 
whole  together,  adding  two  onions,  each  stuck  with  a 
couple  of  cloves,  a  few  slices  of  turnip  and  carrot,  and  a 
bunch  of  parsley.  When  cooked,  take  up  your  vegetables 
and  meats,  and  keep  them  separate.  Strain  the  liquor 
through  a  cullender.  Take  a  deep  dish  that  will  stand 
the  Are  ;  arrange  the  vegetables  round  its  bottom  ;  fill 
up  the  interstices  with  grated  rye-bread ;  moisten  with 
your  liquor ;  put  green  peas,  crushed  to  a  puree,  in  the 
middle ;  on  them  lay  your  ham,  bacon,  and  legs  of  goose  ; 
cut  the  sausage  into  slices  and  lay  it  round  the  edge  of 
the  dish.  Set  it  into  a  slow  oven  until  it  is  slightly 
browned.  Send  it  up,  accompanied  by  the  broth,  served 
separately. 

Tomato  Soup. — Boil  a  few  tomatoes  ten  minutes  in  a 
little  broth,  and  then  pass  them  through  a  cullender  to 
strain  away  the  skins  and  the  seeds.  Add  this  puree  to 
your  bi'oth,  with  a  few  chopped  onions  and  a  bunch  of 
sweet  herbs.  In  default  of  tomatoes  use  tomato  sauce. 
When  the  onions  are  tender,  season  with  pepper  and  salt ; 
a  nice  addition  is  a  little  chopped  cabbage  or  a  few  sprigs 
of  cauliflower,  previously  boiled  separately.  If  you  want 
it  more  substantial,  as  for  a  family  meal  in  cold  weather, 
you  can  throw  in  a  few  dice  or  neat-looking  pieces  of  cold 
meat,  game,  or  poultry,  stewed  quite  tender,  and  with  the 
bones  removed.  In  this  latter  case,  dice  of  toasted  or 
fried  bread  should  be  sent  up  in  or  with  it. 

Gravy  Soup. — Put  into  a  stewpan  any  brown  gravy 
and  dripping  you  have  left  from  roast  beef  or  veal,  or 
both ;  in  it  brown  chopped  onions  and  a  little  flour.  Stir 
in  gradually  any  good  stock  you  may  have,  seasoning 
with  salt,  pepper,  and  mushroom  catchup.  Serve,  accom- 
panied by  dice  of  fried  or  toasted  bread. 

Cheese  Soup  {Meagre). — Take  about  half  a  pound  of 
rather  dry  Gruy6re  cheese  ;  if  not  to  be  had,  any  good, 
light-coloured  (not  red)  English  or  other  cheese,  not  too 
strong  in  flavour,  will  do  ;  pare  off  the  rind,  and  grate  the 
cheese.  At  the  bottom  of  your  soup-tureen  strew  a  thin 
layer  of  this  grated  cheese  ;  over  it  lay  a  very  few  slices 
of  crumb  of  stale  bread,  cut  excessively  thin  ;  then  more 
grated  cheese,  and  more  thinly-sliced  bread,  until  all 
the  cheese  is  in  the  tureen.  The  whole  of  this  should 
occupy  one-fourth  of  the  depth  of  the  tureen  at  most,  to 
allow  for  its  swelling,  which  it  does  considerably.  Into  a 
stewpan  (a  round-l)ottomed  one  is  preferable)  put  a  good 
lump  of  butter,  without  being  afraid  of  using  too  much  ; 
dust  in  a  little  flour,  and  stir  it  over  the  fire  until  it 
browns ;  then  throw  in  a  good  quantity  of  chopped 
onions.  When  they  are  browned,  gradually  stir  in  enough 
water  to  nearly  fill  your  soup-tureen  ;  add  a  little  burnt 
onion  (sold  either  in  cakes  or  bottled  in  balls)  for  brown- 
ing ;  season  with  pepper  and  salt ;  let  it  boil,  stirring  all 
the  while.  Pour  it,  boiling,  over  the  layers  of  cheese  and 
bread  in  the  tureen,  put  on  the  cover,  let  it  stand  two  or 
three  minutes  before  the  fire,  to  soak  and  swell  the  bread 
and  cheese  ;  that  done,  serve  at  once.  The  contents  of 
the  tureen  are  not  to  be  disturbed  till  it  is  set  on  the  table 
and  the  cover  removed. 

FISH  SOUPS. 
The  following  is  a  soup  which  has  its  merits,  and 
is  really  better  than  it  reads  : — Take  plaice,  small  conger 
eels,  and  whiting,  in  equal  quantity ;  i.e.,  equal  weights  of 
each  when  cleaned  ;  wash,  drain,  and  cut  them  into  con- 
venient sized  pieces — in  truth,  any  kind  of  sea  fish  will  do, 
only  excluding  those  whose  skin  is  particularly  strong 
and  rank  in  flavour.  Put  water  and  olive-oil  into  a 
saucepan,  in  the  proportion  of  half  a  pound  of  oil  to  a 
quart  of  water — those  who  have  an  insuperable  prejudice 
against  oil  may  substitute  butter  ;  add  a  clove  of  garlic, 
some  chopped  parsley  and  fennel,  a  bay  leaf,  and  a  few 


small  onions.  When  it  boils,  throw  in  the  fish,  and 
leave  it  till  it  is  cooked,  which  will  take  about  a  quarter 
of  an  hour.  Take  out  the  fish,  to  be  served  separately  ; 
put  slices  of  bread  at  the  bottom  of  the  tureen,  and  ladle 
your  broth  over  it  through  a  small-holed  cullender. 

Shrimp-tail  and  Tomato  Soup. — You  have  ready  any 
good  broth  or  stock,  that  from  beef  or  veal  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Light  at  the  same  time  a  couple  of  fire-places  in 
your  range  ;  on  the  one  set  a  saucepan  of  salted  water  for 
your  shrimps  ;  add  a  bunch  of  sweet  herbs  and  two  slices 
of  lemon.  When  it  boils  throw  in  the  shrimps.  On  the 
other  a  dozen  tomatoes  (fewer  will  do  ;  if  scarce,  three  or 
four  will  communicate  their  peculiar  flavour),  four  large 
white  onions  cut  in  slices,  a  lump  of  butter,  a  clove  of 
garlic,  a  bunch  of  sweet  herbs,  and  just  enough  water  to 
cook  them  in.  When  the  shrimps  are  cooked,  take  them 
out,  strain  the  liquor  through  a  sieve,  and  set  it  aside.  Peel 
the  shrimps  and  set  the  tails  aside.  When  your  tomatoes 
and  onions  are  cooked,  press  them  through  a  cullender  ; 
set  them  on  the  fire  again,  with  a  bit  of  meat  jelly,  or  a 
little  roast  beef  or  roast  veal  gravy,  a  pinch  of  cayenne 
pepper,  and  let  them  thicken  a  little  over  the  fire.  Then 
stir  in  your  broth  or  stock  and  half  a  tumbler  of  the 
liquor  in  which  the  shrimps  were  boiled  ;  mix  well 
together  as  it  is  coming  to  a  boil.  At  the  third  or 
fourth  bubbling,  throw  in  the  shrimp-tails,  and  the  soup 
is  made. 

Oyster  Soup. — For  each  guest  allow  six  or  eight  oysters, 
according  to  size.  In  opening  them,  save  all  the  liquor, 
with  which  you  put  the  beards,  setting  the  oysters  aside  ; 
add  rather  more  than  one  equal  quantity  of  water  to  the 
beards  and  liquor,  and  boil  them  ten  minutes.  Strain 
away  the  beards,  which  you  will  then  reject ;  let  the  liquor 
stand  to  settle  ;  pour  it  off  from  the  sediment  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel.  Fry  chopped  onions  to  a  very  light 
yellow  in  fresh  butter ;  add  a  little  flour  ;  stir  in  gradually 
the  liquor  from  the  oysters ;  make  up  the  required  quantity 
of  soup  with  veal  broth  or  other  light-coloured  stock ;  season 
with  pepper,  salt,  and  mace  or  grated  nutmeg.  When 
it  boils  up,  take  it  off  the  fire  ;  throw  in  your  uncooked 
oysters.  You  may  thicken  further,  if  you  like,  by  stirring 
one  or  two  egg-yolks  in  a  little  of  the  soup,  and  then  in- 
corporating it  with  the  rest.  As  soon  as  the  oysters  are 
quite  hot  through  (they  must  not  boil),  you  may  serve  the 
soup,  accompanied  by  fried  bread. 

Mussel,  or  other  Shell-Fish  Soup,  is  made  in  the  same 
way.  The  mussels  or  other  shell-fish  must  be  well  washed, 
then  put  into  a  covered  saucepan  Avithout  water,  and  re- 
peatedly hustled  over  the  fire  until  they  open.  Mussels 
will  take  longer  cooking  to  make  them  come  away  easily 
from  the  shells  than  cockles.  Either  will  yield  a  larger 
quantity  of  liquor  than  oysters.  After  tasting  it,  you  will 
judge  of  the  proportion  you  think  fit  to  put  into  your  soup. 
If  you  prepare  your  shell-fish  over  night,  the  liquor  will 
have  all  the  longer  time  to  stand  and  get  clear.  Shell-fish 
soup  may  be  made  as  above,  with  several  kinds  at  once 
and  together.  It  may  be  varied  by  the  addition  of  a  dust 
of  cayenne,  a  large  teaspoonful  of  essence  of  shrimps  or 
anchovy,  and  a  tablespoon ful  of  finely-chopped  parsley, 
thrown  in  when  the  soup  boils.  Our  native  shell-fish 
may  also  be  treated  in  the  way  the  Americans  dress  their 
clams. 

Cla7n  Soup  {Mrs.  E.  F.  Haskell). — Wash  clean  as  many 
clams  as  are  needed  for  the  family  ;  put  them  in  just 
boiling  water  enough  to  prevent  their  burning.  The  water 
must  be  boihng  hard  when  the  clams  are  put  in  the  kettle. 
In  a  short  time  the  shells  will  open,  and  the  liquor  in 
them  run  out.  Take  the  clams  from  their  shells  and  chop 
them  very  fine.  Strain  the  liquor  in  which  they  were 
boiled  through  a  thin  cloth,  and  stir  into  it  the  chopped 
clams.  Season  with  pepper  ;  add  salt,  if  needed.  Thicken 
the  soup  with  butter  rolled  thin  in  flour  ;  let  it  boil  fifteen 
minutes.     Toast  bread  and  cut  it  in  small  squares,  lay  it 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


261 


in  the  tureen,  and  pour  over  the  soup.  If  the  family  like 
onions,  they  can  be  added  ;  if  celery,  it  can  be  varied  by 
the  addition  of  a  little  celery  cut  fine.  Another  change 
can  be  made  by  adding  the  yolks  of  well-beaten  eggs 
stirred  slowly  into  it,  or  rich  cream  can  be  added.  Persons 
living  on  the  sea-shore  can  make  several  dishes  thus 
varied  with  little  expense. 

Eel  Soup. — Select  for  this  middle-sized  eels,  not  thicker 
than  a  medium  joint  of  ox-tail,  nor  thinner  than  a  man's 
thumb.  Buy  them  alive ;  kill  by  stunning  them  on  the 
head.  Skin,  empty,  and  cut  them  into  two-inch  lengths, 
which  throw  into  salt  and  water  to  purify  and  whiten  for 
an  hour  or  so. 


MARKETING. 


Before  going  to  market  it  is  a  very  good  rule  to  deter- 
mine what  shall  be  purchased  and  in  what  quantity.  This 
is  especially  needful  when  the  butcher  is 
to  be  visited.  Another  rule  is  to  deal  at 
shops  where  good  articles  only  are  sold, 
and  if  possible  to  take  your  money  with 
you,  because  a  ready-money  customer 
will,  as  a  rule,  be  the  best  served.  It 
is  not  always  safe  to  let  the  butcher, 
poulterer,  fishmonger,  or  other  provision 
dealer  choose  for  you,  because  he  may 
be  over  anxious  to  sell  what  is  not  in  the 
best  condition,  or  what  is  for  some  other 
cause  hardly  saleable.  Experienced  per- 
sons will  not  fail  to  observe  carefully 
the  quality  of  what  they  buy,  and 
they  will  reflect  upon  the  quantity 
of  bone,  gristle,  or  other  waste 
in  it.  They  will  also  consider  the 
requirements  of  the  family,  and 
the  uses  to  which  they  can  put 
what  is  not  consumed  as  soon 
as  cooked.  At  the  butcher's  see 
the  meat  cut  and  weighed,  and 
placed  ready  to  be  sent  home : 
you  will  then  know  what  you 
have  bought.  Always  buy  good 
meat  rather  than  inferior,  and  if 
possible,  from  the  best  parts  of 
the  animal.  To  aid  the  in- 
experienced, we  will  now  enter  somewhat  into  detail. 
"We  commence  with  Beef^  Fig.  2,  the  principal  joints  of 
which  are  as  follow : — 


Fore  Quarter. 

Hind  Quarter. 

I. 

Cheek. 

ID. 

Sirloin. 

2. 

Neck,  or  sticking-piece. 

II. 

Thin  flank. 

3- 

Clod. 

12. 

Rump. 

4- 

Shin. 

n- 

Aitchbone. 

S- 

Shoulder,  or  leg  of  mut- 

14. 

Round,  or  buttock 

ton  piece. 

IS- 

Mouse-buttock. 

6. 

Chuck  ribs. 

16. 

Veiny  piece. 

7- 

Middle  ribs. 

17- 

Thick  flank. 

8. 

Fore  ribs. 

18. 

Leg. 

9. 

Brisket. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  the  kidneys,  heart,  tripe, 
heels,  sweetbreads,  tongue,  and  palate. 

Quality  of  Beef. — Young  and  well-fed  ox  beef  is  the 
best.  It  may  be  known  by  the  lean  being  of  a  fine, 
smooth,  or  open  grain,  and  the  fat  of  a  yellowish  white. 
When  the  fat  is  either  a  mottled  yellow  or  white,  the  meat 
is  doubtful.  The  suet,  however,  must  be  very  white. 
Cow  beef  is  inferior,  its  fat  is  whiter,  the  lean  closer  in 
the  grain  and  not  of  so  bright  a  red.  Bull  beef  has  white 
and  skinny  fat,  closer-grained  lean  of  a  dark  red,  and  a 
stronger  smell  than  other  beef  Good  beef  is  more  elastic 
to  the  touch  than  that  which  is  old  or  in  bad  condition,  so 


that  when  pressed  with  the  finger  the  impression  will  not 
be  permanent.  In  poor  meat,  the  lean  is  usually  dark, 
the  fat  skinny,  and  the  sinewy  portions  distinctly  shown, 
especially  a  homy  texture  in  the  ribs.  Beef  should  be 
perfectly  sound,  sweet,  and  fresh,  as  taint  rapidly  spreads, 
and  if  frosted  it  will  not  cook  properly.  It  is,  perhaps, 
scarcely  needful  to  say,  that  several  of  the  joints  which 
are  enumerated  above,  are  readily  and  commonly  divided 
by  the  butcher,  and  sold  in  portions  for  the  convenience 
of  small  families  and  slender  purses.  If  at  any  time  more 
is  bought  than  is  wanted  for  present  use,  care  should  be 
taken  to  let  it  be  from  such  parts  as  may  be  cut  into  two, 
the  one  for  roasting  and  the  other  for  salting  and  boiHng ; 
or  let  it  be  such  as  may  be  easily  warmed  afresh,  or  other- 
wise presented  hot  again  at  table,  which  will  be  the  case 
with  such  parts  as  are  stewed,  and  such  cheap  portions  as 
the  heart.  A  cold  roasted  ox-heart  cut  into  slices  and 
warmed  in  gravy,  is  as  good  as  when  first  cooked. 

Qualities  of  Veal. — If  the  head  is  fresh, 
the  eyes  will  be  plump  and  full  ;  but  if 
stale,  they  will  be  sunk  and  wrinkled. 
In  fresh  meat,  the  vein  of  the  shoulder  is 
of  a  bright  and  clear  red.  Green  or 
yellow  spots  prove  the  meat  to  be  bad. 
A  good  neck  and  breast  will  be  white 
and  dry,  and  not  at  all  clammy  or  soft. 
In  a  loin,  the  kidney  is  the  part  which 
taints  the  soonest.  Generally,  good  veal 
is  of  a  bright  colour,  and  firm,  and  neither 
flabby  nor  of  a  sickly  smell.  The  meat 
of  a  cow  calf  is  not  considered  the  best. 
All  veal  should  be  cooked  when 
quite  fresh,  as  it  rapidly  de- 
teriorates ;  nor  will  it  keep  long 
even  after  it  is  cooked.  It  must, 
therefore,  be  not  only  purchased 
fresh,  but  in  such  quantities  as 
will  be  soon  consumed.  Until 
recently  the  whiteness  of  veal  was 
enhanced  by  the  mode  of  killing, 
which  drew  all  the  blood  from  the 
anirhal.  This  mode  has,  how- 
ever, been  prohibited  by  law,  and 
consequently  veal  is  not  so  white 
as  it  was  formerly  expected  to 
be ;  but  has  a  very  slight  rosy 
tinge  in  the  lean,  even  when  of  the  finest  quality.  The 
following  are  the  joints  into  which  Veal,  Fig.  i,  is  usually 
divided :  — 

1.  Loin,  chump  end, 

2.  ,,       best  end. 

3.  Neck,  best  end. 

4.  ,,       scrag  end. 

5.  Fillet. 

6.  Hind  knuckle. 

Besides  the  above  there  are  the  kidneys,  liver,  heart,  feet, 
and  sweetbread. 


7.  Fore  knuckle 

8.  Breast,  brisket  end, 

9.  ,,        best  end. 

10.  Blade-bone. 

11.  Head. 


HOUSEHOLD     AMUSEMENTS.— VI  XL 

CARD  GAMES. 
Playing  with  cards  is  in  many  households  interdicted,  as 
it  is  thought  to  lead  to  gambling,  while  in  many  others  it  is 
countenanced  as  an  innocent  amusement,  greatly  promoting- 
sociality. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  that  playing  for 
money  is  by  no  means  a  necessary  adjunct  to  such  pas- 
times :  if  it  were,  they  would  find  no  mention  in  these 
pages,  for  we  hold  gambling  in  any  of  its  shapes  in  as 
much  abhorrence  as  any  of  our  readers.  But  there  are 
many  card  games  which  possess  quite  sufficient  merit  in 
themselves  to  afford  interest  ajyl  rccreaticw,  without  the. 


262 


HOUSEHOLD   AMUSEMENTS. 


introduction  of  such  an  objectionable  element  in  the  family 
circle,  and  many  persons  who  play — at  whist,  for  instance 
— would  no  more  think  of  staking  money  on  the  game 
than  they  would  do  so  if  sitting  down  to  chess. 

As  it  is  our  endeavour  to  consult  the  wishes  and  the 
tastes  of  all  readers  of  the  HOUSEHOLD  Guide,  we  have 
determined  to  give  a  few  papers  on  card  games  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  would  wish  to  know  something  of 
such  amusements,  or  to  have  some  guide  to  the  established 
laws  to  be  observed  in  playing.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to 
go  deeply  into  these  games,  or  to  aim  at  making  anyone  a 
scientific  player ;  but  simply  to  impart  such  general  know- 
ledge on  the  subject  as  may  in  some  cases  open  up  a  new 
field  of  harmless  recreation,  and  in  others  enable  unprac- 
tised persons  to  acquit  themselves  with  sufficient  dexterity 
if  disposed  to  take  a  part  when  in  company  where  cards 
are  introduced. 

Cards  are  of  very  great  antiquity,  and,  like  chess,  were 
invented  in  the  East,  but  when,  or  in  what  country,  is 
unknown.  They  are  sometimes  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  Europe  in  the  fourteenth  century,  for  the 
diversion  of  Charles  VI.  of  France ;  but  they  are  now 
proved  to  have  been  known  before  his  time.  Their  use 
was  almost  universal  in  England  two  centuries  ago,  and 
the  good  old  knight.  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,  is  represented 
in  the  Spectator  as  having  made  it  his  practice,  every 
Christmas,  to  send  a  string  of  hogs'  puddings  and  a  pack 
of  cards  to  every  poor  family  in  his  parish. 

Most  of  our  readers  know  the  nature  of  a  modern  pack 
of  cards.  The  number  of  the  cards  is  fifty-two,  divided 
into  four  sjiits,  thirteen  cards  in  each.  These  suits  are 
called  respectively  hearts,  diamonds,  spades,  and  clubs ; 
the  two  former  being  printed  with  red,  and  the  latter  with 
black  ink.  Ten  of  the  cards  in  each  suit  have  on  them 
figures,  from  one  to  ten  successively,  of  a  heart  or  a 
diamond,  &c. ;  and  these  cards,  with  the  exception  of  that 
which  bears  a  single  figure,  are  known  as  the  two, 
the  three,  or  the  four,  and  so  on,  of  that  suit.  The  card 
on  which  only  one  heart,  &c.,  is  imprinted  is  known 
as  the  ace  of  the  suit,  and  in  most  games  of  cards  is  the 
most  valuable  of  the  thirteen,  having  the  power  to  take 
any.of  the  rest.  Three  other  cards  in  each  suit  are  known 
as  king^  queejt,  and  kfiave,  and  bear  quaint  heraldic 
figures  answering  to  these  names  respectively.  The 
queens  are  easily  distinguislied  from  the  other  figures,  but 
the  novice  requires  to  have  it  pointed  out  that  the  kings 
may  be  known  from  the  knaves  by  a  crown  on  the  head, 
the  latter  wearing  only  a  plain  red  cap. 

THE  GAME  OF.  WHIST. 

Of  all  card  games  Whist  is  acknowledged  to  be  by  far 
the  best.  As  a  combination  of  chance  with  skill,  and 
therefore  affording  the  interest  found  in  games  of  both 
descriptions,  whist  has  no  competitor  in  the  whole  round 
of  amusements  of  this  nature.  The  most  unskilful  person 
who  knows  the  game  at  all,  may  by  ordinary  good  fortune 
be  placed  on  a  par  with  a  very  experienced  player,  and  it 
has  been  computed  by  one  authority  that  the  difference 
between  two  of  the  best  and  two  of  the  worst  players  is 
practically  no  more  than  five  per  cent,  in  favour  of  the 
former.  To  this  comparative  equalisation  of  the  chances 
of  success  the  popularity  of  the  game  is  no  doubt  largely 
due. 

Whist  is  said  to  receive  its  name  from  an  interjection 
commanding  silence,  which  is  particularly  enjoined  by  the 
laws  of  the  game  ;  but  this  appears  doubtful,  as  "  whisk  " 
is  one  of  its  oldest  titles,  and  from  this  "  whist "  may 
easily  have  come. 

We  shall  now  give  an  account  of  the  principles  of  the 
game,  and  afterwards  of  the  laws  by  which  it  is  regulated. 

The  usual  and  perfect  game  of  whist  is  played  by  four 
persons,  divided  into  two  opposing  sides.  The  partners 
on  each  side  are  generally  determined   by  each  person 


drawing  or  "  cutting  "  a  card  from  the  pack — the  drawers 
of  the  two  highest  and  the  two  lowest  cards  playing 
together,  and  the  person  who  picks  the  lowest  of  all  being 
entitled  to  deal  the  cards  for  the  first  time.  In  cutting, 
the  ace  always  counts  as  the  lowest  card  in  the  pack. 

In  taking  position  round  the  table  the  partners  sit 
facing  each  other,  each  player  being  between  his  two 
opponents.  The  cards  are  taken  by  the  dealer,  backs 
uppermost,  and  handed  to  the  player  sitting  next  him  on 
the  left,  to  shuffle;  that  is,  keeping  their  backs  towards 
him,  to  mix  them  up  promiscuously.  They  are  then  again 
placed  on  the  table,  and  the  player  on  the  dealer's  right 
cuts  them,  by  lifting  off  a  part  of  the  pack  and  laying  it 
down,  when  the  dealer  picks  up  those  cards  which  were  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pack  before  cutting,  places  them  on  the 
top  of  the  others,  and  commences  to  deal. 

Each  player  has  a  right  to  shuffle  the  cards  before  the 
deal,  if  he  pleases  to  do  so  ;  but  in  practice  it  is  usual, 
as  we  have  said,  for  the  eldest  hand,  or  player  to  the  left 
of  the  dealer,  to  perform  the  operation.  The  dealer  may 
always  shuffle  the  cards  again  before  they  are  cut,  if  he 
thinks  proper. 

The  cards  are  dealt  by  placing  one  face  downwards 
before  each  of  the  players  successively,  commencing  on 
the  left  hand,  until  the  pack  is  exhausted.  The  last  card 
will  come  to  the  dealer  unless  there  is  a  misdeal,  which 
will  be  treated  of  when  we  come  to  the  laws  of  the  game. 
This  card  is  turned  face  upward  on  the  table  for  all 
the  players  to  see,  and  is  known  as  the  trump  card.  It 
determines  the  suit  which  is  to  be  of  the  greatest  value 
during  that  hand  ;  if  a  spade,  for  instance,  is  turned  up, 
spades  are  trumps,  and  can  take  a  card  of  any  other  suit  on 
the  table.  The  word  "  trump  "  is  supposed  to  be  a  corrup- 
tion of  "  triumph."  The  trump  suit  is,  or  may  be,  changed 
at  every  deal,  according  to  the  card  which  happens  to 
remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  pack. 

When  the  deal  is  complete,  but  not  before,  each  of  the 
players  takes  up  his  cards,  and,  holding  them  in  his 
hand  with  the  backs  towards  the  other  players,  inspects 
the  assortment  which  has  fallen  to  him.  The  best  plan, 
for  a  learner  at  least,  is,  before  playing,  to  arrange  the 
cards  according  to  the  suits  and  their  value,  so  that  he 
may  see  at  one  glance  what  he  has  in  his  hand,  and  find 
any  card  without  hesitation.  Then,  spreading  the  cards 
out  something  like  a  fan,  he  is  ready  to  follow  the  play. 

The  play  commences  by  the  eldest  hand  laying  down 
a  card  face  uppermost ;  the  player  next  him  lays  down 
another,  then  the  third  person  in  order,  the  dealer  last. 
The  card  highest  in  value  among  the  four  takes  them  all, 
and  the  four  collectively  are  called  a  trick.  The  value  of 
the  cards  is  according  to  the  number  of  the  "  pips "  or 
figures  printed  upon  them,  from  the  deuce,  or  two,  which 
is  the  lowest  of  a  suit,  up  to  the  ten  ;  the  next  best  is  the 
knave,  then  the  queen,  then  the  king,  the  ace  being 
highest  of  all.  The  trick  is  gathered  up  by  the  person 
who  takes  it,  or  by  his  partner,  and  placed  face  down- 
wards on  the  table,  where  it  remains  until  the  counting 
takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  hand. 

Whatever  suit  may  be  led  by  the  first  player,  the  others 
are  bound  to  play  a  card  of  the  same  suit,  if  they  have 
one.  If  not,  they  may  play  anything  they  please  ;  if  a 
trump,  it  takes  the  trick,  unless  a  higher  one  is  played 
by  another  person.  But  if  a  player  omits  or  refuses  to 
follow  suit  when  he  is  able  to  do  so,  his  side  incurs  the 
penalty  for  a  revoke,  and  loses  three  tricks,  under  the  laws 
to  be  given  hereafter. 

No  matter  how  high  the  cards  may  be  of  any  ordinary 
suit,  the  lowest  trump  card  has  the  power  to  take  them 
all.  And  if  a  person  cannot  follow  suit,  whatever  card  he 
may  play  is  taken,  unless  it  be  a  trump.  The  ace  of 
trumps  is  necessarily  the  highest  card  in  the  pack. 

Whoever  wins  a  trick  becomes  first  player  for  the  next, 
the  others  following  from  left  to  right  in  order;  so  the 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


263 


play  continues  until  all  the  cards  are  played,  when  the 
nuHiber  of  tricks  gained  by  each  side  is  counted.  All 
made  beyond  six  are  scored  towards  the  game — thus,  if 
one  party  has  made  seven  tricks  during  that  hand,  they 
count  one  towards  game,  but  the  side  which  has  taken 
the  other  six  count  nothing. 

The  game  consists  of  ten  points,  made  either  by  tricks 
or  honours.  Honours  are  the  four  highest  trumps — the 
ace,  king,  queen,  and  knave.  ICach  of  these  counts  one 
to  the  side  which  gets  it  in  the  deal ;  but  in  practice  the 
players  do  not  score  any  for  honours  unless  two  partners 
possess  either  three  or  four  between  them.  Thus,  supposing 
each  side  to  hold  two  honours,  neither  adds  anything  to 
the  score,  because  "honours  arc  divided,"  and  neutralise 
each  other.  Three  honours,  by  the  same  rule,  count  only 
two  towards  game,  the  one  held  by  the  opponents  being 
deducted.  But  if  one  side  holds  all  the  honours,  it  is 
allowed  to  score  four  for  them,  the  value  towards  game 
being  precisely  the  same  as  if  four  tricks  had  been  made. 
In  counting,  however,  tricks  take  precedence  of  honours  ; 
so  that  if  each  side  stands  at  eight,  and  one  is  entitled  to 
score  two  by  tricks,  while  the  other  side  has  Avon  two  by 
honours,  the  former,  having  the  privilege  of  counting 
first,  make  up  their  ten,  and  so  win  the  game. 

When  either  side  has  scored  nine  towards  game,  it  is 
not  allowed  to  count  honours.  When  the  score  of  either 
party  stands  at  eight,  one  of  the  partners,  holding  two 
honours  in  his  hand  after  a  fresh  deal,  may  ask  the 
other,  "  Have  youa-n  honour?"  or  "  Can  you  one  ?"  and 
if  the  reply  is  "  Yes,"  the  three  honours  are  exhibited,  and 
that  side  is  allowed  to  count  out  at  once.  But  after  the 
first  trick  has  been  played  the  question  cannot  be  asked. 
The  other  side,  if  they  can  make  sufficient  tricks,  will 
consequently  win  the  game  in  spite  of  their  opponents' 
honours. 

The  dealer  leaves  the  trump,  or  turn-up  card,  face 
uppermost  on  the  table  until  the  first  trick  is  played  to, 
so  as  to  give  every  one  full  opportunity  of  knowing  what 
is  the  trump  suit.  He  then  withdraws  it  to  his  own  hand. 
The  dealer  thus  has  the  advantage  of  always  holding  one 
trump  at  least,  besides  the  chance  that  this  one  may  be 
an  honour. 

It  is  usual  at  whist  to  play,  not  single  games  only,  but 
rubbers  of  three  games,  the  conquerors  in  two  out  of  the 
three  winning,  as  it  is  called,  "  the  rub."  The  game  of 
ten  points  is  known  as  long  whist,  and  is  that  usually 
played  where  amusement  and  recreation  are  the  objects. 
Short  whist  is  an  invention  of  modern  days,  and  consists 
of  five  points  only.  A  rubber  is  consequently  much 
sooner  over  than  when  the  long  game  is  played,  which 
is  a  recommendation  to  some  persons,  but  a  disadvantage 
in  the  minds  of  others. 

Honours  count  the  same  at  short  as  at  long  whist,  but 
they  cannot  be  scored  when  the  players  have  reached 
/our  points. 

The  game  of  whist  should  be  played  in  silence.  Any 
remarks  by  a  player  as  to  the  nature  of  the  cards  which 
have  fallen  to  him,  &c.,  are  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the 
game,  and,  although  not  forbidden  expressly  by  its  laws, 
are  considered  irregular  and  objectionable,  where  the 
game  is  played  with  strictness. 

The  following  are  recognised  as  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
At  any  time,  while  a  hand  is  being  played,  the  question 
may  be  asked,  "  What  arc  trumps  ?"  And  when  a  player, 
either  through  momentary  inattention,  or  through  the 
rest  having  followed  each  other  very  quickly  in  their  pla)', 
is  in  doubt  as  to  what  card  was  played  by  his  partner,  he 
may  say,  before  playing,  "  Draw  your  card,  partner," 
which  the  latter  does  by  placing  his  hand  upon  it. 
Further,  any  one  before  a  trick  is  lifted— /.t'.,  taken  up 
and  turned  upon  the  table — may  demand  that  the  cards 
shall  be  "  placed,"  each  before  the  person  who  played  it. 
And,  lastly,  any  one  may  demand  to  see  the  last  trick 


played — that  is,  to  have  the  cards  comprising  it  shown  to 
him ;  but  he  is  not  then  entitled  to  inquire  who  played  them. 

Lookers-on  at  the  game  are  not  allowed  to  make  any 
remarks  ;  but  they  may  be  appealed  to  as  referees  to 
decide  a  doubtful  question,  as  to  who  played  a  particular 
card,  what  is  the  law  of  the  game  upon  a  certain  point, 
and  similar  matters. 

In  our  next  paper  we  shall  give  the  laws  usually  recog- 
nised, together  with  some  general  rules  and  advice  for 
the  guidance  of  young  players. 


ODDS   AND    ENDS. 


Baking  Powders. — i.  Take  four  ounces  of  corn-flour  and 
dry  it  well  before  the  fire,  or  in  the  oven.  Mix  with  it 
two  ounces  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  ;  add  one  ounce  and 
a  -quarter  of  tartaric  acid.  Well  mix  the  whole  by  passing 
it  through  a  coarse  sieve. 

2.  Take  four  ounces  of  tartaric  acid,  four  ounces  and  a 
half  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  five  ounces  of  rice-flour  or 
arrow-root,  let  them  all  be  well  dried  before  used,  and  mix 
as  before. 

3.  Take  two  ounces  of  tartaric  acid,  three  ounces  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  three  ounces  of  potato-flour  or 
arrow-root,  dry  them  separately,  and  mix  as  before. 

4.  Take  five  ounces  of  tartaric  acid,  eight  ounces  of  scs- 
quicarbonatc  of  soda,  and  sixteen  ounces  of  potato-flour, 
dry  them  separately,  and  mix  as  before. 

All  baking  powders  should  be  kept  in  wide-mouthed 
bottles  well  corked,  so  as  to  exclude  all  air  and  damp. 
They  are  used  for  making  bread,  buns,  and  cakes.  Half 
a  teaspoonful  added  to  a  pound  of  flour  in  making  pastry 
is  a  great  improvement,  and  will  render  a  less  quantity  of 
butter  or  lard  necessary.  When  bread  is  made,  the 
loaves  should  not  weigh  above  two  pounds  each,  and 
these  require  about  two  tcaspoonfuls  of  powder.  The 
powder  is  to  be  well  mixed  with  the  flour,  after  which 
cold  water  is  used  for  kneading,  and  the  dough  is  at  once 
placed  in  tins  and  put  in  the  oven.  Quick  work  is  most 
successful,  but  it  must  be  thorough. 

7<?  make  Altan-baskcts  and  other  Ornaments. — You 
first  form  the  basket,  vase,  tree,  grotto,  or  other  object, 
in  wire,  taking  due  care  to  leave  sufficient  room  for  the 
formation  of  the  crj'stals,  so  that  they  may  have  their 
due  effect.  Over  the  wire  twist  some  worsted  thread,  so 
that  it  is  completely  covered  in  every  part.  If,  in  a  grotto 
or  other  similar  object,  fantastic  forms  are  desired,  pieces 
of  coke  may  be  fastened  to  the  wire  and  covered  in  the 
same  way.  This  done,  dissolve  one  pound  of  alum  in  a 
quart  of  water  by  boiling  in  a  tin  vessel,  not  too  fast  ;  half 
a  pound  in  a  pint,  or  a  quarter  of  a  pound  in  a  half-pint  of 
water,  preserving  the  same  proportions  whatever  the  quan- 
tities employed  may  be.  Keep  stirring  the  solution  with  a 
piece  of  wood  until  the  process  is  complete.  Remove 
the  liquid  from  the  fire,  and,  placing  a  piece  of  wood 
across  the  top  of  a  deep,  glazed,  earthen  jar,  suspend 
the  wire  basket,  or  other  article  in  it,  from  the  stick  with 
a  piece  of  stout  thsead.  When  the  alum  solution  is  about 
the  warmth  of  new  milk,  pour  it  into  the  jar,  and  leave 
your  subject  or  subjects  suspended  in  it  about  four-and- 
twenty  hours  ;  after  which  remove  the  same  to  dry  in 
the  shade.  To  obtain  coloured  cr)-stals  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  put  some  dyeing  material  into  the  alum  solution — 
turmeric  gives  the  transparent  yellow  crj-stals,  logAyood 
purple,  &c. 

Stuffing  lifattresses. — In  the  North  of  England  the 
cottagers  use  chaff  to  stuff  their  mattresses,  and  a  very 
clean,  wholesome  stuffing  it  makes,  as  once  every  year 
the  old  chaff  is  taken  out  and  fresh  put  in.  In  Wales  we 
have  seen  well-dried  moss  used  for  the  same  purpose  ; 
while  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  the  people  stuff  their 
beds  with  dried  birch-leaves. 


264 


HOUSEHOLD    DECORATIVE    ART. 


HOUSEHOLD     DECORATIVE    ART. 

VI. — PAPER  FLOWER  MAKING  {continued). 

Making  the  Stamens  and  Pistils. — Our  next  instructions 
will  be  how  to  make  the  hearts,  as  they  arc  commonly- 
called,  but  which  are  known  botanically  as  stamens 
and  pistils.  It  is  by  far  the  best  plan,  and  the  usual 
one,  to  purchase  these,  for  the 
making  of  them  is  in  itself  a  busi- 
ness. It  is  usual  also  to  buy  the 
calyxes.  Persons  may  fancy  that 
when  all  these  portions  are  pur- 
chased, the  art  of  flower  making 
becomes  simply  mechanical.  This 
it  is  not :  a  good  deal  of  patience, 
nice  manipulation,  and  taste,  are 
needed  to  produce  flowers  worthy 
of  admiration.  However,  for  those 
who  desire  to  do  so,  we  give  in- 
structions which  will  en- 
able them  to  construct 
these  portions  of  the 
flowers  at  home. 

Very  fine  wire  is  used 
for  the  main  stem  of  the 
stamen,  otherwise,  when 
it  comes  to  be  added  to 
the  flower-stalk,  the  re- 
sult would  be  too  bulky. 
Exceedingly    fine    wire, 
bristles,  or  a  fine  strong 
glact^     thread,     can    be 
used  for  the  fine  thread- 
like   stamens  ;    in  fact, 
many  people  prefer  cot- 
ton to  any  other  mate- 
rial for  this  purpose.     If 
wire    or  fine    bristle    is 
used,  it  must  be  dipped 
in  whiting  mixed  toa  thin 
paste,  with  a  very  little 
gum  in  it.      When  dry, 
dip  the   tips  in  the  ce- 
ment, to  make  knobs  at 
the  end.    When 
these  are  nearly, 
but  not  quite  dry, 
dip  them  into  a 
pill  -  box     filled 
with  bright  yel- 
low paint    pow- 
der   which    can 
be  bought  at  any 
oil  -  shop   for  a 
penny    or    two- 
pence.      Bright 
green  (emerald), 
rich  brown,  and 
orange       paint, 
will     also     be 
needed.  A  small 

quantity  of  powder  carmine,  and  powder  cobalt  will  be 
wanted  for  the  flowers,  and  in  moist  paints,  carmine, 
Prussian  blue,  cobalt,  and  a  small  piece  of  gamboge. 

Having  prepared  the  thread-like  stamens  as  described, 
take  the  wire  meant  for  their  support,  and  dip  the  top  into 
*he  cement,  repeating  the  process  till  you  have  a  knob  at 
the  top  (like  that  shown  in  Fig.  17).  Cut  one  of  your 
stamens  in  half  and  insert  it  at  the  top  whilst  the 
cement  is  wet.  Also,  before  it  is  dry,  coat  it  evenly 
all  over  Avith  the  emerald  green  powder,  which  is  put 
on  with  a  dry  brush.  You  must  use  a  separate  brush 
for  each  colour.     A  quicker  mode  of  making  the  pistil, 


is  by  putting  a  little  cotton  wool  on  the  stem,  by  means 
of  cement,  shaping  it  properly,  and  then  dipping  it  into 
the  cement.  Tie  six  more  of  the  stamens  to  the  pistil, 
with  green  silk.  This  completes  the  centre  (Fig.  17)  for 
azaleas. 

Fig.  14  is  the  pistil  for  a  carnation.  It  is  made  with  a 
knob  of  cement  like  the  last,  the  long  centre  is  a  single 
strand  of  white  ostrich  feather. 
Fig.  7  is  a  geranium  centre,  the 
stamens  made  like  the  azalea  sta- 
mens, only  longer,  and  seven  in 
number.  The  pistil  consists  of 
three  filaments  joined  together  in 
one,  with  gum  ;  but  having  them 
separate  just  at  the  top.  They  are 
not  tipped  with  any  pollen,  as  the 
coloured  dust  is  called. 
Fig.  3.  Fig.  1 1  is  for  rhododendrons.  The 

stamens,  nine  in  number,  like  the 
azalea      stamens,      but 
"jP'^'V-.  much  longer  and  tipped 

/j  n_  with  yellow.     The  pistil 

'  is  of  thick  wire,  neatly 

wrapped  round  with  yel- 
low paper,  as  stalks  are 
wrapped.  Dip  the  tip  in 
strong  gum,  and  whilst 
wet,  into  the  brown 
powder. 

Fig.  I  is  a  rose  centre. 
On  the  fine  wire  used  for 
the  basis  of  the  centre, 
tie  a  few  loops  of  pea- 
green  Berlin  wool  or 
thick  filoselle.  Then  cut 
them  close  down,  so 
that  they  look  like  a  little 
close  tuft  of  velvet  pile. 
Make  twenty  -  six  sta- 
mens like  the  azalea 
centres,  but  much 
shorter,  and  tip  them 
with  yellow. 

Fig.  1 5  is  a  heartsease 
centre.  Take 
wire  like  that 
you  have  used 
to  form  the 
centres  on.  Coat 
it  with  whiting, 
as  already  de- 
scribed. Make  a 
knob  of  cement 
nearly  at  the  tip, 
and  colour  it 
orange  by  dip- 
ping it  in  the 
powder.  The 
orange  is  to  be 
almost  a  scarlet. 
In  the  figure  we 
have  shown  a  knob  at  each  end  of  the  wire  ;  each  of  ti  ese 
is  for  a  separate  heart. 

Fig.  8  is  a  China-aster  heart.  Take  a  common  linen 
button,  cover  it  with  net  so  as  to  fasten  it  flat  to  a  wire 
crooked  at  the  top.  Raise  it  to  the  required  height  with 
cement,  and  before  the  last  coat  is  dry,  put  closely  all  over 
it  a  number  of  yellow  seed  beads.  When  dry,  dip  it  in  gum, 
and  then  tip  it  with  yeUow  powder.  The  daisy  centre  is 
made  in  a  similar  way,  with  a  smaller  round  of  cardboard 
and  not  raised,  but  the  beads  just  gummed  on  and  dipped 
in  yellow  powder.  Fig.  10.  A  daisy  may  also  be  made 
with  a  centre  of  yellow  wool  like  the  rose  centre.  Fig.  3. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


!65 


Fig.  5  is  a  lily  centre.  The  pistil  is  formed  of  white 
wax,  painted  green  with  a  knob  at  the  top,  marked  with 
carmine  spots.  The  stamens  are  of  wire  dipped  in  wax, 
or  covered  with  tissue  paper,  white,  finest  at  the  tip,  and 
large  anthers  of  wax,  coloured  brown,  upon  them. 

Calyxes. — Gum  together  three  thicknesses  of  dark  green 
tissue-paper,  and  let  them  dry  before  cutting  the  calyxes. 
Afterwards  glaze  them  with  gum.     It  would  be  endless 
to  give  patterns  of  the  different 
forms    of    calyxes,    the    artist 
must  go  to  Nature  for  patterns. 
We  give  three,  in   Figs.  2,  6, 
and  9.     They  should  be  traced 
in  tissue  and  then  cut  in  card. 
Lay    the    card    on   the   green 
paper  and  pencil  the  outline. 

The  Azalea  and  the  Rho- 
dodendron.— 
Fig.  12  repre- 
sents the  aza- 
lea. Cut  the 
blossoms  in 
white  paper, the 
dark  marks  at 
the  tips  are 
made  by  tint- 
ing them  with 
a  little  of  the 
moist  carmine, 
diluted  to  a 
delicate  rose 
pink  and  laid 
on  with  a  clean 
camel's  -  hair 
brush.  Let  it 
be  quite  dry 
before  being 
crimped.  It  is 
laid  on  a 
cushion  and 
carefully  and 
deeply  veined 
in  the  manner 
shown  in  the  illustration. 
Then  touching  it  with 
cement  from  A  to  B, 
unite  it.  Tie  with  silk  or 
wire  a  heart  to  a  stem. 
Then  slip  it  through  the 
azalea,  having  fi»st  touched 
the  lower  part  of  the  heart 
all  round  with  cement.  The 
azalea  needs  no  calyx.  Take 
a  very  little  wadding,  and 
put  it  round  the  stem  where 
the  flower  joins,  drawing  it 
down  :  then  cover  the  stem 
with  paper.  A  little  wadding 
is  used  in  this  way  to  all 
flowers,  to  give  the  stem  the 
thickness  observable  to- 
wards the  blossom.  The  merest  atom  is  needed  for  such 
flowers  as  azaleas,  not  much  more  for  roses.  About  three 
azaleas  form  a  group.  Other  azaleas  may  have  a  margin  all 
round  the  edge  of  deep  rose,  and  others  may  be  cut  from 
pink  or  rose-coloured  paper,  and  just  tipped  or  touched 
round  a  little  darker.  Rhododendrons  are  made  exactly 
the  same,  but  coloured  with  a  broad  margin  of  mauve 
round  every  petal ;  the  extreme  edges  touched  again 
when  the  first  tint  is  dry,  to  make  them  darker.  Mix 
on  a  clean  plate,  carmine  and  cobalt  for  this  ;  dilute 
it  with  water,  but  do  not  use  it  very  wet  to  the  flower, 
nor   yet    dry    enough    to  look  smeared.        It  must  be 


Fig.  14.     Fig.  15. 


Fig.  i6. 


washed  on  lightly  and  easily  with  one  stroke.  The 
rhododendron  centres  are  distinct,  and  the  blossoms  in 
groups  of  five  or  more,  of  equal  height,  forming  one  head. 
The  azaleas,  on  the  contrary,  grow  one  above  the  other 
and  fewer  in  a  spray. 

If  you  wish  to  place  a  single  spray  of  any  flower  in  a 

vase,  a  few  leaves  of  the  right  kind  must  be  set  on  the 

stem.     For  a  basket,  rose  and  camellia  leaves  are  enough. 

For  a  table  siiand,  rose-leaves, 

grass,  and  ferns. 

A   half -blown    Rosebud. — 
Half-blown  buds  are  very  effec- 
tive.     Make    them    in    white 
paper  slightly  tipped  with  pale 
pink,  or  in  pink  or  rose  paper, 
or   in   orange  paper   streaked 
with  red,  cutting  the  outsides 
of  the  darkest 
shades,    and 
the    darkest 
towards    the 
stalk.  To  make 
one     of    these 
deep       yellow 
buds,  use  four 
petals    of    the 
largest  size  but 
one  of  the  cab- 
bage rose,  cut 
in    the    palest 
tint       from 
shaded   paper. 
Goffer  them  in- 
wards.     Close 
two  over  a  bud 
centre,     and 
two  more  over 
that.  Then  cut 
eleven   of    the 
largest  -   sized 
petals,    a    still 
Fig.  i3.        darker    shade, 
and  another 
eleven  of  the  darkest  of  alL 
Goffer  and    cut   them  out- 
wards, and   let  the  darker 
shade  be  the  outer  one. 

A  bud  centre  is  made  by 
cutting  a  three  -  cornered 
piece  of  paper  the  shape  of 
the  rose.  Take  a  piece  of 
cotton  wool,  tie  it  to  a 
stalk,  and  cover  it  with 
the  paper  as  in  Fig.  13. 
Tie  it  down.  This  cone 
must  not  be  visible.  For 
an  ordinary  bud,  cut  three 
of  the  second  largest-sized 
petals  of  the  darkest  tint, 
goffer  them  inwards  and 
close  them  over  the  cone. 
Cut  three  more  of  the  largest  size,  goffer  them  and  curl 
them  outwards.  Place  these  round  the  bud  like  opening 
leaves. 

Carnation. — The  carnation  is  a  beautiful  flower,  and 
easy  to  make.  Cut  it  in  white  paper  like  Fig.  4,  and 
with  powder  carmine  and  a  little  weak  gum  water,  mixed 
together  well  on  a  plate,  colour  a  brilliant  red  the  dark 
band  with  streaky  edges.  When  quite  dr>-,  place  it  on  the 
cushion  and  vein  every  petal  from  A  to  B,  drawing  the 
pincers  down  in  deep  irregular  marks.  Six  of  these  circles 
are  used  for  ever>'  flower.  It  is  easiest  to  cut  them  out  plain 
first  and  vandyke  the  edges,  and  cut  the  irregular  marks 


Fig.  17. 


266 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR  PLEASURE. 


that  characterise  the  flower  afterwards.  To  make  them  up, 
cement  each  all  round  the  centre  as  far  as  where  the  petals 
divide.  Crumple  the  first  one  quite  close  up  all  round 
the  heart,  hiding  it  entirely,  and  squeezing  the  paper  as 
much  as  possible.  Make  the.  next  one  close,  and  each 
future  one  looser  and  looser.  Finish  with  the  calyx.  If 
you  make  your  own  calyx,  it  ought  to  be  formed  and  dry 
ready  for  use,  and  a  little  wool  secured  inside  by  cement. 
After  it  is  made,  gum  over  the  outside. 

Primrose  (Fig.  1 6).— This  is  made  with  three  rounds, 
either  of  pale  yellow  paper  over  the  Michaelmas  daisy 
heart,  the  first  paper  crumpled  well  up  to  conceal  all  the 
heart,  the  second  partly  closed  and  the  outer  one  flat. 
Or  it  may  be  of  mauve,  cut  in  white  paper  and  coloured 
at  the  edge  like  the  rhododendron,  or  tinted  pale  pink. 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR   PLEASURE. 

v.— THE  DOG  :  DISEASES  OF  DOGS. 
In  giving  a  few  general  outlines  of  the  symptoms  and 
treatment  of  the  ordinary  complaints  to  which  dogs  are 
liable,  we  may  make  one  introductory  remark.  If  you 
keep  a  dog  which  is  either  of  unusual  value  intrinsi- 
cally, or  is  much  prized  as  a  pet,  ascertain,  whilst  the 
animal  is  yet  iii  health,  the  whereabouts  of  the  very  best 
canine  physician  in  the  neighbourhood.  In  most  large 
towns  there  is  some  dog  practitioner  of  high  repute, 
and,  in  the  absence  of  such,  it  may  be  needful  to  consult 
a  veterinary  surgeon,  huntsman,  or  gamekeeper  ;  but 
these  latter  are  only  to  be  trusted  in  the  case  of  large, 
hardy  dogs,  such  as  they  are  chiefly  accustomed  to,  and 
the  former  are  very  often  totally  ignorant  of  the  dog's 
nature.  In  fact,  very  many  drugs  have  upon  the  dog 
an  entirely  different  action  from  that  they  exert  upon  man 
or  other  animals.  To  give  one  or  two  familiar  instances  : 
aloes  is  a  violent  purge  to  the  human  subject,  while  castor- 
oil  is  a  gentle  laxative  justly  valued  ;  to  the  dog,  on  the 
contrary,  castor-oil  is  a  most  violent  purgative,  while  aloes 
produce  little  or  no  effect  whatever.  Again,  salt  is  almost 
necessary  to  preserve  health  in  man  ;  but  with  the  dog 
small  quantities  cause  nausea  and  vomiting,  while  in 
larger  doses  the  condiment  deserves  to  be  called  a  poison. 
It  may  be  generally  stated  that  dog-practice,  during  the 
last  twenty  years,  has  undergone  a  radical  change,  much 
akin  to  that  in  the  higher  walks  of  medicine.  Tonic 
treatment  has  taken  the  place  of  depletic  medicine,  and 
much  greater  faith  is  placed  in  the  powers  of  nature, 
with  great  gain  to  all  concerned.  Foremost  in  this  bene- 
ficent and  mild  school  of  treatment  is  Mr.  Edward 
Mayhew  ;  and  wherever  we  have  given  actual  prescrip- 
tions in  this  and  the  following  paper,  we  have  followed 
the  proportions  laid  down  by  him. 

Diminutive  bitches  can  seldom  rear  more  than  two  pups, 
and  few  pet  dogs  more  than  three  ;  robust  animals  may  be 
able  to  suckle  all  their  litter.  If  more  valuable  pups  must 
be  reared  than  the  mother  can  nourish,  either  a  cat  or  a 
foster-bitch  of  some  common  breed  should  be  provided,  or 
fits  will  be  the  consequence.  Should  such  occur,  the  best 
treatment  will  be  an  enema  of  ether  and  laudanum  in 
gruel,  followed  by  a  spoonful  of  wine,  and  tonic  treatment, 
as  we  shall  describe  in  speaking  of  distemper,  when  con- 
sciousness is  restored  ;  the  mother  must  be  kept  away  at 
night,  but  may  be  allowed  to  suckle  her  pups  in  the  day, 
aft-er  they  have  been  -well  fed  with  cow's  milk  from  a  bottle 
such  as  is  used  for  children,  only  the  nipple  should  be 
made  with  the  old-fashioned  wash-leather,  pricked  with 
holes,  and  filled  with  a  bit  of  sponge  or  cotton  to  give  it 
substance.  To  rear  pups  by  hand  is  not  difficult,  but 
very  troublesome,  as  they  want  feeding  at  night.  They 
should  be  suckled  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  it  will 
only  be  needful  to  keep  the  teat  from  becoming  sour.  In 
less  than  a  month,  however,  they  may  be  taught  to  lap, 


when  they  should  get  a  little  meat  scraped  to  pulp,  and  a 
week  after  tasting  this  they  will  feed  themselves. 

It  often  happens  that  the  smallest  pup  is,  for  that  very 
reason,  the  most  valuable.  In  that  case  the  owner  will 
have  to  see  it  has  its  share,  or  in  the  general  scramble  at 
every  meal  it  will  get  crowded  out  and  starved.  If  no 
other  means  avail,  the  bitch  should  be  held  while  the  pup 
sucks  its  fair  allowance. 

As  they  grow  up  they  will  probably  have  to  pass 
through  the  dreaded  diste7nper,  which,  as  a  rule,  affects 
young  dogs,  though  it  is  a  mistake  to  say  it  is  universal, 
as  there  are  many  dogs  which  escape  it  altogether,  while 
others  only  suffer  late  in  life.  Still,  the  usual  period  is 
towards  the  end  of  dentition,  and  the  most  frequent 
seasons  of  the  year  are  spring  and  autumn.  At  these 
times  young  dogs  should  be  carefully  examined  occa- 
sionally for  symptoms.  And  as  it  is  always  found  that 
dogs  fed  upon  flesh,  highly  fed  in  any  way,  or  kept  in 
confinement,  suffer  far  more  than  those  fed  on  plain  and 
rather  spare  diet,  with  plenty  of  exercise,  common  sense 
will  dictate  the  treatment  best  suited  for  all  such  animals. 

The  earliest  symptoms  are  indefinite,  dulness  and  loss 
of  appetite  being  sometimes  all  that  can  be  remarked, 
while,  on  other  occasions,  the  appetite  may  be  voracious. 
In  most  cases,  however,  the  inner  edges  of  the  eyelids 
will  soon  be  observed  to  be  redder  than  usual,  while  the 
pulse  is  increased.  Still,  distemper  may  not  be  present, 
but  if  the  animal  speedily  begins  to  seek  the  fire,  and  is 
felt  to  shiver  with  cold,  the  case  is  nearly  certain.  When 
confirmed,  however,  the  white  round  the  eye  is  covered 
with  small  bright  red  veins,  tending  towards  the  centre, 
while  a  purulent  discharge  begins  to  appear,  and  also  a 
little  yellowish  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  while  the  nose 
remains  dry  and  hard.  A  bad  cough  often  sets  in,  and 
the  dog  frequently  vomits,  and  some  digestive  disorder  is 
always  apparent.  In  a  week  the  symptoms  often  subside, 
and  sometimes  disappear  altogether  ;  perhaps,  indeed, 
this  is  generally  the  case,  and  the  owner  is  apt  to  believe 
the  disease  has  run  its  course.  It  may,  indeed,  be  so,  for 
many  dogs  only  suffer  very  slightly.  If  such  be  the  case, 
the  dog  will  rapidly  make  flesh,  or  fatten,  and  recover 
condition,  while  the  eyes  look  healthy,  and  the  morbid 
symptoms  disappear ;  but  if  the  emaciation  continues, 
or  the  animal  makes  no  progress,  and  especially  if  the 
white  of  the  eye  presents  the  appearance  of  minnte  blood- 
vessels in  a  radial  direction,  the  disease  is  only  slum- 
bering, and  will  break  out  again  with  tenfold  force. 

In  aggravated  cases,  the  discharge  from  the  eyes  and 
nose  becomes  excessive,  completely  stopping  up  the  nos- 
trils, and  sometimes  ulcerating  the  eye  it«elf  One  of  the 
worst  signs  is  a  great  and  rapid  loss  of  flesh,  especially 
if  the  appetite  be  good.  A  filthy,  foetid  coat,  suddenly 
swarming  with  vermin,  is  also  a  very  unfavourable  sign, 
and  so  is  a  verj'  foul  and  coated  tongue,  dry  at  the  tip, 
with  a  marked  foulness  of  the  breath.  On  the  contrary,  an 
evident  amendment  in  the  eyes,  a  marked  improvement 
in  the  condition,  and  the  return  of  the  tongue  to  a  healthy 
state,  hold  out  every  reasonable  hope  of  recovery. 

The  first  thing  in  the  treatment  is  to  regulate  the  diet. 
Meat  must  be  taken  away,  and  the  generality  of  dogs  put 
upon  bread  and  milk — a  ship-biscuit  and  milk.  Weakly 
dogs  may  have  boiled  rice,  with  a  little  broth  free  from  fat ; 
and  as  they  will  frequently  refuse  this  at  first,  a  little  good 
underdone  meat  may  be  minced  fine  and  mixed  with  it, 
gradually  lessening  the  quantity  till  none  be  given,  for  all 
meat,  sweets,  and  delicacies  must  be  denied.  The  water 
must  be  often  changed.  The  dog  should  be  put  in  a  good 
sheltered  kennel,  but  in  the  opeji  airj  all  blankets  and 
such  pampering  beds  taken  away,  but  plenty  of  good  hay 
and  straw  allowed  instead.  This  is  needed,  because  the 
dog  will  burrow  in  it  when  the  shivering  fit  is  on  him  ; 
and  the  bed,  moreover,  must  be  shaken  and  cleansed 
every  day,  and  entirely  changed  every  two  days. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


267 


In  mild  cases,  when  the  first  symptoms  have  been 
marked,  and  consist  perhaps  of  only  a  redness  about. the 
eyes,  and  great  inclination  for  the  fire,  give  for  two  or 
three  days,  in  the  morning,  a  mild  emetic,  such  as  half  a 
tea-spoonful  to  a  dessert-spoonful  of  antimonial  wine. 
About  the  fourth  or  fifth  day,  give  a  gentle  purgative. 
From  one  to  four  tea-spoonfuls  of  the  following  mixture  is 
much  recommended,  and  if  mixed  with  a  little  sugar  or 
simple  syrup,  will  be  readily  taken  : — 

Castor  oil    ...         ...         ...         ...       4  drachms. 

Olive  oil      ...         ...         ...         ...       2  drachms. 

Oil  of  anise  ...         ^  drachm. 

Mix. 

Or  a  pill  may  be  compounded  of: — 

Extract  of  colocynth        ...'       ...     10  grains. 

Colchicum,  in  powder      ...         ...       6  grains. 

Blue  pill      5  grains. 

This  last  is  best,  and  is  for  a  small  dog.  Three  such 
pills,  or  one  three  times  the  quantity,  would  be  needed  for 
a  mastiff  or  Newfoundland.  At  the  same  time,  make  up 
the  following  pills,  choosing  from  the  quantities  named, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  dog  : — 

Extract  of  belladonna       ...       6  to  24  grains. 

Nitre  ...     20  to  80  grains. 

Extract  of  gentian  ...         ...       i  to     4  drachms. 

Powdered  quassia  ...         ...     quantum  sufficit. 

Make  the  above  into  twenty-four  pills,  and  administer 
three  daily.  Often  this  treatment  seems  to  cure.  If  so, 
the  belladonna  has  done  its  work,  and  the  following  tonic 
is  substituted  : — 

Di-sulphate  of  quinine      ...         r  to  4  scruples. 

Sulphate  of  iron     ...         ...         i  to  4  scruples. 

Extract  of  gentian 2  to  8  drachms. 

Powdered  quassia  ...         ...         quantum  sufhcit. 

This  is  for  twenty  pills,  three  to  be  given  daily,  with 
liqjtor  arsenicalis,  prepared  by  adding  ten  to  twenty 
drops  of  the  pharmaceutical  preparation  to  an  ounce  of 
water,  with  a  little  simple  syrup,  and  giving  a  tea- 
spoonful  thrice  daily. 

If  the  case  be  more  severe,  and  the  bowels  very  costive, 
no  laxatives  must  be  used,  but  an  enema  made  up  of  four 
drachms  sulphuric  ether,  and  a  scruple  of  laudanum,  added 
to  a  quart  of  cold  gruel,  (one-eighth  for  a  small  dog),  will 
greatly  relieve  the  animal  in  its  distress.  The  tonics  and 
diet  are  to  be  as  before.  Should  the  lungs  be  affected, 
the  diet  must  be  kept  spare,  giving  food  often,  but  very 
little,  and  discontinue  the  tonics  for — 

Extract  of  belladonna       ...         i  to  i  grain. 

Nitre         ' i  to  4  grains. 

James's  powder      ...         ...         J  to  i  grain. 

Conserve  of  roses quantum  sufficit 

In  making,  add  one  drop  of  tincture  of  aconite  to  every 
/our  pills,  and  give  one  pill  every  hour.  When  better, 
resume  the  tonics,  even  though  the  lungs  be  not  well. 


HINTS    TO   LETTER-WRITERS.— V. 

In  writing  to  a  member  of  Parliament  who  has  neither 
hereditary  rank  nor  honorary  degree,  a  letter  must  be 
addressed  as  to  "  Robinson  Jones,  Esq.,  M.P."  If  he  is  a 
baronet,  the  address  must  be,  "  Sir  Robinson  Jones, 
Bart.,  M.P."  If  he  is  a  knight,  it  will  be,  "  Sir  Robinson 
Jones,  Knt.,  M.P."  If  he  is  a  viscount,  or  lord,  he  is  ad- 
dressed in  accordance  with  the  rules  already  laid  down 
for  his  rank,  with  the  simple  addition  of  "  M.P." 

The  general  principle  for  addressing  persons  bearing 
academical  and  similar  honours  has  been  explained  in  the 
previous  article  ;  but  the  following  examples  may  be 
useful.  To  a  bachelor  of  arts,  who  is  a  layman,  "John 
Warren,  Esq.,  B.A."  or  "A.B."     To  a  master  of  arts 


who  is  a  layman,  "John  Smith,  Esq.,  M.A.,"  or  "A.M." 
A  bachelor  of  laws,  "  LL.B.  ;"  a  doctor  of  laws,  "  LL.D.  ;" 
a  doctor  of  medicine,  "  M.D.  ;"  a  doctor  of  divinity, 
"D.D. "  and  others  with  like  honorary  and  professional 
titles  must,  if  laymen,  be  addressed  in  agreement  with 
the  foregoing  specimens.  Yet  it  is  not  uncommon  for 
those  who  have  a  doctor's  diploma  of  any  kind,  if  laymen, 
to  be  addressed  merely  as  "  Dr.  So-and-so."  It  may  be 
noted,  however,  that  in  addressing  gentlemen  with  ordinary 
academical  degrees,  it  is  not  a  breach. of  civility  to  omit 
the  mention  of  such  degrees  on  the  envelope  of  a  letter. 
Ordinary  degrees  are  also  often  •  omitted  in  addressing 
clergymen. 

Clergymen  who  have  no  other  official  or  professional 
honour  are  addressed  as  "  Rev."  Every  clergyman  is  a 
reverend,  and,  when  addressed  in  writing,  must  be  so 
styled  ;  thus  :  "The  Rev.  George  Jones."  If  a  clergy- 
holds  a  doctor's  degree,  he  is  addressed  either  as  "  The 
Rev.  Dr.  So-and-so,"  or  as  "  The  Rev.  Samuel  Oliver, 
D.D."  Should  he  be  D.D.  and  LL.D.,  both  these  abbre- 
viations may  follow  his  name.  So  of  other  degrees, 
though  it  is  not  common  for  D.D.,  LL.D.,  and  other 
doctorships  to  have  mentioned  with  them  lesser  degrees, 
as  M.A.  and  B.A. 

Professors  in  colleges,  universities,  &c.,  if  laymen,  are 
addressed  as  "  Prof.,"  or  "Professor,"  without  "Esq.;" 
but  if  they  are  clergymen,  they  are  styled,  "  The  Rev. 
Prof."  There  are  cases  in  which  the  professorship  is 
mentioned  after  the  name  and  other  titles,  and  then  "  Pro- 
fessor of "  is  simply  added.      Where  the  professor  is 

the  principal  of  a  college,  this  word  "principal"  may  be 
used  instead  of  "  professor  ; "  and,  as  the  principal  is 
usually  a  clergyman,  the  address  will  be  "  The  Rev.  Prin- 
cipal   ,"     The  "master"  of  a  college  in  a  university 

can  be  addressed  as  "  The  Rev.  the  Master,"  and  his 
name   omitted  if  the  college  is  added  ;  or  thus  :  "  The 

Rev,  The  Master  of College."     Where  the  heads  of 

colleges,  &c.,  have  to  be  addressed  collectively,  their 
official  titles  only  need  be  inserted  in  an  address,  and 
their  proper  names  may  be  left  out. 

A  privy  councrllor  is  addressed*  as  "  The  Right  Hon- 
ourable," with  such  other  'titles  as  he  would  have  if  not  a 
pri\7-  councillor.  The  same  title  of  "  Right  Honourable  " 
is  also  given  to  the  Lord  Mayors  of  London,  York,  and 
Dublin,  and  to  the  Lord  Provost  of  Edinburgh,  while  in 
office.  Thus,  "  To  the  Right  Hon.  the  Lord  Mayor  of 
London,"  is  a  sufficient  address. 

The  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  is  styled,  "  His  Excel- 
lency the  Lord  Lieutenant ;"  but  when  he  is  a  duke  he 
is  called  "  His  Grace  the  Lord  Lieutenant."  The  lady 
of  the  Lord  Lieutenant  derives  no  accession  of  title  from 
her  husband's  office  in  this  case. 

A  secretary  of  state  is  addressed  according  to  circum- 
stances :  "  To  Her  Majesty's  Principal  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  (Home,  Foreign,  or  Colonial)  Department."  He 
may  also  be  addressed  as  "The  Right  Hon.  Such-a-one, 
Her  Majesty's  Principal  Secretary  of  State  for  the  (Home, 
"  Foreign,  or  Colonial)  Department." 

Generals  in  the  army  are  addressed  thus  :  "  To  General 
the  Right  Hon.  Lord  Such-a-onc,"  the  word  "  General  '* 
being  prefixed  to  his  ordinary  designation.  To  a  Lieu- 
tenant-General  it  is  sufficient  to  say,  "  To  Lieut. -General 
Such-a-one."  A  Major-General  is  simply  styled  thus  : 
"To  Major-Gen.  Blank."  In  like  manner  we  write,  "To 
"  Col.  Jones,"  "  Lieut.-Col.  Jones,"  and  "  Capt"  or  "  Cap- 
tain Jones  ;  "  but  the  latter  may  be  "  George  Jones,  Esq., 
Captain  "  of  such-and-such  a  regiment.  Generally  speak- 
ing, subalterns  are  addressed  as  "  Esq."  or  "  NIr.  — — , 
48th  Regiment."  When  militar)' officers  are  knights  or 
baronets,  iS;c.,  they  should  be  addressed  as  such,  thus  : 
"  Major-General  S'ir  Thomas  Napier,  Knt.,  Sec."  the  offi- 
cial rank  being  named  first 

An  admiral  may  be   addressed   simply  as  "Admiral 


268 


INMATES  OF  THE  HOUSE.— DOMESTIC. 


Such-a-one,"  or  as  "The  Right  Hon.  Lord  Such-a-one, 
Admiral  of  the ,  K.C.B."  &c.,  according  to  circum- 
stances.     A  captain  in  the  navy  is  "  Captain  Such-a-one, 

R.N."      A  lieutenant  is,  "  Lieut. ,  of  H.M.S.  Fury." 

If  officers  of  the  navy  are  knights,  baronets,  &c.,  they 
are  addressed  as  such,  according  to  the  rule  laid  down 
for  military  officers. 

Inferior  officers  maybe  addressed  as  private  individuals, 
with  the  addition  of  the  rank  they  occupy,  the  regiment 
they  belong  to,  or  the  ship  to  which  they  are  attached.  In 
some  cases  it  is  highly  desirable  to  mention  details  even 
more  minute,  in  order  that  a  letter  may  not  fail  to  reach 
its  destination.  Thus,  it  may  be  well  to  mention  the 
company,  or  the  battalion,  &c.,  to  which  the  person  ad- 
dressed belongs.  In  all  cases  in  which  soldiers  and 
marines  are  written  to,  it  is  proper  to  say  what  rank  they 
occupy,  and  to  state  whatever  else  may  assist  in  their 
identification  or  discovery,  especially  when  they  are  en- 
gaged on  foreign  service.  An  insufficient  address  often 
prevents  a  letter  from  reaching  those  it  is  intended  for, 
and  is  the  cause  of  great  disappointment,  annoyance,  and 
distress.  

INMATES    OF  THE    HOUSE.— DOMESTIC. 

IV. — THE  PARLOUR-MAID. 

In  most  establishments  where  a  parlour-maid  is  kept, 
many  of  the  li;ghter  duties  of  the  housemaid  and  footman 
fall  to  her  share  of  work ;  to  which  is  not  unfrequently 
added  some  of  the  attendance  on  the  mistress  of  the 
house,  usually  performed  by  the  lady's  maid.  These 
combined  duties  include  dusting  and  polishing  furniture, 
answering  bells,  cleaning  plate,  waiting  at  table,  and  filling 
up  spare  time  with  needlework. 

None  of  the  above  are,  strictly  speaking,  laborious 
duties  ;  but  in  order  to  discharge  them  effectually,  me- 
thodical working  is  indispensable.  Early  rising  is  a 
cardinal  virtue  in  every  branch  of  domestic  work,  and  is 
especially  desirable  where  a  cleanly  personal  appearance 
is  a  first  requ-isite.  Any  employment  likely  to  soil  the 
hands  and  dress  of  a  parlour-maid  should  be  done  before 
breakfast,  the  attendance  of  the  servant  at  that  meal  being 
generally  required. 

The  carpets  having  been  swept  and  the  grates  cleaned 
by  the  housemaid,  the  dusting  of  the  furniture  and  arrang- 
ing of  the  rooms  should  be  done  by  the  parlour-maid.  A 
good  memory  is  needful  on  her  part,  to  remember  where 
every  article  is  kept,  and  she  should  be  careful  to  consult 
her  employers'  convenience  in  regard  to  the  placing  of 
books,  writing-materials,  needlework,  &c.  As  a  general 
rule,  each  piece  of  furniture  has  its  appointed  place,  but 
whenever  the  arrangement  is  disturbed,  it  is  the  parlour- 
maid's duty  to  reinstate  order,  unless  desired  not  to  do  so. 
A  vigilant  servant  will  take  the  opportunity  of  the  family's 
absence  from  an  apartment  to  make  up  the  fire,  sweep  the 
hearth,  and  clear  away  any  litter.  All  sitting-rooms 
occupied  throughout  the  day  require  dusting  twice,  i.e.^ 
before  breakfast,  and  also  before  the  family  return  to 
the  apartment  from  the  dining-room.  If  the  weather  is 
favourable,  opening  the  windows  a  few  inches  from  the 
top  and  bottom  sashes,  freshens  the  room,  and  proves  a 
grateful  change  to  its  occupants. 

The  hour  at  which  a  parlour-maid  should  be  what  is 
termed  "  dressed  for  the  day,"  must  depend  upon  the  ever- 
varying  nature  of  the  work  required  in  different  families. 
Perhaps  the  best  way  to  decide  the  question  is,  to  be 
guided  by  the  hour  at  which  visitors  are  likely  to  call.  In 
most  professional  men's  houses  for  instance,  the  business 
of  the  day  begins  at  ten  o'clock,  by  which  time  if  the 
parlour-maid  answers  the  door,  she  should  be  neatly 
attired,  and  ready  at  a  moment's  notice  to  present  herself 
creditably  before  strangers.  A  servant  of  good  address 
at  a  professional  man's  door,  is  as  much  a  matter  of  per- 


sonal recommendation  of  the  employer  as  the  situation 
of  his  residence.  Some  amount  of  forethought  on  the 
part  of  the  mistress  is  necessary  to  ensure  cleanly  appear- 
ance in  a  door-servant ;  but  the  attempt  is  worth  making, 
if  only  for  the  sake  of  favourable  first  impressions  on  the 
part  of  strangers.  The  description  of  dress  akeady  given 
for  housemaid's  wear,  applies  to  the  parlour-maid.  The 
following  a>re  some  of  the  parlour-maid's  chief  duties. 

Answering  the  Door. — When  answering  a  door,  the 
servant  should  open  it  wide  enough  to  afford  free  entrance, 
herself  standing  back.  Having  replied  to  the  question 
whether  the  person  inquired  for  is  at  home  or  not,  the 
door  should  be  gently  closed,  and  the  question,  "  Your 
name,  if  you  please  ? "  or,  "  What  name  shall  I  say  ? " 
should  be  asked.  To  prevent  mistakes,  the  caller, 
if  a  stranger,  usually  presents  his  or  her  card.  Upon 
giving  the  card,  the  visitor  should  be  shown  into  the 
drawing-room,  or  some  unoccupied  apartment.  The 
servant  should  then  place  a  chair  for  the  visitor,  raise  the 
blinds,  stir  the  fire  or  make  any  alteration  needed  to 
secure  the  comfort  of  the  caller,  in  the  interval  of  waiting. 
AH  cards  and  letters  should  be  handed  to  the  person  for 
whom  they  are  intended,  on  a  salver  or  small  tray  kept  in 
the  hall  for  the  purpose. 

If  the  interview  is  likely  to  be  short,  a  parlour-maid 
should  be  prepared  to  go  to  the  door  to  let  out  the  visitor, 
on  the  signal  of  the  drawing-room  bell  ringing.  She 
should  stand  with  her  hand  upon  the  lock  until  the 
caller  comes  in  sight,  when  the  door  should  be  opened 
wide,  and  gently  closed  when  the  visitor  has  left  the 
doorstep.  If  a  carriage  is  in  question,  the  door  should 
not  be  closed  until  the  vehicle  has  driven  off. 

Waiting  at  Table  is  a  very  important  branch  of  domestic 
knowledge,  and  although  the  principles  are  much  the 
same  in  all  good  society,  most  servants  require  a  little 
initiation  into  the  particular  ways  of  each  family.  We 
subjoin  the  most  general  rules. 

Breakfast. — At  the  end  of  the  table,  where  the  lady 
presides,  the  cups  and  saucers  should  be  arranged  on 
either  side,  having  her  plate  in  the  centre.  The  tea- 
pot should  stand  just  behind,  and  the  milk-ewer,  slop- 
basin,  and  sugar-basin  at  the  back  of  the  teapot.  If 
an  urn  or  bright  kettle  is  used,  it  should  be  placed  within 
easy  reach  of  the  mistress's  hand.  In  most  families  the 
loaf  and  butter  are  placed  on  the  breakfast  table,  also  a 
rack  of  toast,  a  stand  of  eggs,  and  some  plates  of  cut 
bread  and  butter.  Hot  meat  is  likewise  set  on  the  table 
opposite  the  master  of  the  house,  and  cold  meat  on  the 
sideboard.  Some  people  like  to  have  the  loaf  and  butter 
also  on  the  sideboard.  The  parlour-maid  generally  waits  in 
the  breakfast-room  until  all  the  family  is  served  with  tea, 
and  eatables.  Having  done  so,  her  attendance  is  usually 
dispensed  with,  the  members  of  the  family  waiting  on 
themselves  during  the  rest  of  the  repast. 

At  Luncheoji,  much  the  same  order  of  things  is  to  be 
observed,  with  the  exception  that  both  hot  and  cold  meats 
are  then  placed  on  the  table,  the  servant  retiring  when  the 
family  has  been  served,  as  at  breakfast.  This  rule  is 
generally  observed,  as  it  is  customary  for  the  servants  to 
dine  whilst  the  family  take  lunch.  Any  unavoidable  dis- 
turbance at  that  time  should  be  guarded  against.  It  is 
usual  to  put  a  supply  of  clean  plates,  glasses,  &c.,  on  the 
sideboard,  in  order  that  persons  may  change  their  own 
plates  after  the  sei-vant  has  left  the  room.  Dirty  plates 
are  then  carried  by  the  users  to  the  side-board. 

Dinner. — Some  time  before  dinner,  the  parlour-maid 
should  get  everything  in  readiness  preparatory  to  laying 
the  cloth.  Knives  should  be  dusted  and  laid  in  their 
appointed  box,  silver  and  plated  articles  should  be  rubbed 
lightly  with  the  plate-leather,  and  laid  in  the  plate-basket, 
and  wine-glasses,  tumblers,  water-bottles,  and  salt-cellars 
should  be  arranged  upon  a  separate  tray.  The  table- 
napkins  and    cloth,  if  untidily  put    aside,   may   require 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


269 


passing  through  the  linen-press,  Fig.  i,  or  mangle.  Brad- 
ford's Mangle,  No.  i,  shown  in  the  illustration,  Fig.  2,  is 
suitable  for  this  purpose,  and  takes  up  little  room.  Before 
laying  the  cloth,  the  parlour-maid  should  sweep  up  the 
hearth,  if  firds  are  used,  and  put  on  fresh  coals,  so  that 
there  may  be  a  cheerful  blaze  by  the  time  dinner  is 
served.  Any  papers,  books,  or  other 
articles  that  may  be  dispersed  about  the 
room,  should  be  tidily  put  away,  leaving 
the  sideboard  clear  for  table  requisites. 
The  sideboard  cloth  should  be  laid  flush 
with  the  edge  of  the  sideboard,  not  hang- 
ing over  the  front  as  is  sometimes  seen. 
The  same  rule  should  be  observed  in 
covering  all  tables  used  as  sideboards. 
At  the  back  of  the  sideboards  should  be 
placed  salvers,  bronzes,  lamps,  or  any 
ornaments  belonging  to  the  sideboard. 
On  the  right  side  should  be  put  clean 
glasses,  arranged  according  to  size  and 
kind  ;  and  on  the  left,  spoons  and  forks 
tastefully  set  out.  The  middle  of  the  side- 
board should  be  left  unencumbered  for 
sauces,  vegetables,  or  anything  not  wanted 
on  the  table.  The  dinner-cloth  should 
be  laid  with  the  middle  fold  down  the 
centre  of  the  table.  Whether  the  damask 
has  been  mangled  on  the  right  side  or 
not,  the  parlour-maid  must  observe  that 
the  raised  creases  should  be  on  the  top. 
Some  prominent  design  in  the  fabric  gene- 
rally indicates  the  centre  of  the  cloth,  which 
should  of  course  be  laid  in  the  middle  of  the 
table.  A  lamp,  cruet-stand,  or 
vase  of  flowers,  is  generally  put 
to  mark  the  centre,  and  the  dis- 
tances of  the  respective  dishes 
are  regulated  from  that  object. 

The  fashion  of  dining  d  la 
Russe,  so  general  at  formal 
dinners,  requires  a  separate 
notice.  For  the  present  we 
will  confine  our  observations  to 
the  usual  arrangement  of  a  table 
in  well-conducted  households. 
By  the  latter  system,  the  master 
sits  at  one  end  of  the  table,  and 
the  mistress  of  the  house  at  the 
other.  Carving  knives  and  forks, 
together  with  dinner  knives 
placed  nearest  the  plate,  mark 
their  places.  According  to  the 
number  of  persons  to  dine, 
knives  and  forks  are  placed  for 
each.  A  tumbler  and  one  or 
more  wine-glasses  should  be  put 
at  the  right  of  each  guest,  just 
above  the  dinner  knife.  When 
clean  dinner-napkins  are  laid, 
it  is  customary  to  place  a  piece 
of  bread  in  the  folds  of  the 
napkin. 

Whether  cut  bread  or  rolls 
should  be  placed  at  the  right  hand  or  left,  is  sometimes 
a  disputed  point.  We  decide  in  favour  of  the  right,  for 
this  reason  :  When  a  guest  wishes  to  have  his  plate 
removed,  he  is  supposed  to  rest  his  fork  on  the  plate. 
A  well-trained  servant  observes  no  other  rule  in  making 
the  change,  sadly  to  the  grievance  occasionally  of  an 
inexperienced  diner,  who  inadvertently  drops  his  fork. 
As  in  breaking  bread  it  is  not  considered  well-mannered 
to  use  both  hands,  there  is  no  occasion  to  relinquish 
the   fork   until  a   change   of  plate  is  desired.     Between 


Fig.  I. 


the  courses,  the  crust  of  bread  may  be  divided  with  both 
hands,  if  desired.  Now  that  knives  are  beginning  to 
be  used  for  eating  fish,  the  last  claim  of  the  bread  to  be 
laid  on  the  left  of  the  diner,  appears  to  have  been 
disposed  of. 

Directly  a  person  drops  his  fork,  or  lays  both  knife  and 
fork  together  on  the  right-hand  side  of 
the  plate,  the  servant  in  attendance  should 
bring  another  plate  on  which  are  laid 
knife,  fork,  or  spoon,  appropriate  to  the 
dish  which  is  to  follow.  All  meats,  vege- 
tables, and  sauces,  should  be  handed  on 
the  left  side  of  the  diner. 

Serving  wifie,  Sr'c.,  should  always  be 
done  at  the  right-hand  side  of  the  guest 
witJwut  rcfnoving  the  glasses  from  the 
table,  except  in  the  case  of  beer,  which  is 
served  at  the  left  hand.  The  reason  is 
obvious.  Beer  requires  to  be  frothed  into 
the  glass  ;  consequently,  it  prevents  acci- 
dents if  the  servant  presents  a  tray  to  the 
guest  on  his  left  to  receive  the  glass,  into 
which  the  beer  should  be  poured,  at  the 
distance  of  a  step  behind  the  guest.  The  full 
tumbler  should  then  be  handed  on  the  left, 
as  it  would  be  inconvenient  for  the  guest 
to  receive  it  over  the  right  shoulder.  Ser- 
vants should  avoid  handling  wine  glasses. 
If  they  must  do  so,  they  should  only  touch 
the  stem.  Water-bottles  are  placed  on 
the  table  within  reach  of  the  guests. 

Before  setting  dessert  on  the  table,  the 
parlour-maid  should  brush  off  the  crumbs 
into   a  small  tray  with  a  curved 
cloth-brush    or    similar    contri- 
vance made  for  the  purpose. 

Carving  knives  and  forks  after 
being  used  should  be  removed 
before  taking  the  dish  contain- 
ing meat  from  the  table.  A 
long  narrow  knife-tray  with  a 
-clean  coarse  cloth  laid  at  the 
bottom,  is  the  proper  receptacle 
for  these  articles. 

During  the  intervals  which 
occur  in  waiting  on  the  guests, 
the  piarlour-maid  should  remove 
all  things  which  have  been  used 
outside  the  dining-room,  where 
one  of  the  under  servants  usually 
conveys  them  to  the  kitchen.  The 
servant  waiting  should  contrive 
to  have  all  soiled  vessels  out  of 
the  room  by  the  time  dessert 
is  put  on  the  table,  her  atten- 
dance not  being  wanted  after 
that  time. 

Tea. — After  a  late  dinner,  tea 
is  generally  a  very    simple   re- 
past, requiring  only   a   tray   on 
which  teacups  and  saucers,  with 
"•  other  tea  appendages,  are   set. 

If  tea  is  made  in  the  drawing- 
room,  the  parlour-maid  waits  on  her  mistress  until  the 
tea  is  handed  round.  A  set  tea,  i.e.,  a  meal,  with  tea 
as  a  beverage,  is  served  in  the  same  manner  as  breakfast. 
It  is  now  the  fashion  to  cover  the  tea  table  with  a  white 
cloth,  as  for  breakfast. 

Supper  is  usually  served  in  the  same  manner  as 
luncheon. 

Washing  up  china  .and  glass,  cleaning  plate,  and  trim- 
ming lamps,  being  equally  the  work  of  the  parlour-maid 
or  page,  will  be  described  in  another  place. 


270 


THE   REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF   CHILDREN. 


THE    REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF 
CHILDREN. 

VIII. — FOOD  IN  INFANCY. 
The  most  suitable  food  for  infants  is  that  of  Nature's 
own  providing — mothers'  milk.  In  very  exceptional 
instances  is  this  supply  shortcoming  during  the  first  few 
weeks  after  child-birth.  If,  unhappily,  the  contrary 
should  be  the  case,  a  delicate  infant  can  seldom  be 
successfully  reared  without  the  aid  of  a  wet-nurse. 

The  only  circumstances  which  should  prevent  a  mother 
from  suckling  her  offspring  are  a  too  excitable  tempera- 
ment, or  a  consumptive  state  of  constitution.  Ordinary 
debility,  consequent  on  recent  confinement,  is  rarely  an 
impediment  to  the  fulfilment  of  one  of  the  highest 
instincts  of  human  nature,  and  one  no  less  productive 
of  moral  than  physical  benefits.  During  the  time  a  child 
receives  nourishment  at  its  mother's  breast  the  earliest 
bond  of  sympathy,  destined  to  influence  a  lifetime,  of 
parent  and  child  is  mutually  formed.  Without  endorsing 
to  the  full  the  assertion,  that  every  passion  to  which  our 
race  is  subject  may  be  communicated  through  the  medium 
of  a  wet-nurse,  it  is  certain  that  the  affection  of  a  child 
for  its  parent  is  vastly  increased  if  nourished  exclusively 
by  herself. 

Whatever  changes  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  in  the 
dietary  of  an  infant  after  the  age  of  six  weeks,  absolute 
necessity  alone  should  induce  the  substitution  of  artificial 
food  in  lieu  of  the  natural  food.  The  first  milk  is  of  a 
purgative  character,  and  is  admirably  adapted  to  cleanse 
the  system  of  a  new-born  babe.  In  this  particular  the 
most  desirable  wet-nurse  might  fail  to  prove  a  fitting 
deputy  for  the  mother.  Likewise,  throughout  the  period 
of  nursing,  it  is  a  point  of  great  importance  that  the 
quality  of  the  nourishment  should  be  proportionate  to  the 
age  of  the  infant.  If  the  services  of  a  wet-nurse  are 
inevitable,  it  should  be  sought  to  engage  one  who  has 
been  a  mother  about  the  same  length  of  time  as  the 
parent  of  the  infant  to  be  brought  up.  In  selecting  a 
wet-nurse  a  medical  man  is  the  best  medium'. 

During  the  first  two  or  three  weeks — the  powers  of 
suction  and  the  organs  of  digestion  being  alike  weak — 
an  infant,  if  awake,  may  be  suckled  at  intervals  of  from 
one  to  two  hours.  The  sooner,  however,  the  babe  can 
be  brought  into  the  habit  of  being  fed  once  every  two 
hours  the  greater  will  be  the  benefit  derived  from  the 
nourishment,  and  the  more  speedily  will  the  mother  be 
enabled  to  regain  her  own  strength.  A  determination  to 
attain  regularity  in  feeding  is  all  that  is  needed  at  the 
outset  to  secure  the  desired  end.  When  this  plan  is 
steadily  pursued,  the  digestion  of  a  child  will  work  with 
the  precision  of  the  clock  by  which  its  meals  are 
regulated.  Any  cry  that  may  be  heard  in  the  interval 
should  not  be  supposed  to  arise  from  craving  for  food. 
Numberless  causes  of  irritation  may  occasion  a  fretful 
cry  :  cold  feet,  pressure  of  clothing,  wet  linen,  a  flea,  or 
other  discomfort,  may  excite  the  piteous  sound.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  giving  food  instantly,  it  is  advisable  to  open 
the  clothing,  warm  the  tiny  feet,  chafe  the  limbs,  or,  if 
possible,  take  the  infant  for  a  little  walk  out  of  doors.  If, 
after  having  tried  similar  remedies,  the  frctfulness  con- 
tinues, the  cause  should  be  sought  in  the  condition  of 
the  child's  stools.  If  signs  of  griping  pains  or  colic  are 
evident,  less  instead  of  more  food  should  be  given,  and 
the  interval  between  the  meals  lengthened  instead  of 
diminished. 

Sometimes  a  continual  cry  of  distress  prevails,  from 
the  mother's  milk  being  not  sufficiently  nourishing  to 
satisfy  the  appetite  of  the  babe.  In  such  case  it  is 
advisable  to  give,  every  alternate  two  hours,  a  meal  of 
cow's  niilk  and  water,  prepared  in  the  following  manner : — 
The  milk  must  be  boiled  as  soon  as  it  comes  in,  and  left 
to  settle  till  a  scum  has  formed  on  the  top.      Remove 


the  scum,  and  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  boiled  water  to 
one  of  milk,  sweetened  with  a  little  loaf  sugar.  The  above 
directions  are  apphcable  to  milk  known  to  be  pure.  If 
the  milk  has  passed  through  several  hands  the  quantity 
of  milk  may  be  insufficient  to  the  proportion  of  water. 

A  lactometer  (a  small  instrument  to  test  the  quality  of 
milk)  may  be  had  at  very  trifling  cost,  and  affords  some 
indication  of  the  genuineness  of  milk.  At  the  same  time 
we  must  confess  to  being  very  sceptical  as  to  the 
nourishing  properties  of  milk  usually  sold  in  towns,  and 
would  suggest,  where  any  doubt  exists,  that  condensed 
milk  be  substituted  for  the  article  usually  obtained  at 
metropolitan  milk-shops.  The  condensed  milk  (which 
has  lately  been  introduced  into  this  country)  is  one  of  the 
greatest  boons  placed  within  the  reach  of  dwellers  in 
crowded  cities.  All  children  like  it,  and  thrive  on  its  use. 
The  practice  of  giving  thickened  food  to  infants  at  too 
tender  an  age  is  a  source  of  endless  trouble.  In  one  of 
Dr.  Edward  Smith's  admirable  articles  on  dietary  he 
remarks  that  the  feeding  of  young  infants  on  bread,  flour, 
biscuits,  and  other  substances  than  milk,  is  a  "  constant 
source  of  derangement  of  the  liver,  and  a  frequent  cause 
of  fits."  The  organism  of  a  young  babe  is  not  designed  to 
convert  such  food  into  a  healthy  form  of  nourishment. 
However  considerable  the  quantity  of  such  food  passed 
into  the  stomach  of  a  young  infant  may  be,  the  body  is 
not  thereby  nourished,  but  irritated.  A  babe,  like  an 
adult,  is  only  nourished  by  what  it  has  power  to  digest. 
Where  the  powers  are  weak  the  form  of  nourishment 
should  be  correspondingly  easy  of  digestion. 

As  a  general  rule  a  babe  may  be  well  nourished  on 
milk,  or  milk  thickened  to  the  consistence  of  cream,  until 
the  first  tooth  appears.  Even  after  that  period  milk 
should  for  a  considerable  time  form  the  staple  article  of 
food.  Larger  quantities  should  then  be  given,  and  greater 
intervals  between  the  meals  observed.  It  is  estimated  that 
a  babe  three  months  of  age  will  consume  at  least  three 
pints  of  milk  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Weak  beef-tea,  veal,  chicken,  or  mutton  broth,  are 
excellent  additions  to  meals  composed  of  rusks,  rice,  or 
other  farinaceous  articles.  Careful  feeling  of  the  way, 
however,  should  be  observed  in  every  change  of  infants' 
diet,  especially  if  teething  be  in  operation. 

A  needless  source  of  alarm  is  sometimes  excited  by 
an  infant  throwing  up  milk  in  a  curdled  state.  The  fact 
is  that  this  appearance  is  perfectly  natural  in  milk 
rejected  from  the  stomach  of  a  healthy  child.  The 
quantity  rejected  is  simply  that  which  was  in  excess  of 
the  child's  want,  and  is  Nature's  special  mode  of  relief 
in  infancy.  If  the  milk  is  rejected  in  a  dense  mass,  it  is 
a  sign  either  that  less  would  be  sufficient  for  a  meal,  or 
that  the  interval  between  taking  nourishment  should  be 
lengthened.  But  if,  immediately  on  being  put  to  the 
breast,  or  on  beginning  to  suck  a  bottle  of  food,  the 
stomach  throws  off  the  food,  the  condition  of  the  parent 
or  child  should  receive  attention. 

A  very  necessary  treatment  after  a  meal  consists  in 
lifting  the  babe  across  the  nurse's  left  shoulder,  whether 
awake  or  asleep,  and  gently  patting  the  infant's  back 
until  the  wind  displaced  by  food  is  thrown  off  the 
stomach.  Wherever  this  simple  precaution  is  used  gripes 
and  windy  colic  are  seldom  heard  of.  So  great  is  the 
relief,  that  infants  once  accustomed  to  the  treatment 
struggle  to  lift  themselves  up  after  having  been  fed. 

The  period  of  weaning  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of 
great  anxiety  to  a  parent.  The  only  way  to  lessen  the 
trial  is  to  make  the  change  gradually.  A  little  self- 
restraint  in  keeping  out  of  sight  when  the  child  may 
naturally  be  supposed  to  be  hungry,  is  the  greatest  act  of 
kindness  the  mother  can  confer  on  the  little  one.  The  most 
favourable  time  for  weaning  is  in  the  warm  weather,  when 
the  infant  can  be  amused  and  kept  much  out  of  doors. 
The  kind  of  feeding-bottle  used  is  an  important  con- 


CASSELL'S   IfOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


271 


sideration.  Thc^e  with  cloth  tubes  and  indi^-rubber 
tops  are  in  most  general  favour,  and  for  liquid  or  semi- 
liquid  food  are  decidedly  the  best.  If  the  food  be  thicker 
than  semi-fluid,  feeding  with  a  spoon  is  preferable. 

The  time  an  infant  should  take  to  imbibe  half  a  pint 
of  some  liquid  food  should  not  be  less  than  from  twenty- 
minutes  to  half  an  hour.  In  order  to  secure  the  neces- 
sary delay,  the  elastic  top  should  be  examined  before  each 
meal,  to  see  whether  the  hole  through  which  the  food 
passes  has  extended  with  [use.  If  so,  a  tie-knot  with 
a  fine  needle  and  sewing  silk  should  be  made  across 
the  hole.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  only  such 
food  as  has  been  thoroughly  mixed  with  saliva  proves 
easy  of  digestion.  The  temperature  of  an  infant's  food 
should  be  that  of  its  body.  This  may  be  maintained 
during  feeding-time  by  placing  the  main  quantity  in  a 
vessel  containing  hot  water,  within  reach  of  the  nurse's 
hand  for  replenishing. 

Throughout  the  period  of  early  infancy,  the  best  time 
for  giving  food  is  before  the  child  is  laid  down  to  sleep  ; 
indeed,  the  act  of  taking  food  induces  slumber.  The 
importance  of  sleep  being  pre-eminent,  it  is  better  to 
waste  the  remnant  of  a  meal,  if  need  be,  than  to  keep 
a  sleepy  child  awake  to  eat. 

The  utmost  cleanliness  should  be  observed  in  every 
detail  connected  withlhe  keeping  of  all  utensils  for  nur- 
sery use.  When  removed  from  the  bottle,  the  india-rubber 
top  should  be  immediately  cleansed  and  thrown  into  a 
glass  of  clean  water.  The  bottle  should  be  cleansed  from 
every  trace  of  food,  and  twice  a  day  rinsed  out  with  tea- 
leaves  and  water,  usually  at  hand  in  the  nursery.  When 
not  in  use,  the  bottle  should  be  hidden  from  the  infant's 
sight. 

Not  more  food  than  is  likely  to  be  consumed  at  a  meal 
should  be  prepared  at  a  time,  owing  to  the  tendency  of 
milk  and  farinaceous  articles  to  turn  rapidly  sour,  espe- 
cially in  close  rooms  and  in  warm  weather.  Any  portion 
of  liquid  food  that  it  is  necessary  to  set  aside,  should  be 
boiled  afresh,  and  not  left  after  having  been  warmed. 

Farinaceous  articles  for  night-feeding  should  not  be 
kept  over  a  lamp  ;  diluting  such  articles  with  boiling 
water  is  a  safer  plan.  Water  is  easily  kept  at  boiling 
heat  in  an  ordinary  Etna. 

The  nurse  should  avoid  the  unpleasant  habit  of  testing 
the  temperature  of  the  infant's  food  by  putting  it  to  her 
own  mouth.  A  little  sugar  sprinkled  over  the  top  of  a 
feeding-bottle  will  often  induce  an  infant  to  take  the 
artificial  food. 

Diet  for  more  advanced  childhood  will  receive  attention 
in  a  subsequent  number. 


DOMESTIC     MEDICINE. 

CHICKEN-POX. 

Besides  the  eruptive  fevers,  already  noticed,  we  must  treat 
of  chicken-pox,  one  of  the  most  frequent  of  the  diseases 
of  children.  It  is  familiar  to  mothers  and  nurses,  and 
consists  in  the  appearance  of  little  spots,  round,  not 
depressed  in  the  centre  like  those  of  small-pox — very 
much  the  same  kind  of  appearance  as  we  might  conceive 
to  be  produced  by  dipping  a  brush  into  boiling  water  and 
sprinkling  it  over  the  body.  This  eruption  is  preceded  by 
slight  indications — generally  very  slight — of  indisposition, 
such  as  chilliness,  headache,  weariness,  and  sometimes 
aching  in  the  back  and  limbs.  Often  nothing  particular  is 
noticed  in  the  child  till  the  eruption  appears  as  little  spots, 
first  over  the  trunk,  and  then  over  the  face  and  limbs. 
They  soon  fill  with  clear,  or  very  slightly  turbid  fluid. 
They  do  not  extend  deeply  into  the  skin,  and  they  do  not 
Icstroy  its  substance  as  the  spots  of  small-pox  do.  On 
the  third  day  of  the  disease  the  spots  begin  to  dry  up. 
On  the  fourth  day  this  drying  progresses  rapidly,  and 


soon  after  leaves  a  scab,  which  in  a  few  days  falls  off 
and  little  trace  of  the  spots  is  left  but  slight  redness. 

Chicken-pox  has  been  thought  by  some  to  be  a  modifi- 
cation of  small-pox.  But  it  is  not  so.  It  is  quite  a 
distinct  disease.  Neither  vaccination  nor  small-pox 
protects  from  chicken-pox.  Chicken-pox  occurs  almost 
exclusively  in  childhood.  The  spots  are  of  a  different 
shape,  not  being  depressed  in  the  centre,  and  containing 
only  one  compartment,  not  many.  The  disease  cannot 
be  given  by  inoculation,  as  small-pox  is,  and  it  is  alto- 
gether slighter  than  small-pox. 

It  is  of  little  importance  itself,  excepting  that  it  is- very 
infectious,  and  pretty  ?ure  to  affect  children  exposed  to  it. 
Occasionally,  like  any  other  eruptive  fever,  it  leaves  in 
some  children  a  tendency  to  other  eruptions  for  a  time. 
It  occurs  for  the  most  part  in  very  young  children. 

Treatment. — But  little  else  than  domestic  treatment  is 
1-equircd,  though,  if  there  is  any  undue  degree  of  feverish- 
ness  or  indisposition,  it  will  be  well  to  consult  a  doctor.  A 
very  light  diet  of  milk,  and  general  quietness,  are  all  that 
are  necessary.  A  little  cooling  medicine,  however,  does 
good,  such  as  the  following  for  a  child  a  vear  old  : — 

Citrate  of  potash      18  grains. 

Simple  syrup  ...       l  drachm. 

Water  ...  •       ...         li  ounces. 

Mix.     A  teaspoonful  three  or  four  times  a  day. 

For  older  children  a  mixture  in  twice  the  quantity 
might  be  made  up,  and  a  proportionate  dose  given. 


HOME    GARDENING. 


We  here  conclude  our  system  of  rotation  cropping  of  a 
small  vegetable  garden  for  one  year. 

December. — i.  As  raspberries  and  strawberries  are  the 
chief  occupants  of  this  quarter,  there  will  be  little  to  do, 
with  the  exception  of  removing  weeds  and  such  rubbish 
as  will  accumulate  from  time  to  time  amongst  them.  The 
gooseberry  and  currant  bushes  surrounding  this  or  any 
other  departm.ent,  should  be  pruned  at  once,  and  the  cut- 
tings removed  directly  afterwards,  so  as  to  keep  up  a  neat 
and  orderly  appearance.  ,2.  Examine  the  broccoli  here 
repeatedly,  for  the  purpose  of  having  such  as  are  fit  for 
use  cut  and  stored  away  in  a  cool  place  where  it  will  keep 
good  for  many  days.  Should  this  situation  be  a  very  cold 
one,  we  should  advise  you  by  all  means  to  have  a  portion 
of  the  winter  variety  laid  down  on  their  sides,  in  the 
following  manner: — Commence  at  the  west  side  of  the 
plot,  taking  a  spit  or  spadeful  of  soil  from  that  side  of  the 
plant,  bend  the  same  down  in  that  direction,  then  take  a 
spit  of  earth  from  the  next  plant  and  lay  it,  as  it  were,  on 
the  back  of  the  first  to  keep  it  down,  and  continue  to  do 
the  same  until  the  entire  piece  is  completed.  The  reason 
for  treating  them  in  this  manner  is,  because  it  enables 
them  to  endure  a  much  harder  frost  with  greater  ease, 
and  at  the  same  time  does  not  cause  the  heads  to  de- 
teriorate in  the  least,  so  far  as  shape  and  flavour  is 
concerned.  3.  Previous  to  very  severe  weather  setting  in, 
it  will  be  advisable  to  cover  up  the  Globe  artichokes  so  as 
to  keep  them  from  all  possibility  of  danger.  The  forcing 
of  seakale  is  the  most  important  operation  just  now  in 
this  department,  and  there  is  no  better  way  of  accom- 
plishing the  work  than  covering  the  plants  with  inverted 
flower-pots  or  proper  pans,  having  first  scraped  away  a 
little  of  the  soil  from  the  collar  of  each  plant  and  filled 
the  vacancy  thus  made  with  coal-ashes  which  will  keep 
away  slugs  and  other  vermin.  As  a  fermenting  material 
tree  leaves  will  be  found  as  serviceable  as  anything,  the 
heat  being  so  gentle  and  yet  so  regular,  that  sea-kale  seems 
to  thrive  with  it  better  than  anything  else  we  know  oC 
Rhubarb  may  be  forced  in  the  same  manner,  but  it  takes 
a  much  longer  time  to  start,  although  when  it  has  once 
made  a  move  it  continues  to  grow  v.ith  great  rapidity. 


272 


HOME  GARDENING. 


4.  The  eelery  in  this  plot  must  be  well  covered  up  with 
dry  litter  in  the  event  of  severe  weather  setting  in.  Ridge 
up  the  ground  as  fast  as  it  becomes  vacant,  that  it  may 
have  the  full  benefit  of  frost  ;  but  in  doing  so  avoid  as 
much  as  possible  treading  on  the  surrounding  ground  in 
wet  weather.  5.  As  late  broccoli  and  other  winter  greens 
are  the  sole  occupants  of  this  division,  no  particular 
directions  are  necessary  just  now,  save  that  of  laying  a 
few  of  them  down  as  already  described  in  compartment 
No.  2.  6.  Such  cabbage  plants  as  become  loosened  by 
wind,  or  raised  up  out  of  the  ground  by  frost,  must  be 
replaced  by  pressing  the  soil  round  about  their  stems  on 
a  dry  day.  Likewise  point  over  with  a  fork  the  ground  be- 
tween the  early-planted  ones,  for  the  purpose  of  destroying 
all  weeds  as  soon  as  they  make  their  appearance,  for,  upon 
the  principle  that  "  a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine,"  these  wild 
plants  if  destroyed  early  will  save  no  end  of  labour  at  a 
futurp  time,  to  say  nothing  of  the  benefit  that  will  accrue 
from  the  soil  being  loosened.  7.  The  peas  sown  here  last 
month  should  be  vigilantly  watched,  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  the  depredations  of  mice  and  birds,  both  of 
which  do  no  end  of  mischief  when  left  to  feast  unmolested. 
The  beet  here  may  be  left  in  the  ground  until  wanted. 
And  lastly,  ground  that  has  become  vacant  by  the 
removal  of  carrots  and  other  roots,  .should  be  dug  up  at 
once,  unless  the  soil  be  of  a  heavy  nature,  when  ridging 
would  be  preferable.  8.  A  few  lettuces  should  be  taken 
up  with  balls  of  earth,  and  housed  previous  to  severe 
weather  setting  in,  when  it  might  be  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  get  at  them. 

THE  CULTURE  OF  VEGETABLES. 

Having  now  concluded  our  preliminary  remarks  on  the 
formation,  cultivation,  and  management  of  the  kitchen 
garden,  we  shall  proceed  in  this  and  following  papers,  to 
treat  separately  of  the  different  vegetables  usually  cultivated. 

The  Globe  Artichoke.  —  Of  this  plant  there  are  two 
varieties  in  cultivation,  the  conical  or  French,  and  the 
Globe ;  the  former  having  an  oval  head  .with  scales, 
open  and  not  turned  in  at  the  top  as  in  the  latter, 
which  are  turned  in  at  the  top  and  have  the  recep- 
tacle more  succulent  than  the  former.  This  plant  is 
propagated  by  offsets  from  the  root,  in  March  or  April, 
when  they  will  be  from  five  to  ten  inches  high.  In  per- 
forming this  work,  open  the  ground  round  and  about  the 
old  stool,  and  slip  them  off  clean  to  the  root,  leaving 
three  or  more  of  the  strongest  to  the  parent  plant  to  bear 
the  next  summer  crop.  Prepare  the  offsets  for  planting 
by  clearing  away  all  the  under  decayed  or  broken  leaves, 
as  well  as  any  hard  or  ragged  part  at  the  bottom  of  the 
root.  Those  about  to  plant,  should  bear  it  in  mind  that 
this  vegetable  delights  in  a  rich  light  soil  of  a  good  depth, 
as  well  as  in  an  open  and  exposed  aspect.  The  ground 
should  likewise  be  well  manured,  and  dug  or  trenched. 
Plant  them  with  a  dibble  in  rows,  three  feet  and  a 
half  asunder,  and  three  feet  apart  in  each  row.  Water 
them  immediately  after  planting,  and  should  the  weather 
prove  dry,  and  continue  so,  repeat  the  operation  until  such 
time  as  they  have  made  good  root,  when  they  will  be  able 
to  do  without  help.  Hoe  the  ground  over  frequently  during 
the  summer  months,  in  order  to  check  weeds  and  keep  the 
surface  soil  loose  about  the  plants  ;  this  is  really  all  the 
management  necessary  until  the  season  of  production  is 
over,  with  the  exception  of  giving  them  moisture  in  dry 
weather.  These  roots  will,  as  a  rule,  under  favourable  cir- 
cumstances, produce  middling-sized  heads  the  same  year, 
from  August  to  November,  and  the  following  year  be  in  full 
perfection.  It  not  unfrequently  happens,  that  several  young 
shoots  or  heads  spring  from  the  sides  of  the  chief  or  main 
stem,  but  in  order  to  encourage  the  principal  head  to  attain 
a  full  size,  detach  them  from  the  parent  plant  as  soon  as 
they  can  be  applied  to  use,  which  they  may  be  as  soon  as 
,they  are  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.     The  main  or  chief  heads 


are  not  in  perfection  until  the  scales  diverge  considerably, 
but  should  be  gathered  before  the  Aowct  appears,  cutting 
two  or  three  inches  of  the  stalk  to  each  head.  As  soon 
as  the  entire  crop  is  gathered  from  the  stem,  cut  it  down 
close  to  the  ground,  in  order  to  give  the  plant  more 
strength  to  enable  it  to  throw  up  superior  new  shoots  next 
summei-.  They  will  now  require  their  winter  dressing,  and 
for  this  purpose  it  will  be  necessary  to  first  of  all  cut  away 
all  the  large  leaves,  being  careful  not  to  injure  the  small 
central  ones  or  new  shoots.  Then  dig  the  ground  between 
each  row,  raising  the  soil  gradually,  ridgewise,  over  the 
root  and  close  about  the  plant.  In  frosty  weather  cover 
the  grouhd  with  from  four  to  six  inches  of  good  rotten 
manure,  taking  care  to  lay  it  close  about  each  plant.  The 
spring  dressing  should  be  given  between  the  months  of 
March  and  April,  according  as  the  weather  proves  favour- 
able, but  previous  to  doing  so,  it  will  be  necessary,  not 
only  to  clear  away  all  litter,  but  to  examine  the  stocks, 
and  select  two  or  three  of  the  best  shoots  for  growing  and 
producing  the  next  summer  crop,  removing  the  rest  by 
pressing  them  off  either  with  the  finger  and  thumb,  which 
we  prefer,  or  with  a  knife  ;  then  dig  the  ground  level, 
loosening  it  well  about  the  crowns  of  the  roots  of  each 
plant.  In  the  course  of  seven  or  eight  years,  even  with 
the  very  best  management,  the  heads  will  degenerate 
or,  in  other  words,  bec9me  smaller  and  less  succulent, 
consequently  it  is  essential  that  a  new  plantation  be  made 
about  once  in  six  years.  Those  desirous  of  saving  seed 
must  attend  strictly  to  the  following  advice.  Early  in 
the  summer  select  some  of  the  first  and  largest  heads, 
and  when  the  flowerets  are  about  to  show  symptoms  of 
decay,  turn  the  head  down  in  a  pendulous  or  drooping 
manner,  in  order  that  the  calyx  may  throw  off  the  wet. 

Jeriisaletn  Artichokes. — The  tubers  of  the  root,  which 
are  generally  abundant,  are  the  only  portion  used.  Before 
potatoes  were  known  as  well  as  they  are  now,  they  were 
highly  esteemed,  and  are  yet  considered  a  nutritious  food, 
and  when  boiled  and  mashed  with  butter  they  are 
excellent  eating.  The  best  way  to  propagate  this  root 
is  by  using  middling-sized  tubers  and  planting  them 
entire.  We  select  for  this  purpose  moderate-sized  roots, 
those  about  as  big  as  a  shilling,  plant  them,  and  when  the 
shoots  show  above  ground  remove  all  but  one,  or  two  at 
the  most,  of  the  strongest.  The  best  time  for  planting 
is  from  the  beginning  of  March  to  the  end  of  April. 
Having  prepared  the  ground  by  digging,  plant  them  with 
a  dibble  in  rows  three  feet  asunder,  eighteen  inches 
apart.  They  should  not  be  planted  more  than  four  or 
five  inches  deep,  and  when  you  have  finished  this  portion 
of  the  work,  rake  the  ground  over,  filling  in  the  ground 
regularly  as  you  proceed.  The  only  care  or  culture 
needed,  is  when  the  plants  are  up — and  they  will  be  in 
about  six  weeks  after  planting — to  hoe  the  surface  of  the 
ground  over  for  the  double  purpose  of  destroying  weeds 
and  loosening  the  surface  of  the  soil.  As  soon  as  the 
weeds  have  been  cleared  off  the  ground,  you  may  draw  a 
little  soil  up  to  the  bottoms  of  the  stems.  This,  as  we  have 
already  said,  is  all  the  attention  required  until  the  time  of 
taking  up  the  crop  arrives.  The  tubers  will  be  ripe 
between  the  months  of  October  and  November,  at  which 
time  the  stems  should  be  cut  down,  and  the  produce  dug 
up  as  wanted,  or  the  whole  may  be  removed  from  the  soil 
(and  this  is  the  best  plan),  and  laid  in  sand  under  cover, 
in  order  that  they  may  be  ready  in  frosty  weather,  when, 
if  left  in  the  ground,  they  could  not  be  got  at  very  easily. 
The  roots  of  this  plant,  if  not  carefully  taken  up,  so  as  not 
to  leave  the  smallest  tuber,  or  portion  thereof,  will  prove 
very  troublesome,  as  the  least  particle,  so  to  speak,  will 
come  up  the  following  season,  and  for  years  to  come, 
pestering  and  disfiguring  the  ground  without  yielding 
sufficient  produce  for  a  crop.  Finally,  make  it  a  rule  to 
plant,  or  form  a  new  plantation  every  year,  making  up  a, 
bed  in  a  different  spot,  if  possible,  each  time. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


273 


THE    HOUSEHOLD    MECHANIC. 

GAS  {continued). 

The  iron  service-pipes  are  made  in  lengths  of  from  two 
to  ten  or  twelve  feet,  and  are  of  wrought-iron  welded 
over  on  a  mandrel ;  one  end  bears  a  socket  and  the  other 
a  screw,  the  interior  of  the  socket  being  the  converse  of 
the  screw.  The  sizes  and  pitches  of  these  screws  arc  now 
univei^ally  the  same  for  each  given  diameter  of  pipe,  so 
that  rtny  screw  is  sure  to  fit  into  any  socket.  The  sockets 
are  either  straight,  plain,  or  diminishing,  for  the  purpose 
of  uniting  two  pipes  of  different  diameters.  Where  it  is 
necessary  to  turn  corners,  either  bends  or  elbow  sockets 
are  used,  which  may  be  also  plain  or 
diminishing,  and  when  one  pipe  branches 
out  from  another,  cross  or  tee-sockets  are 
required.  In  connections  of  iron  tubing 
all  that  is  necessary  to  be  done  is  to  smear 
the  screwed  end  of  the  pipe  with  some  thin 
white-lead,  and  then  screw  it  forcibly  into 
the  socket  with  the  gas-tongs,  two  pairs  of 
which  are  used  at  one  time— one  to  hold, 


These  tongs  are 


the  other  to  screw  up 
constructed  with  long 
handles,  and  are  so 
contrived  that  almost 
any  amount   of  grip 
can  be  obtained  with 
them.   Each  different 
size  of  pipe  requires 
two   pairs   of   tongs, 
there      being      only 
a    slight    adjustment 
possible.  Thejunction 
of  iron  and  composi- 
tion-pipe   is   effected 
by  means  of  unions 
of  brass,  which  screw 
into    the    iron   pipes 
and    to     which     the 
composition  pipes  are 
soldered       by 
means  of  a  blow- 
pipe.   The  junc- 
tions     "between 
these  latter  pipes 
and  the  bracket 
or  pendant  bur- 
ners   are    made 
by      means      of 
small  brass  pipes 
called      nose- 
pieces,  which 
are     bent     into 
various  forms,  as 
required. 

The  horizontal  pipes  should  be  laid  between  the  floor 
and  the  ceiling,  and  the  boards  laid  over  them  should  be 
screwed  down  again  to  make  the  access  to  them,  when 
required,  as  easy  as  possible.  A  slight  inclination  towards 
the  main-pipes  is  advisable  to  prevent  the  accumulation 
of  water  formed  from  the  gas  by  condensation  ;  and  this 
inclination  allows  any  water  so  formed  to  run  down  to  the 
lowest  part  of  the  service,  where  a  syphon  should  be  fixed 
to  receive  it. 

The  best  position  for  this  syphon  is  at  the  bottom  of 
the  rising  main,  or  upright  pipe,  communicating  from  the 
lower  floors  to  the  ones  above.  The  rising  main  is  often 
fixed  outside  the  house— a  plan  which  is  advisable, 
except  when  the  gas-pipes  are  fixed  as  a  part  of  the  build- 
ing of  a  house,  as  such  a  plan  prevents  a  great  deal  of 
mess  and  expense,  with  knocking  ceilings  about. 

Fig.  75  shows  the  arrangement,    a  is  the  pipe  from  the 

VOL.  I. 


Fig.  76 


Fig.  78. 


Fig.  79. 


meter,  B  is  the  rising  main,  c  the  syphon,  which  is  a  short 
piece  of  the  same  pipe,  in  which  the  water  can  accumulate, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  is  a  small  tap  to  let  it  out  when 
the  bobbing  or  jumping  of  the  gas  shows  the  water  to  have 
risen  to  such  a  height  as  to  obstruct  the  passage  of  the 
gas.  This  will  not  occur  more  than  once  or  twice  a  year 
in  ordinary  cases.  Where  a  wet  meter  is  used  it  will 
happen  perhaps  a  little  oftener,  the  gas  absorbing  mois- 
ture during  its  passage  through  the  water. 

The  methods  of  fastening  up  the  pendants,  or  brackets, 
carrying  the  burners,  must  of  course  be  suggested  by  the 
necessities  of  each  individual  case.  We  can  only  say  that 
brackets  may  be  securely  screwed  to  the  walls  by  means 
of  wooden  plugs  driven  into  the  brickwork  ; 
but  a  very  good  plan  is  to  take  out  a  com- 
plete brick  and  insert  a  piece  of  wood  of 
the  same  size  into  the  hole,  and  plaster  up 
again.  Pendants  must  not  be  fixed  to  the 
joists  if  it  can  be  avoided,  but  to  a  small 
cross-beam. 

We  will  now  describe  the  construction  of 
a  balanced   pendant    two-light    chandelier, 
and    show    how,    by    keeping    the    water- 
chamber  full,  the    es- 
cape  of   gas   is    pre- 
vented,  while    the 
chandelier     may     be 
pulled    down    or    up 
with  perfect  ease.     In 
Fig.  76,  A  shows  the 
pipe    from    the    floor 
above,  which  usually 
comes  through  a  cen- 
tral   flower  or    orna- 
ment.     This    pipe 
expands    into    the 
chamber  B,  which  has 
a  hole  in  the  bottom. 
Accurately    fitted    to 
this  hole  is  the  ball 
C,  which  is  the  top  of, 
and  pierced  by, 
a  down  pipe  D. 
The  lower  part 
of   the    ball    is 
ground  to  fit  the 
hole  in  the  cup 
B,  perfectly  air- 
tight ;  but  leak- 
age    sometimes 
occurs     at     the 
joint,  when  the 
heat   has    dried 
up    the   grease. 
Fig.  80.  Fig.  77.      A    little    tallow 

smeared  round 
and  worked  in  will  stop  it.  A  frame,  1 1,  carrying  two 
pulleys,  H  H,  and  a  length  of  pipe  down  to  K,  complete 
the  top  and  fixed  part  of  the  chandelier.  The  cup  and 
ball,  B  c,  enable  the  arms  of  the  chandelier  to  be  twisted 
round  and  give  considerable  play  and  freedom  of  motion. 
The  lower  part,  or  chandelier  proper,  consists  of  a  small 
inner  tube  E,  small  enough  to  slide  up  through  D,  which 
communicates  with  the  burners,  J  J,  and  a  larger  tube  F, 
into  which  D  will  slide.  F  is  closed  at  the  lower  part 
and  filled  with  water,  which  effectually  prevents  the  gas 
from  escaping. 

The  lower  part  is  exactly  counterpoised  by  the  weights 
G  G,  which  hang  over  the  pulleys  H  H  by  chains.  These 
weights  are  often  made  hollow,  with  lead  or  shot  run  in 
to  make  the  balancing  more  exact.  The  water  in  F  will, 
in  time,  become  evaporated,  and  will  need  renewing. 
Evaporation  is  prevented  by  a  teaspoonful  of  oil  being 

18 


274 


THE    TOILETTE. 


poured  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  proper  way  to 
do  this  is  to  push  the  lower  part  up  as  high  as  it  will 
go,  and  then  fill  it  up  to  the  top,  for  if  filled  when  the 
chandelier  is  down  (a  practice,  we  know,  often  adopted) 
the  pushing  up  will  cause  an  overilow,  because  of  the 
displacement  of  the  water  by  the  middle  tube.  We  have 
purposely  exaggerated  the  dimensions  of  the  tubes  for 
greater  distinctness.  Fig.  ']']  shows  the  joint  of  the  tele- 
scope pendant ;  A  is  the  down-pipe,  B  the  telescope-tube, 
which  slides  through  a  brass  gland  C,  packed  either  with 
greased  tow,  or  with  cork  or  leather.  If  the  joint  is  too 
loose,  screw  up  D,  and  so  tighten  the  packing  of  the 
gland.  This  joint  is  on  exactly  the  same  principle  as 
the  stuffing-box  of  the  piston-rod  of  a  steam-engine. 
Telescope  pendants  often  swing  by  a  joint  at  the 
ceiling,  so  that  they  can  be  hooked  up  to  the  roof,  out 
of  the  way. 

^  A  word  here  on  the  subject  of  ventilation  will  not  be 
out  of  place.  To  burn  gas  constantly  in  any  living-room 
without  providing  for  the  escape  of  the  effluvia,  is  to 
ensure  the  breathing  of  a  most  hurtful  and  pernicious 
atmosphere,  and  such  a  practice  cannot  be  too  strongly 
condemned.  A  grating  should  be  concealed  in  the 
central  flower,  and  a  pipe,  not  less  than  two  inches  in 
bore,  carried  from  it  to  an  air-brick  in  the  wall,  or 
into  a  chimney.  This  pipe  will  convey  away  not  only 
the  air  destroyed  by  the  gas,  but  a  current  will  be  created 
which  will  carry  off  all  the  foul  air  produced  by  the 
breathing  of  the  inmates  of  the  room.  The  sun-lights 
fixed  in  the  roofs  of  public  buildings  are  always  provided 
with  large  tubes  leading  through  the  roof,  and  they 
form  an  extremely  important  and  efficient  means  of 
ventilation. 

We  come  now  to  the  burners.  Fig.  78  is  the  com- 
monest form,  the  fish-tail  burner.  It  consists  of  a  hollow 
cylinder  or  barrel  screwed  to  fit  the  nozzle  of  the  pipe. 
The  top  of  this  barrel  is  closed  over,  but  has  two  small 
holes  pointing  diagonally  across  each  other  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  two  streams  of  gas  impinge  upon  each 
other,  and  spread  out  in  the  form  of  a  fish's  tail,  whence 
the  name.  Where  the  pressure  of  the  gas  is  high  it  is  a 
good  thing  to  unscrew  the  burner  and  put  a  li-ttle  loose 
cotton  wool  inside  to  reduce  it,  as  gas  at  a  low  pressure 
burns  much  more  economically.  Fish-tail  burners  become 
corroded  in  time,  and  require  pricking  out  with  a  stout 
pin.  Fig.  79  is  the  flame  of  a  batswing  burner,  which  is 
similar  to  the  last,  but  instead  of  a  flat  top  pierced  by  two 
holes,  it  is  shaped  into  a  dome,  which  has  a  thin  slit  cut 
through  the  middle  of  it.  The  gas  issues  through  this  slit 
and  forms  a  wide-spreading  flame  as  shown.  It  takes  its 
name  from  its  resemblance  to  the  outstretched  wing  of  a 
bat.  The  packing  recommended  for  the  fish-tail  will 
sometimes  be  found  good  for  this  form,  but  as  it  requires 
the  passage  of  a  larger  quantity  of  gas,  the  wool  must  be 
put  in  more  loosely.  The  batswing  is  not  an  economical 
form  of  burner,  for  while  it  will  give  more  light  than  one 
fish-tail,  it  will  consume  more  gas  in  proportion.  The 
object  of  a  burner  is  to  produce  a  sheet  of  flame  as  thin 
as  possible,  in  order  that  the  oxygen  of  the  air  may  com- 
bine with  the  hydrogen  in  the  gas  in  the  freest  manner, 
and  wherever  the  flame  appears  to  have  a  visible  thickness, 
loss  of  light  is  the  result.  Fig.  80  is  a  cockspur  jet,  which 
is  of  a  fanciful  character,  and  not  much  used  for  house 
illumination.  It  is  a  dome  like  the  batswing,  but  pierced 
with  holes  instead  of  being  slit.  The  Argand  burner.  Fig.  81, 
consists  of  a  hollow  ring  E,  which  is  pierced  with  minute 
holes  in  its  upper  surface,  and  supplied  with  gas  through 
D.  From  a  shoulder  to  the  ring  a  wire,  F,  springs,  to  form 
a  support  for  a  glass  chimney,  which  must  be  invariably 
used.  From  its  formation  this  burner  produces  a  hollow 
cylindrical  flame,  to  which  a  current  of  air  is  admitted, 
both  internally  and  externally,  and  by  reason  of  the  draught 
created  up  the  chimney  by  the  natural  tendency  of  heated 


air  to  ascend,  the  contact  between  the  air  and  the  gas  is 
very  complete,  the  greatest  possible  oxygenation  of  the  gas 
being  the  result. 

It  has  been  found  very  beneficial  to  pass  the  stream  of 
gas  about  to  be  consumed  through  liquids  containing 
carbon  in  large  quantities,  such  as  naphtha  or  petroleum, 
some  of  the  particles  thereby  being  absorbed  by  the  gas, 
and  retained  a  short  time,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  brilliancy  and  purity  of  the  light  is  consequently  con- 
siderably increased,  but,  the  economy  depending  in  a  great 
measure  upon  a  chemical  understanding  of  the  process, 
and  some  trouble  being  necessary  in  its  manipulation,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  small  consumers  would  find  it  worth 
while  to  adopt  it.  We  should  most  decidedly  advocate, 
however,  the  more  general  adoption  of  mercurial  regula- 
tors as  certain  preventatives  of  a  great  amount  of  waste. 
These  regulators  are  so  contrived  that  no  matter  how  ii^.'ff 
or  how  many  burners  are  used  at  a  time,  an  even  and 
unalterable  pressure  is  steadily  maintained,  and  that  an 
adjustable  pressure.  To  illustrate  the  matter  more 
plainly,  suppose  a  number  of  burners  have  been  used, 
and  all  but  one' or  two  turned  out,  these  last  will  have 
the  pressure  so  much  increased,  as  often  to  cause  the 
gas  to  rush  violently  out,  and  thereby  be  in  danger  of 
breaking  glasses,  or  perhaps  even  of  shooting  so  high  as 
to  set  fire  to  wood-work  or  inflammable  material  not  other- 
wise within  reach.  But  the  mercurial  regulator  obviates 
such  a  possibility,  and  whether  fifty  or  only  one  jet  is  on 
at  once,  the  pressure  is  invariable.  We  have  been  assured 
by  those  who  have  given  them  an  impartial  trial  that  the 
saving  effected  in  gas  alone  has  been  sufficient  to  pay 
their  cost  in  a  few  months. 

In  our  next  article  we  propose  to  treat  of  gas  as  applied 
to  purposes  of  heating,  and  more  especially  of  cooking. 


THE  TOILETTE. 


II. — THE  HAIR  AND  ITS  MANAGEMENT   {continued). 

We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  question  of  how 
best  to  keep  hair  in  a  good  and  healthy  condition. 
There  are  one  or  two  special  considerations  that  must  be 
attended  to,  to  this  end.  In  the  first  place  it  is  as 
necessary  to  observe  cleanliness  in  regard  to  the  hair  as 
much  as  in  the  case  of  the  skin.  The  scalp  itself  should  be 
kept  properly  freed  from  all  dust,  scaliness,  discoloration 
from  dirt,  and  so  on.  But  we  shall  remark  on  this  point 
specially  under  tlic  head  of  washing.  Secondly,  in 
making  the  toilette  (and  this  applies  with  special  force  to 
the  case  of  ladies)  care  should  be  taken  to  arrange  the 
hair  in  the  direction  in  which  it  naturally  grows.  It  is 
very  much  the  fashion  now-a-days  to  turn  and  twist  the 
hair  about  in  the  most  diverse  ways.  The  front  hair  will 
be  turned  backward  and  upward  over  the  scalp,  and  the 
hair  at  the  back  of  the  head  brought  upwards  on  the 
stretch  on  to  the  scalp  at  the  top  of  the  head,  and  so  on. 
Now  if  the  hair  is  at  all  put  upon  the  stretch,  there  is  a 
strain  upon  the  roots  which  acts  very  injuriously  upon  the 
vigorous  growth  of  the  hair,  and  if  there  be  any  tendency 
to  loss  of  hair  it  will  be  all  the  more  likely  to  develop 
itself.  As  far  as  possible  therefore,  those  who  wish  to  do 
the  utmost  to  prevent  damage  to  their  hair  must  avoid 
any  prevalent  fashion  of  putting  it  upon  the  stretch  in  a 
direction  contrary  to  that  which  it  naturally  assumes. 
Thirdly,  it  is  very  necessaiy  that  no  tight  bands  .be 
permitted  to  press  upon  the  scalp,  or  to  rub  constantly 
over  the  hair,  for  these  not  unfrequently  lead  to  baldness  of 
the  part  pressed.  Fourthly,  only  the  most  ordinary  and 
simple  applications  should  be  used  to  the  hair  and  scalp. 
In  the  first  place  stimulating  washes  and  the  like  should 
not  be  used  to  healthy  heads,  but  to  thos-e  which  are 
diseased  or  defective  in  their  power  of  forming  hair. 
Then  pomades  and  the  like  should  be  fresh  and  free  from 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


27i 


all  rancidity.  Fifthly,  dyos  should,  when  used  at  all,  be  se- 
lected with  much  caution,  some  being  very  injurious  to  the 
texture  of  the  hair.  Sixthly,  there  should  be  a  systematic 
manner  of  dealing  with  the  hair  in  reference,  to  cutting, 
washing,  and  such-like  things.  What  we  mean  is,  that  no 
change  in  the  manner  of  treating  the  hair  should  be  made 
suddenly,  or  at  irregular  intervals.  It  should  not  be  washed 
now  with  hot,  now  with  cold  water,  now  without,  now  with 
soap ;  cut  very  short  at  one  time  after  a  long  interval  and 
then  snipped  at  other  times  at  short  intervals ;  but  our 
behaviour  towards  it  should  be  uniform  and  constant.  In 
that  way  we  get  an  even  and  constant  growth,  so  to  speak. 
Fifthly,  all  excesses  should  be  avoided  as  regards  the  actual 
growth  of  the  hair.  There  are  some  mothers  who  fondly 
delight  in  the  ample  and  golden  locks  that  adorn  the 
shoulders  and  backs  of  their  little  ones,  and  very  naturally 
so  ;  but  we  are  quite  sure  that  in  some  of  these  fair- 
haired  children  the  after  results  are  bad  ;  the  powers  of 
the  scalp  are  taxed  in  childhood  and  young  life  to  pro- 
duce a  luxuriant  crop,  only  to  be  exhausted  the  more 
speedily  as  years  pass  on.  Certainly  it  is  safer  to  keep 
the  hair  in  the  young  of  moderate  length  ;  it  is  not  only 
more  cleanly  in  every  sense,  but  more  conducive  to  a 
strong  growth  of  hair.  Lastly,  the  scalp  should  be  kept 
moderately  cool.  Some  ladies  bedizen  themselves  with 
an  enormous  amount  of  head-gear  that  makes  their  head 
hot,  deranges  the  local  circulation,  and  leads  to  debility 
in  the  hair-forming  apparatus.  In  the  case  of  boys  it  is 
by  no  means  injurious  to  the  hair  to  let  them  be  a  good 
deal  with  the  head  uncovered:  of  course  in  cold,  damp 
weather  this  cannot  be  permitted,  but  in  fair  and  mild 
weather  a  good  blow  in  the  wind,  especially  if  exercise  is 
being  taken,  is  rather  good  than  otherwise  ;  on  the  same 
principle  it  is  bad  to  wrap  up  the  head  in  hot  night-caps 
and  wrappers  at  night,  better  by  far  sleep  with  the  head 
cool  and  uncovered. 

Washing. — This  is  an  operation  that  is  most  beneficial. 
At  least  it  should  be  practised  once  a  week  by  adults  and 
the  young.  In  the  case  of  babies  it  may  be  done  every 
morning  before  they  go  into  their  bath.  But  there  are 
one  or  two  things  necessary  to  be  observed.  No  strong 
soap  should  be  used,  but  a  very  mild  one.  We  have 
already  spoken  highly  of  JQeaxs'  transparent  soap,  and 
indeed  it  is  the  best.  The  scalp  should  be  fairly  rubbed 
with  the  points  of  the  fingers,  when  the  head  is  in  a  lather. 
If  soap  is  objected  to,  white  of  cg^  may  supply  its  place. 
Tepid  water  should  be  used,  with  a  douche  of  cold  water 
to  finish  off  with,  for  this  gives  tone  to  the  scalp.  The 
hair  should  then  be  very  well  dried,  the  scalp  slightly 
greased  with  pomade,  the  finger  being  used  to  apply  it  in 
partings  made  here  and  there  over  the  scalp,  and  then  a 
brushing  will  apply  as  much  grease  to  the  hair  itself  as 
will  prevent  any  too  much  evaporation  through  the  hair. 
The  use  of  the  grease  after  washing  is  a  preventive  to  too 
much  evaporation.  Those  who  are  afraid  of  catching  cold 
will  find  that  the  use  of  some  pomade  in  the  way  just 
indicated  will  save  them  from  the  evil  they  fear.  The  truth 
is,  that  in  many  cases  after  the  natural  fatty  matter  is 
removed  from  the  scalp  and  hair  by  the  soap  used,  there 
is  so  much  chilling  of  the  head  from  the  evaporation,  that 
cold  results  ;  but  the  use  of  grease  defeats  this  occur- 
rence. There  is  no  objection  to  the  addition  of  a  little  Eau 
de  Cologne  to  the  water  with  which  the  head  is  washed ; 
we  do  not  approve,  as  a  rule,  of  the  use  of  any  spirituous 
liquid,  for  the  simple  reason,  that  its  evaporation  takes 
place  very  rapidly  and  may  chill  the  scalp.  There  are 
some  persons  who  like  sponging  the  head  with  cold  water, 
or  who  allow  their  shower  bath  to  fall  upon  their  head. 
Others  prefer  a  tepid  douche  over  the  head.  There  can 
be  no  objection  to  these  practices  if  they  are  habitual,  if  a 
glow  is  felt  in  the  scalp  after  their  use,  or  if  they  are  not 
followed  by  the  occurrence  of  any  headache  or  the  like. 

Brushing. — Different  opinions  are  often  given  upon  this 


matter.  Some  advise  very  hard  brushes,  others  soft,  some 
"electrical"  brushes,  others  those  that  are  "magnetic," 
and  so  on.  Now  what  is  the  object  of  brushing.'  In  ttie 
first  place,  to  remove  the  dust  or  dirt  that  gets  en- 
tangled in  the  hair,  and  secondly  to  stimulate  the 
circulation  of  the  head  to  a  moderate  degree,  so  as  to 
keep  the  hair  follicles  up  to  their  work.  Now,  for  the 
mere  freeing  of  the  hair  from  dust,  and  this  applies  par- 
ticularly to  the  case  of  ladies,  a  soft  brush  is  as  good  as 
a  hard  one  ;  but  as  regards  the  gentle  stimulation  cf  the 
scalp,  the  brush  should  be  as  stiff  as  can  be  used  with 
co7nfort  to  the  possessor.  The  scalp  should  never  be  so 
vigorously  brushed  as  to  make  it  tender  or  painful.  There 
are  many  who  cause  pain  by  the  way  in  which  they  brush 
the  scalp,  and  they  think  they  stir  up  the  hair  bulbs  to 
increased'  vigour  ;  but  they  do  the  reverse,  they  really 
irritate.  The  scalp  after  brushing  should  be  gently 
stimulated,  nothing  more  than  this.  Hence  each  man  or 
woman  must  use  that  kind  of  brush  as  regards  stiffness 
or  Softness,  and  that  amount  of  brushing  which  makes 
the  head  feel  "glowing;"  but  decidedly  not  painful,  or 
hot  and  tender.  We  do  not  give  our  reason  in  any  detail 
for  proving  that  what  we  say  is  true,  but  we  speak  em- 
phatically and  dogmatically  from  extensive  experience, 
and  our  readers  will  do  well  to  follow  the  course  we  lay 
down  for  them.  Electric  and  magnetic  brushes  are  very 
well  in  their  way,  but  they  have  no  particular  virtue  in 
them  for  healthy  heads  of  hair. 

Cutting. — A  few  words  will  suffice  for  our  notice  of 
this.  If  cutting  is  to  be  of  real  use,  it  should  be  had 
recourse  to  at  regular  intervals ;  we  think  it  much  better 
that  a  small  amount  should  be  removed  at  short  intervals, 
than  a  good  deal  at  one  sitting  after  a  long  period  of 
waiting.  It  would  certainly  be  best  that  everyone  should, 
to  use  a  barber's  expression,  "have  the  ends  trimmed" 
every  fortnight  if  this  were  possible,  at  least  once  a  month. 
If,  in  the  case  of  ladies,  the  hair  shows  a  disposition  to 
split,  the  cutting  of  a  tiny  portion  off  the  hair  every  fort- 
night or  so  is  really  beneficial.  Some  hairdressers  dilate 
eloquently  upon  the  advantages  of  singeing  the  hair ;  they 
say  that  this  operation  seals  up  the  ends  of  the  hair,  and 
prevents  the  escape  of  the  nutrient  juices ;  which  is  so 
much  nonsense,  because  the  hair  is  not  a  tube,  nor  does 
it,  when  cut  across,  let  out  any  of  its  juices. 

Curling  is  not  a  procedure  which  we  can  commend. 
It,  perhaps,  does  not  have  very  much  influence,  when  done 
moderately,  in  checking  or  damaging  the  growth  of  the 
hair,  but  if  frequently  and  extensively  practised,  it  no 
doubt  would  do  so.  At  the  same  time,  it  does  alter  the 
texture  of  the  hair  somewhat  at  the  part  which  comes 
into  contact  with  the  iron.  But,  happily,  curling  is  not  a 
thing  much  in  fashion  at  present. 

Pomades. — We  must  confess  that  we  have  never  been 
able  to  understand  the  reason  why  some  hairdressers 
decry  the  use  of  pomades.  Nature  herself  has  provided 
two  little  pomade-makers,  or  fatty  glands,  that  open  into 
the  hair  follicle,  one  on  each  side  of  the  hair,  for  the 
express  purpose  of  greasing  the  hair  and  the  scalp.  This 
teaches  us  that  a  certain  amount  of  fatty  matter  is  neces- 
sary and  beneficial  to  the  proper  growth  of  the  hair.  Let 
us  add  that  pomades  are  to  be  used  in  those  cases  where 
the  natund  fatty  secretion  of  the  scalp  is  deficient — where 
the  head  is  dry  and  tending  to  be  scurfy.  Some  persons 
do  not  require  them.  When  pomades  arc  used,  there  are 
three  things  to  be  observed.  The  head  must  be  washed 
frequently,  or,  at  least,  once  a  week,  to  remove  the  old 
greasy  material  which  must  be  present  ;  the  pomade  must 
be  applied  to  the  scalp  in  diiVerent  places— in  various 
partings— and  brushed  out  into  the  hair  ;  and,  thirdly,  the 
pomades  must  never  be  used  if  they  are  in  the  least  lic.i^ree 
rancid,  or  approaching  thereto.  Pomades  arc  infinitely 
to  be  preferred  to  spirituous  lotions  and  washes,  and  they 
arc  needed  in  our  variable  climate. 


276 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 


A  few  words  as  to  the  preparation  of  pomades.  Cooley, 
who  is  a  great  authority  in  this  matter,  says,  that  in  the 
preparation  of  pomades  one  of  the  first  objects  is  to 
obtain  the  fatty  basis  in  as  fresh  and  pure  a  state  as 
possible.  Lard,  beef  or  mutton  suet,  either  singly  or 
together,  are  generally  used.  The  fat,  carefully  selected 
and  freed  from  skin  and  other  foreign  matter,  is  pounded 
in  a  mortar  until  all  the  membranes  are  completely  torn 
asunder.  It  is  next  placed  in  a  covered  porcelain  or 
polished  metal  pan,  and  submitted  to  the  heat  of  a  water 
bath,  which  is  continued  till  its  fatty  portion  has  liquefied, 
and  the  other  matters  have  subsided  and  separated.  The 
liquid  fat  is  then  carefully  skimmed,  and  at  once  passed 
through  a  clean  filter.  In  this  state  it  can  be  perfumed 
at  will ;  after  which,  when  it  is  intended  that  the  pomade 
shall  be  opaque  and  white,  it  is  kept  stirred  or  beaten  with 
a  glass  or  wooden  knife  until  it  concretes  ;  but  when  it  is 
desired  to  be  transparent  and  crystalline,  it  is  allowed  to 
cool  very  slowly,  and  without  being  disturbed.  To  prevent 
rancidity,  a  little  benzoic  acid  or  gum  benjamin  is  added 
when  in  the  liquid  state.  Sometimes  a  littl©  bees'-wax,  or 
white  wax,  is  melted  with  the  fat  to  give  it  greater  solidity. 
We  will  give  the  recipes  for  several  kinds  of  pomatums 
and  oils  which  housewives  can  manufacture  for  them- 
selves. 

Ordinary  Scetited  Pomatum. 

The  pomatum  prepared  in  the  way 
above  described i  pound. 

Melt  with  a  gentle  heat,  and  add 

essence  of  lemon 2  teaspoonfuls 

Stir  till  it  solidifies. 

Castor-Oil    Pomade. 

Castor-oil  i  pound. 

White  wax        ...         4  ounces. 

Melt  these  together,  and  when  cooling  add  any  scent — 
bergamot  or  oil  of  lavender— with  a  few  drops  of  oil  of 
ambergris. 

Crystallised  Pomade. 

Olive  oil  I  pound. 

Spermaceti        3  ounces. 

Melt  together,  and  then  add  to  it  essence  of  bergamot 
60  drops,  and  30  drops  of  each  of  the  oils  of  verbena, 
lavender,  and  rosemary.  Pour  it  into  a  rather  wide- 
mouthed  glass  bottle,  and  leave  the  whole  perfectly  quiet, 
to  cool  undisturbed. 

Marrow  Pomade. 
Prepared  beef  marrow  ...         ...  i  pound. 

Beef  suet  ...         ...         ...         ...  \  pound. 

Palm  oil  ...         ...         ...         ...  jounce. 

Melt  together,  and  add  scent. 

'■'•  Macassar''''  Pomade. 

Castor  oil         5  ounees. 

White  wax        ...         ...         ...         ...     i  ounce. 

Alkanet  root       ..         ...         ...         ...  30  grains. 

To  be  heated  together  and  mixed  ;  then  strain  and  add 
oil  of  origanum  and  oil  of  rosemary,  of  each  60  drops, 
oil  of  nutmeg  30  drops,  otto  of  roses  10  drops. 

East  India  Pomade. 

Suet       3  pounds. 

Lard       ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  2  pounds. 

Bees'-wax  ...         ...         ...         ...  \  pound. 

Palm  oil  ...         ...         ...         ...  2  ounces. 

Powdered  gum  benzoin  ,         ...  3  ounces. 

Musk  rubbed  up  with  a  little  sugar...  20  grains. 
Heat  up  the  whole  by  means  of  a  water  bath  for  two 
hours,  pour  off  the  clear  liquid,  and  add  to  it 

Essence  of  lemon        ...         ...         ...  \  ounce. 

Oil  of  lavender  ...         ...         ...  \  ounce. 

Oil  of  cloves,  cassia,  verbena,  of  each  30  drops. 
A  great  favourite. 


Macassar  Oil. 
Oil  of  almonds,  coloured  by  alkanet  root     i  pint. 

Oil  of  rosemary  and  origanum,  of  each  60  drops. 

Oil  of  nutmeg  and  otto  of  roses,  of  each  15  drof)s. 

Neroli 6  drops. 

Essence  of  Musk        3  drops. 

Mix. 

Marrow  Oil. 
Take  clarified  beef  marrow  one  part,  oil  of  almonds 
three  parts.     Melt  together,  and  strain  through  muslm, 
and  then  scent  in  any  way  desired.     This  may  also  be 
coloured  with  alkanet  root  or  palm  oil. 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 

IV.— HOUSING     HAY.— FENCING. 

Stack  Stands. — Hay-stacks  are  built  upon  frames  sup- 
ported by  capped  pillars  to  keep  the  hay  free  from  damp 
and  vermin.  In  plentiful  years  the  hay  may  be  built 
from  one  to  two  feet  farther  over  the  stack  stand  than  in 
ordinary  or  bad  seasons,  and  proportionally  higher.  The 
height  of  the  stack  to  the  eaves,  after  settling  down,  should 
about  equal  the  breadth  at  the  eaves  ;  and  the  breadth  at 
the  eaves  should  be  from  two  to  four  feet  more  than  at 
the  base,  in  order  to  carry  the  drip  from  the  roof  over  the 
sides.  The  height  of  the  roof  should  not  be  less  ftian 
the  breadth  at  the  base.  A  cubic  yard  of  newly-stacked 
hay  usually  weighs  eight  or  ten  stones  of  fourteen  pounds 
each,  and  of  old  hay  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  stones. 
Owing  to  this  difference  of  weight  between  new  and  old 
hay,  the  hay-stack,  when  newly  built,  requires  to  be  pro- 
portionally higher  in  order  that  it  may  have  the  proper 
shape  when  it  settles  down. 

Dutch  Hay  Barns  are  made  either  round  or  long,  and 
the  rules  for  calculating  the  size  required  to  hold  a  given 
quantity  of  hay  are  the  same  as  those  for  round  and 
long  stack  stands.  Fig.  2  shows  a  round  one  built  on  a 
brick  stand,  the  coping  of  which  projects  a  few  inches  to 
prevent  the  ascent  of  vermin.  The  roof  is  of  corrugated 
iron.  In  building  the  stack  the  roof  is  raised  by  means  of 
a  handspike  and  pin.  In  each  of  the  upright  posts  there 
are  two  rows  of  holes — one  for  the  pin  that  supports  the 
roof,  and  the  other  for  the  lever-pin.  In  raising  the  roof  the 
labourer  goes  round  with  his  handspike  and  pin  raising 
it  at  each  post  the  distance  between  two  pin  holes  ;  and  in 
the  winter  time,  when  the  hay  is  being  consumed,  he  lets 
down  the  roof  close  on  the  hay  in  a  similar  way.  A  long 
barn,  twenty  feet  by  ten,  would  require  three  standards  at 
each  side,  and  the  roof  is  raised  and  lowered  in  the  same 
way  as  the  roof  of  a  round  one.  In  taking  in  hay  for 
cattle  a  uniform  thickness  is  taken  from  the  top,  so  as  to 
let  down  the  roof  close,  and  thus  keep  out  rain,  &c. 

The  Modern  English  Hay  Barn  is  built  on  a  stack  stand 
with  the  coping  projecting  to  keep  out  vermin,  the  roof 
being  fixed  and  supported  by  pillars  of  brick,  stone,  iron, 
or  wood.  Under  able  husbandry  the  barn  should  be  of 
sufficient  length  to  hold  not  only  the  hay,  but  corn  crops 
also.  The  corn  crops  are  built  in  mows,  but  the  hay  crop 
is  built  the  whole  length  of  the  stack,  and  in  taking  in  hay 
for  consumption,  it  is  cut  down  with  a  hay  knife  in  narrow 
mows  the  length  of  a  truss,  vertically  from  top  to  bottom, 
beginning  at  one  end.  The  hay  in  the  barn  should  be 
covered  with  a  sufficient  thickness  of  straw  to  keep  it 
clean,  and  when  overtaken  by  rainy  weather  in  harvest,  a 
rickcloth  or  straw  mat  may  be  needed  at  one  side  to  keep 
the  hay  dry.  The  straw  mat  thus  used  would  do  for 
covering.  Some  large  farmers  thatch  the  sides  of  hay 
and  pea  stacks — also  oat  and  barley  stacks — when  carried 
loose,  and  for  this  purpose  straw  matting  is  the  best,  and 
the  small  stacks  of  the  cottager  stand  greatly  in  need  of 
side  thatching. 

Fencing.  —  In    stubbing    out    an    old   or   superfluous 


CASSELL'S  HOUSEHOLD  GUIDE. 


•11 


hedge,  first  clean  out  the  ditch  on  one  or  both  sides,  a  ,  spit  thrown  up  to  form  the  "hedge-bank,"  or  "mound"  a. 
spit  deep,  with  the  bottom  draining  spade,  put  in  a  pipe,  \  This  mound  is  next  levelled  smooth  by  means  of  a  tight 
cover  lightly  to  protect  it,  and  then  undermine  the  hedge  j  line,  the  back  of  the  spade,  and  tlie  feet,  a  straight  edge 


with  a  pickaxe.  Begin  at  the  lower  end  to  level  in,  and 
as  you  come  up  to  the  undermined  plants  they  will  fall 
over  and  may  be  pulled  up  with  little  trouble.  Sometimes 
the  healthiest  plants  arc  used 
for  filling  up  gaps  in  other 
hedges,  and  such  should  be 
carefully  taken  up  in  order 
not  to  injure  the  roots.  And 
as  gaps  should  be  filled  be- 
tween October  and  March  in 
the  north,  and  between  No- 
vember and  February  in  the 
south,  it  follows  that  the  work 
of  stubbing  should  be  done  at  the  same  time,  and  the 
planting  effected  as  subsequently  directed. 

The  work  of  planting  a  thorn  or  quick  hedge  is  more 
or  less  modified  by  the  character  of  the  soil,  climate,  and 
exposure  to  blasting  winds,  or  the 
depredation  of  animals.  If  the  land 
requires  artificial  drainage,  a  drain  4 
feet  deep  should  run  along  each  side. 
It  is  common  to  have  an  open  ditch 
on  one  or  both  sides — partly  to  drain 
the  hedge,  and  partly  to  defend  it  from 
cattle.  But  open  ditches  occupy  a  large 
area  of  land,  which  is  highly  objec- 
tionable, more  especially  on  a  small 
farm,  while  they  expose  the  roots  of 
the  hedge  to  the  drought  of  summer 
and  frost  of  winter,  and  are  besides 
liable  to  crumble  in  and  thus  impede 
drainage  and  lay  bare  the  roots.  An 
under  drain,  4'  feet  deep  on  each  side 
of  the  line  intended  for  the  hedge, 
and  from  4  to  6  feet  from  it,  will  drain 
the  hedge  better  than  an  open  ditch 
from  2^  to  3  feet  deep  ;  while  a  narrow 
ditch,  2  feet  mde  and  i  to  \\  in 
depth,  will  defend  the  young  quicks, 
and  after  they  are  up  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  may  be  cultivated  close  up 
to  the  hedge-bank.  But  before  open- 
ing this  shallow  ditch  the  ground  be- 
tween the  underground  drains  should 
be  trenched,  at  the  very  least,  2  feet  in 
depth  before  winter,  to  gain  the  benefit  of  the  frost  ; 
then  fallowed,  limed,  and  manured  the  following  summer 
prior  to  planting.  If  the  land  is  a  wet  stubborn  clay,  the 
narrow  strip  thus  trenched  will  be  8  feet  in  breadth  from 
drain  to  drain,  if  more  manageable  12 
feet  in  breadth.  Dry  soils  that  are  naturally 
drained  require  to  be  trenched,  limed,  and 
manured  in  the  same  way.  The  hedge 
row  will  occupy  about  3 
feet  in  breadth,  and  in 
poor,  sandy,  and  gravelly 
soils  this  breadth  should  be 
heavily  clayed  before  winter 
so  as  to  get  the  clay  properly 
incorporated  ;  and  in  rocky 
soils  earth,  to  form  sufficient 
depth  of  soil,  may  have  to  be  carted  on  where  too  shallow, 
otherwise  the  young  plants  will  be  stunted  in  growth,  and 
soon  cease  to  prove  a  fence. 

There  are  three  modes  of  planting  :  one  row  of  plants 
laid  flat,  one  row  planted  upright,  and  two  rows  planted 
upright.  The  annexed  engravings.  Figs.  I  and  3,  will 
illustrate  the  three  plans. 

According  to  the  first  plan.  Fig.  i,  the  line  of  the  ditch 
X  is  staked  out  the  whole  length  of  the  hedge,  and  the  top 


being  at  the  same  time  formed  at  a.  The  young  plants 
are  headed  or  cut  down  to  within  2  inches  of  the  root. 
This  should  be  done  in  the  nursery,  or  before  they  come 
to  the  field,  with  a  sharp 
knife,  unhealthy  plants  being 
thrown  aside.  The  small 
bundles  of  50  or  100  are  laid 
down  at  regular  intervals. 
The  plants  are  then  laid  flat 
upon  the  bank  at  «  in  a  line 
six  inches  asunder  ;  a  narrow 
piece  of  railing  being  laid 
upon  the  cut  ends  to  keep 
them  in  their  places  while  the  roots  are  being  covered. 
Another  spit  is  then  dug  from  the  ditch  x  to  cover  the  roots, 
the  earth  being  trampled  down  firm  with  the  foot ;  this 
done  the  rail  is  shifted  on  to  another  length  and  so  on, 
and  the  remainder  of  the  earth  dug 
out  to  form  the  hedge -bank  which 
is  rounded  over  as  illustrated  ;  about 
an  inch  of  the  plants  being  out  of  the 
ground,  and  from  3  to  10  inches 
from  the  slope  of  the  ditch  slightly 
rounded  off  to  prevent  ►stagnation  of 
water. 

Fig.  3  shows  two  rows  of  quicks 
planted  on  the  top  of  the  hedge-bank, 
between  two  small  ditches,  2  feet  by 
\\  feet.  The  ditches  are  laid  «ft',  and 
the  mound  levelled,  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding plan;  the  plants  also  come  to 
the  field  headed  down  to  within  2 
inches  of  the  roots,  but  in  this  case 
more  attention  requires  to  be  paid  to 
the  trimming  of  the  roots,  so  as  to 
have  them  of  uniform  length.  Two 
trenches  are  then  opened,  10  inches 
asunder,  and  in  them  the  plants  are 
set  8  inches  apart  ;  the  plants  in  one 
line  being  opposite  the  open  spaces 
in  the  other.  The  roots  are  then 
covered,  and  the  bank  finished  up, 
leaving  the  top  of  the  plants  about 
2.  an   inch    above    the   surface.       If    the 

hedge  is  intended  to  enclose  a  plan- 
tation, there  will  be  no  need  of  a  ditch  inside,  so  that 
in  this  case  the  mound  inside  will  be  as  in  the  preceding 
example. 
The  other  plan  has  only  a  single  row  of  plants 
on  the  top  of  the  bank,  planted  6  inches 
asunder.  In  other  respects  it  is]  similar  to 
the  preceding  plan.  The  double  row  hedge 
is  now  generally  preferred,  and  when 
the  land  is  naturally  dry,  or 
properly  drained  artificially, 
the  hedge  will  grow  better  on 
the  flat,  without  a  side  ditch 
or  mound,  provided  two 
things  are  granted,  first,  a 
sufficient  depth  of  earth  for 
the  roots,  and  second,  pro- 
tection from  cattle.  In  the  above  illustrations,  we  have 
assumed  a  small  ditch  and  mound  to  be  necessary  for  pro- 
tection, at  the  outset  ;  but  when  the  hedge  is  up,  the  side 
ditches  may  be  filled  in,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  and 
the  land  cultivated  close  up  to  the  mound  or  hedge. 

A  row  of  railings  on  eac'h  side  of  the  newly-planted 
hedge  is  necessary,  to  protect  it  from  cattle,  and  in  ex- 
posed places  the  railing  may  be  wattled  with  brush-wood 
of  any  kind. 


278 


HOUSEHOLD  AMUSEMENTS. 


HOUSEHOLD  AMUSEMENTS.— IX. 

THE  GAME  OF  WHIST  {fiOTltinued). 
We  have  at  present  described  the  mere  routine  of  whist — 
the  apportionment  of  the  cards,  the  order  in  which  they  are 
played,  and  the  ultimate  object  of  the  game,  namely,  to 
score  a  certain  number  of  points  before  your  opponents. 
This  object,  it  will  have  been  seen  by  those  who  have 
followed  us  attentively,  may  be  gained  either  by  chance  or 
by  skill,  or  by  both  combined.  It  may  be  gained  by  chance, 
when  an  extraordinary  number  of  good  cards  fall  to  one 
player,  or  to  one  side,  in  the  course  of  a  deal,  so  that  if 
the  partners  on  that  side  known  anything  at  all  of  the 
game,  they  must  win,  be  their  opponents  as  skilful  as  they 
may.  For  instance,  we  have  twice,  in  actual  play,  seen 
all  the  honours  and  the  two  next  best  cards  fall  to  a 
single  player,  enabling  him,  apart  from  any  help  by  his 
partner,  or  from  any  assistance  derived  from  his  seven 
other  cards,  to  secure  six  tricks  to  a  certainty,  and  to 
count  four  towards  game  by  honours  after  tricks  were 
reckoned,  but  such  an  incident  is  rare.  On  the  whole, 
the  cards  fall  to  each  side  with  tolerable  equality,  and 
skill  as  a  rule  gets  the  best  of  the  game. 

Skill  at  whist  may  be  reduced  to  two  primary  principles 
^tidgmetit,  when  to  play  out  and  when  to  keep  in  such 
cards  as  you  may  have  in  your  hand,  and  tnemory,  of 
what  cards  have  already  been  played,  and  by  whom ; 
more  or  less  of  the  latter  quality  being  indispensable  for 
the  direction  of  the  former.  Other  faculties,  such  as 
quick  observation,  and  the  power  to  draw  from  what  is 
played  a  correct  inference  as  to  the  object  and  the 
resources  of  the  player,  have  also  an  important  part  to 
perform  ;  making  whist,  to  those  who  study  it  for  its  own 
sake,  a  highly  intellectual  exercise,  and  profitable  in  its 
place,  as  a  means  of  drawing  out  and  quickening  the 
mental  powers. 

As  regards  the  inferences  to  be  drawn,  there  are  certain 
rules,  hereafter  to  be  mentioned,  the  knowledge  of  which 
will  greatly  assist  the  most  inexperienced.  As  to  judgment 
and  memory,  a  player  must  learn  to  cultivate  his  own 
natural  gifts  by  practice.  Some  persons  have  been  known 
to  recollect,  at  any  part  of  a  hand,  every  card  that  was 
played,  and  who  played  it ;  and  to  be  able  to  tell  by 
inference,  before  the  last  trick  is  played,  who  holds  each  of 
the  remaining  cards.  But  we  do  not  recommend  anyone 
to  attempt  to  perform  such  feats  of  intellectual  gymnastics. 
Whist,  we  hold,  like  all  other  games,  should  be  kept  in  its 
proper  place  as  a  recreation,  and  not  made  to  absorb  an 
amount  of  time  and  study  which  is  better  devoted  to  other 
purposes. 

We  will  now  give  a  few  instructions  as  to  playing  out 
the  cards  in  a  hand,  according  to  the  learner's  position  at 
the  table. 

First  Player. — The  first  player,  at  the  commencement 
of  the  hand,  having  what  is  called  the  "  original  lead," 
should  lead  a  card  from  his  strongest  suit ;  namely,  that 
in  which  he  finds  the  most  or  the  highest  cards.  If  he 
has  a  sequence  of  high  cards  ;  that  is,  a  succession  of  ace, 
king,  queen,  &c.,  he  should  lead  from  it,  beginning  with 
the  highest.  If  he  holds  several  small  ones  he  should 
begin  with  the  lowest.  If  he  has  ace,  and  four  or  more 
small  cards  of  a  suit,  he  should  play  the  ace,  for  that  will 
probably  make  the  trick  ;  but  if  he  reserves  it,  the  suit 
may  be  trumped  in  the  second  round,  and  his  ace  will  be 
useless.  The  lead  of  the  first  player  is  understood  to  be 
an  indication  to  his  partner  as  to  where  his>strength  lies  ; 
and  his  partner,  if  an  experienced  player,  will  consequently 
return  the  lead  ;  that  is,  play  a  card  of  the  same  suit  when 
he  gets  the  opportunity.  The  same  rule  holds  good  as  to 
leads  later  in  the  game  :  always  lead  to  your  partner's 
hand  when  your  own  strength  is  doubtful  or  exhausted.  Do 
not  return  the  leads  of  your  opponents,  and  do  not  change 
the  suit  with  which  you  or  your  partner  commenced  until 


compelled  to  do  so.  If  you  have  ace  and  queen  in  your 
hand,  do  not  lead  from  that  suit  if  you  can  avoid  it.  The 
reason  is  that,  in  the  course  of  the  play,  you  may  be  able 
to  take  a  trick  with  the  queen,  and  afterwards  play  the 
ace,  or  to  capture  the  opponents'  king  with  your  ace,  and 
then  play  the  queen  ;  but  if  you  have  ace,  queen,  knave, 
you  may  lead  the  ace  and  afterwards  the  queen.  If  your 
opponents  have  trumped  your  strong  suit  or  your  partner's, 
lead  trumps,  if  you  have  four  or  more.  Do  not  lead  the 
last  card  left  of  a  suit  until  all  the  trumps  are  played. 

Second  Player. — The  second  plays  his  lowest  card  of 
the  suit  led,  unless  he  possesses  strength  which  it  is  desirable 
to  utilise  at  once.  Thus,  if  he  hold  king  and  queen,  or 
ace  and  queen,  he  should  play  the  queen  ;  but  if  he  pos-* 
sesses  one  only  of  those  cards,  he  should  retain  it  and  leave 
the  chance  of  taking  the  trick  to  his  partner.  If  he  hold 
a  sequence  of  two  or  more  winning  cards  in  the  suit  led, 
he  should  play  the  lowest.  This  is  of  consequence,  as  his 
partner  will  thereby  be  able  to  infer  that  he  possesses  a 
higher,  and  play  accordingly ;  whereas,  if  the  second , 
played  his  highest,  there  would  be  no  clue  as  to  where  the 
next  highest  might  be.  To  make  this  the  more  clear,  we 
will  suppose  A,  the  eldest  hand,  to  have  played  a  low 
diamond ;  B,  second  player,  having  king  and  queen,  plays 
the  queen.  C  may  have  the  ace,  and  if  he  plays  it  on  the 
queen,  he  still  leaves  B  in  possession  of  the  winning  card 
for  the  next  round  of  that  suit.  But  D  may  have  the  ace, 
and  in  that  case  he  withholds  it,  as  his  partner  will  already 
have  won  the  trick  with  tlie  queen.  In  any  case  D  sees 
that  the  king  cannot  be  ilk  the  hand  of  C,  or  he  would 
have  played  it  ;  and  hence  he  infers  positively  that  it 
must  be  with  his  partner  B,  or  he  would  not  have  played  out 
his  queen  so  early.  Considerations  like  these  are  impor- 
tant, making  all  the  difference  between  skill  in  the  game 
and  the  want  of  it.  If  you  cannot  follow  the  suit  led, 
throw  out  one  of  your  worst  cards  in  another  suit,  unless 
you  have  reason  to  believe  that  your  partner  cannot  take 
the  trick,  when  you  will  do  well  to  play  a  trump. 

Third  Player. — The  general  rule  for  the  third  player  is 
to  play  his  highest  card,  unless  a  higher  is  played  before 
him.  Thus  he  not  only  stands  a  good  chance  of  winning 
the  trick,  but  also  assists  his  partner  in  his  game,  for  he 
makes  known  to  him  where  the  strength  of  the  suit  lies. 
An  exception  to  this  rule  is  when  the  third  hand  holds 
ace  and  queen,  or  king  and  knave  after  ace  has  been 
played.  He  may  then,  if  he  think  proper, yf^z^jj^ — that  is, 
put  on  the  lower  of  the  two,  risking  the  possibility  of  the 
trick  being  taken  by  the  last  player,  as  the  chances  are 
that  the  intermediate  card  is  not  in  his  but  in  one  of  the 
other  hands. 

Fourth  Player. — Of  him  little  need  be  said,  for  his  task 
is  easy.  If  his  partner  has  already  secured  the  trick  he 
can  play  a  worthless  card,  if  not,  he  wins  it  if  he  can,  and 
by  the  lowest  card  that  will  suffice  for  the  purpose.  The 
case  that  gives  frequent  room  for  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the 
fourth  player  is  when  he  has  none  of  the  suit  left,  the 
trick  being  against  him,  and  hesitates  to  sacrifice  a  good 
trump  to  win  the  trick  before  him  ;  or  when  a  high  trump 
has  been  played  by  an  opponent,  and  he  must  play  a  still 
higher  one  to  take  it ;  for  he  may  desire  to  retain  his  trumps 
in  order  to  bring  in  a  strong  suit,  or  may  hold  one  or  two 
— such  as  ace  and  king — which  he  knows  will  secure 
tricks  at  any  period  of  the  game.  In  such  a  case,  as  well 
as  in  many  others  which  occur  at  whist,  the  old  rule  of 
Hoyle  is  the  best  guide — "When  in  doubt,  win  the  trick;" 
and  this  rule  should  be  observed  at  any  period  of  the 
game. 

The  following  are  other  general  rules  for  the  guidance 
of  the  player,  whatever  his  position,  in  playing  to  a  trick  :— 

General  Rules. — Wlien  you  have  only  two  or  three 
small  trumps  in  your  hand,  make  them  as  soon  as  you  can 
get  the  opportunity — that  is,  if  your  opponents  lead  a  suit 
which  you  cannot  foUow,  play  one  of  your  small  tmmps 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD  GUIDE. 


279 


upon  it  ;  but  be  very  careful  not  to  tnimp  your  partner's 
trick  I.e.,  not  to  play  a  trump  upon  it  when  he  has 
already  secured  it,  or  when  he  has  played  the  best  re- 
maining card  of  a  suit.  When  you  "discard,"  or  throw 
out  a  worthless  card  upon  a  suit  which  you  cannot  follow, 
let  it  be  the  lowest  of  its  suit,  or  you  will  mislead  your 
partner.  But  if  you  have  only  the  second  best  card  of  a 
suit  and  one  small  one,  do  not  discard  the  latter,  but  keep 
it  to  protect  your  second  best  in  case  the  best  should  be 
played.  If  you  have  five  trumps,  lead  one  as  soon  as  you 
can  ;  if  four,  keep  them  in  for  a  time,  to  establish  your 
strong  suit.  /  Narrowly  watch  the  fall  of  trumps — who 
plays  them,  what  cards  they  are,  and  how  many  have 
been  played — so  that  you  may  be  able  to  use  your  own  to 
the  best  advantage.  Do  not  play  out  your  high  cards  of 
a  suit  in  which  your  adversaries  have  shown  strength  ; 
but  of  any  suit  in  which  your  partner  appears  strong,  play 
them  at  the  first  opportunity.  Secure  the  odd  trick — that 
is,  the  seventh-^if  you  possibly  can,  for  it  makes  a  dif- 
ference of  two  to  the  score.  It  puts  you  forward  one 
point,  and  keeps  your  opponents  one  back.  Conse- 
quently, when  you  have  the  chance  of  gaining  it  by 
playing  a  winning  trump,  do  so  without  hesitation.  But 
if  your  side  has  made  six  tricks,  and  you  hold  the  ace  of 
trumps,  you  are  secure  of  the  odd  trick  at  any  time,  and 
consequently  need  not  play  it  out  until  other  considera- 
tions render  it  advisable  to  do. 

Inferences. — Now  as  to  some  of  the  inferences  which 
you  have  to  draw  in  the  progress  of  the  game.  The  rules 
we  have  just  given  must  be  taken  as  the  foundation  of 
them,  for  you  must  suppose  that  your  partner,  if  anything 
of  a  player,  observes  these,  and  plays  accordingly.  If, 
for  instance,  having  an  original  lead,  he  plays  trumps, 
you  have  a  right  to  presume  that  he  is  very  strong  in 
them;  and  the  same  if  he  leads  trumps  early  in  the  game. 
You  must  also  conclude  that  when  he  takes  a  trick  he 
does  so  with  the  lowest  card  he  holds  that  will  suffice  for 
the  purpose  ;  and  thus,  if  he  takes  knave  with  ace,  he 
can  have  neither  queen  nor  king.  It  is  most  important 
thus  to  watch  the  play  of  your  partner,  and  to  play  to  his 
hand,  as  if  yours  and  his  were  one.  The  chief  feature  of 
modern  practice  in  whist,  which  distinguishes  it  from 
old-fashioned  modes  of  playing  the  game,  is  that  it  aims 
to  establish  a  code  of  signals  between  partner  and  partner, 
so  that  each  may  have  a  clue,  in  the  play,  to  what  the 
other  holds,  and  play  to  help  him  ;  the  advantage  thus 
gained  being  considered  to  more  than  counterbalance  the 
disadvantage  of  your  opponents  judging,  by  the  same 
rules,  what  is  held  between  you.  Hence  the  importance 
of  playing  according  to  strict  rule,  so  that  your  partner 
may  infer  correctly.  The  rules  which  lead  you  to  in- 
ferences as  to  what  your  partner  has  in  his  hand  will, 
of  course,  guide  you  in  guessing  what  is  held  by  your 
opponents. 

The  maxim,  however,  that  every  rule  has  its  exceptions, 
holds  good  with  regard  to  whist.  There  are  periods  and 
crises  in  the  play  in  which  a  player  may  be  justified  in 
disregarding  recognised  rules,  for  an  exceptional  hand  or 
an  exceptional  case  may  obviously  warrant  play  that  is 
not  countenanced  by  general  law.  To  those  who  wish  to 
understand  what  may  be  these  exceptions,  or  to  go  more 
fully  than  we  have  space  to  do  into  the  proper  play  of  the 
game  as  applicable  to  various  chances,  we  must  commend 
the  perusal  of  some  of  the  modern  treatises  on  whist,  as 
it  is  played  in  the  London  clubs.  We  will  now  give  a 
concise  summary  of  the  principal  recognised 

LAWS  OF  THE  GAME. 

Dealing. — The  dealer  must  not  shuffle  the  cards  after 
the  pack  is  cut  ;  if  he  does,  he  loses  the  deal.  If  a  card 
be  faced — i.e.,  turned  up  on  its  face — during  the  deal,  a 
new  deal  (by  the  same  person)  may  be  demanded.  If  the 
dealer  look  at  the  trump  card  before  it  is  properly  dealt,  a 
new  deal  may  be  requested.     The  dealer  forfeits  his  deal 


(which  passes  to  the  player  on  the  left)  under  the  follow- 
ing circumstances  : — I.  If  the  last  card  does  not  fall  to  the 
dealer  ;  unless  it  be  found  that  the  pack  is  imperfect. 
2.  Should  one  player  have  fourteen  cards  and  another 
twelve.  3.  Should  the  dealer  place  the  trump-card  face  ' 
downwards  on  the  table.  4.  Should  he  deal  two  cards  to  ' 
one  player  and  then  a  third  to  the  next ;  but  if  he 
discovers  the  first  error,  he  is  allowed  to  alter  it,  by  giving 
the  two  cards  to  the  persons  to  whom  they  would  properly 
have  fallen. 

The  Last  or  Trump  Card. — The  dealer  must  allow  this 
to  remain  on  the  table,  face  upward,  until  he  is  called  on  to 
play  to  the  first  trick,  when  he  should  remove  it  to  his  own 
hand.  No  one  may  afterwards  ask  what  was  the  turn-up 
card,  but  any  one  may  inquire  what  is  the  trump  suit. 

Exposed  Cards. — A  card  dropped  on  the  table,  or 
exhibited,  out  of  the  order  of  play,  is  liable  to  be  called  ; 
that  is,  the  adversaries  may  demand  that  it  shall  be  played 
at  any  period  of  the  game  when  it  would  not  cause  the 
holder  to  "  revoke."  If  two  cards  arc  played  instead  of 
one,  the  adversaries  may  demand  which  they  please  to  be 
played  to  that  trick,  and  afterwards  call  for  the  other.  If 
a  player  throw  down  his  cards  face  upwards,  they  may  all 
be  called  by  his  opponents.  If  a  player  lead  out  of  his 
turn,  the  card  thus  exposed  may  te  called  for  when  it  is 
his  right  turn  to  play  ;  or  the  adversaries  may,  instead, 
demand  that  either  he  or  his  partner,  when  it  is  his  turn 
to  lead,  shall  lead  a  particular  suit. 


THE   QUALITIES   AND   VALUES   OF    GOLD 
AND   SILVER. 

The  extent  to  which  gold  and  silver  are  used,  and  the 
variations  in  their  quality  and  fineness,  render  it  desirable 
to  supply  some  information  on  the  subject.  Both  these 
metals  are  almost  invariably  mixed  with  some  other  of 
inferior  worth  called  alloy,  and  the  value  of  them  is 
determined  by  the  amount  of  alloy.  In  electro-plating, 
the  pure  metal  has  to  be  used.  For  gold  coins,  what  is 
called  standard  gold  is  employed,  containing  one-twelfth, 
or  two  parts  in  twenty-four,  alloy.  If,  therefore,  an  ounce 
of  standard  gold  is  divided  into  twenty-four  parts,  it  con» 
tains  twenty-two  parts  of  pure  gold,  and  two  parts  of 
alloy  ;  and  it  is  called  twenty-two  carat  gold.  This  is 
the  gold  of  which  English  sovereigns  and  half-sovereigns 
are  coined.  Standard  silver,  of  which  our  silver  coinage 
is  made,  consists  of  thirty-seven  parts  silver  and  three 
parts  copper.  Of  this  silver,  all  articles  of  plate  bearing 
the  hall  mark  are  made,  no  inferior  quality  being  marked. 
In  France  the  standard  is  lower,  being  nine  parts  silver 
to  one  copper,  and  therefore  worth  a  smaller  sum  per 
ounce.  In  Prussia  a  still  lower  standard  is  adopted,  and 
one- fourth  of  alloy  is  allowed.  An  ounce  of  English 
standard  silver  is  worth  five  shillings  and  twopence  as 
metal ;  an  ounce  of  pure  metal  is  worth  about  five  shillings 
and  sixpence  ;  one  ounce  of  French  standard  silver  is 
worth  a  little  over  five  shillings  ;  one  ounce  of  silver  of 
the  Prussian  standard  is  only  worth  about  four  shillings 
and  three  halfpence.  English  standard  silver  is,  however, 
that  with  which  we  have  chiefly  to  do.  Of  this,  one 
ounce  troy  consists  of  twenty  pennyweights,  and  it  may 

s.    d. 
..03 

••  I     Zk 

10      „  „  2    7 

15       M  ,.  3  loi 

20      „(i  oz.)     „  5     2 

Silver  of  an  inferior  quality  is  nade  up  into  \vatch- 
chains  and  a  great  many  ornaments,  and  is  of  less  value. 
If  this  inferior  metal  contains  one-fourth  alloy,  it  will  be 
worth  only  about  four  shillings  and  three  halfpence  per 
ounce  ;    if  it  contains  one-third  alloy,  its  value  will  be 


be  valued  as  in  the  following  table  : — 
I  dwt.  of  standard  silver  . . . 
5      >i  » 


28o 


POINT  LACE  WORK. 


about  three  shillings  and  eightpence  per  ounce  ;  and  if 
half  alloy,  it  is  worth  about  two  shillings  and  ninepence 
per  ounce.  In  actual  practice,  however,  silver  of  such  low 
qualities  is  seldom  or  never  sold  by  weight,  but  only  in  a 
manufactured  form,  at  so  much  per  article.  It  may  be 
taken  for  granted  that  whatever  bears  an  English  hall 
mark  is  standard  silver.  These  hall  marks  are  ex- 
plained at  page  i8o.  In  purchasing  silver  spoons,  forks, 
and  plate  generally,  more  or  less  is  charged  over  and 
above  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  metal.  The  extra  charge 
depends  upon  circumstances,  such  as  the  pattern  or  the 
antiquity  of  the  goods.  We  mention  antiquity,  because 
old  plate  will  often  sell  for  more  than  new. 

In  the  case  of  gold  the  variations  are  greater.  As 
observed,  the  ounce  is  divided  into  twenty-four  parts  or 
carats,  of  which  a  certain  number  are  alloy.  Articles  of 
jewellery  are  made  of  every  degree  of  fineness,  and  in 
consequence,  what  is  by  courtesy  called  gold  often  contains 
very  little  of  the  precious  metal.  Thus,  an  ounce  of  six- 
carat  gold  consists  of  three-fourths  alloy,  which  is  practi- 
cally worthless,  and  only  the  one-fourth  gold  is  estimated. 
To  show  the  difference  which  may  exist,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  say  that  an  ounce  of  so-called  gold  which  contains 
but  one  carat  of  pure  gold  is  worth  but  three  shillings  and 
sixpence,  while  an  ounce  of  perfectly  pure  gold  is  worth 
four  guineas.  We  say  four  guineas,  though  some  tables 
give  £\  6s.,  and  others  a  little  more.  In  fact,  the  values 
of  gold  and  silver  fluctuate  with  the  state  of  the  market ; 
hence  our  prices  are  only  approximate.  Very  few  articles  of 
jewellery  are  of  a  higher  standard  than  eighteen  carat,  or 
eighteen  carats  fine,  as  it  is  called.  Many  are  fifteen 
carat,  thirteen  carat,  nine  carat,  and  of  even  much  lower 
denominations.  Articles  which  are  stamped,  or  hall- 
marked, bear  figures  which  indicate  the  number  of  carats ; 
and  in  buying  rings,  &c.,  which  are  said  to  be  hall-marked, 
those  figures  must  be  looked  to.  The  gold  of  an  eighteen- 
carat  ring  haM-marked  is  worth  double  what  it  would  be 
if  only  nine  carat.  As  in  the  case  of  silver,  of  course 
purchasers  are  charged  for  manufacture  and  profit,  and 
be  it  observed  that  cheap  goods  may  and  do  cost  as 
much  as  the  best  for  making.  The  following  table  will, 
we  believe,  now  be  intelligible  : — 

I    -f-    d. 
I  dwt.  of  nine-carat  gold  costs       ...     o     i     7 

5     »  „  „  •••     o    7  loi 

10    „  ,,  „  ...     o  15     9^ 

^5     J)  j>  11  •••     ^     3    1'i 

20    „     (i  oz.)  „  „  ...     I   II     6 

I  dwt.  of  twelve-carat  gold  costs  ...     o     2     i 

5    »  5.  »  ■••    o  10    6 

10     „  „  „  ...     I      I     o 

15     „  »  „  ...     I   II     6 

20    „     (ioz.)„  „  ...220 

I  dwt.  of  fifteen-carat  gold  costs  ...  o  2  'j\ 

5     «                »                »  ...  o  13  li 

10    „               „                „  ...  I  6  3 

15     »                »                „  ...  I  19  4^ 

20      „      (l  oz.)  „  „  ...       2    12      6 

I  dwt.  of  eighteen-carat  gold  costs...     o     3     i| 
5     »  „  „  ...     o  15     9 

10    „  „  „  ...     I   II     6 

15     »  „  »  ...     2     7     3 

20    „     (I  oz.)  „  „  .••330 

Where  fractions  of  a  penny,  or  of  farthings,  occur,  it  will 
be  observed  that  they  are  not  always  rigidly  exact  in  the 
tables.  This  is  an  unavoidable  evil,  and  it  may  be  con- 
venient in  actual  practice  to  discard  farthings  and  lesser 
fractions  where  small  quantities  are  concerned.  Thus 
eighteen-carat  gold  may  be  estimated  at  three  shillings 
and  twopence  the  dwt. ;  seventeen-carat  gold  at  three 
shillings  the  dwt.  ;  twenty -two  carat  gold  at  three 
shillings  and  tenpcnce  the  dwt.,  &c. 


POINT  LACE  WORK.— II. 

In  our  first  chapter  on  modern  point  lace,  when  alluding 
to  the  several  uses  to  which  this  work  may  be  applied, 
we  mentioned,  amongst  others,  the  ornamentation  of 
various  articles  of  furniture,  and  we  now  give  a  design, 
for  this  purpose.  It  is  called  "  the  Spanish  Point  Trefoil," 
and  will  be  found  extremely  effective  when  worked,  and 
is  applicable  to  many  purposes.  The  design,  as  before, 
should  be  drawn  on  tracing-linen,  and  tacked  in  the  same 
manner  as  then  described  on  toilc  cire'e,  or  glazed  calico. 
The  braid,  to  give  it  proper  effect,  should  be  a  plain,  fine, 
close  point-lace  one,  of  the  width  in  the  cut.  This  braid 
must  be  carefully  sewn  on  throughout  the  pattern,  over 
all  the  double  lines,  winding  it  double,  and  beginning  with 
each  end  as  in  our  last  pattern.  The  outside  edge  must 
exactly  follow  the  line,  the  stitches  being  taken  through 
the  pattern,  keeping  the  braid  well  strained,  and  sewing 
it  over  to  prevent  its  widening  where  sharp  turns  are 
required.  When  the  outer  edge  is  done,  the  inner  one 
must  next  be  attended  to,  and  this  must  be  gathered  in  to 
fit  each  turn,  as,  owing  to  its  width,  it  will  necessarily  be 
much  fuller  on  the  inside  of  a  curve  than  on  the  outside. 
A  needle  with  fine  thread  must  therefore  be  passed 
along  this  side  of  the  braid,  taking  a  small  stitch  over  it, 
as  in  whipping  a  frill ;  and  by  means  of  this  thread  the 
Tsraid  may  be  drawn  to  fit  the  various  curves  of  the  design. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  that  this  gathering  thread  be 
not  in  any  place  sewn  through  the  material  on  which  the 
pattern  is  traced ;  it  must  be  on  the  surface  only,  and 
should  be  neatly  done,  as  it  cannot  be  touched  again, 
and  remains  in  when  the  work  is  completed.  The  next 
step  is  to  do  the  "open  overcast"  stitch,  described  in 
our  last,  on  the  outside  edge  of  the  braid,  throughout  the. 
pattern.  The  vandyke  forming  the  outside  of  the  entire 
design  must  be  braided  separately,  and  also  edged  with 
"open  overcast  ;"  but  in  the  second  part  of  the  stitch, 
instead  of  taking  the  needle  once  through  for  the  fastening, 
three  or  four  stitches  must  be  worked  into  the  same 
"open"  stitch,  as  at  Fig.  2.  For  this  edge  a  coarser 
thread  should  be  used,  and  the  sets  of  stitches  not  done 
too  near  each  other.  When  all  the  open  edge  is  worked, 
a  thick  smooth  linen  cord,  called  "  Spanish  point-lace 
cord,"  must  be  sewn  at  the  outer  side  of  the  braid 
throughout  the  design,  taking  care  to  leave  the  "open 
overcast ''  always  visible.  The  thread  used  must  be  of 
middle  size,  and  small  stitches  taken,  so  as  to  keep 
the  cord  securely  in  its  place.  This  cord  may  be  pur- 
chased of  different  sizes,  according  to  the  style  of  the 
work,  but  for  our  design  a  thick  one  will  be  most  effective, 
although  in  this  matter  the  worker's  own  taste  may  be 
consulted.  The  outside  vandyke  does  not  require' this, 
cord.  The  bars  should  next  be  worked,  and  it  will  be 
observed  that  they  differ  from  those  described  in  our  last 
chapter,  inasmuch  as  each  has  in  it  a  small  knot,  or  excres- 
cence, as  it  were,  and  is  worked  thus  : — The  thread,  not 
very  fine,  is  darned  along  the  braid,  and  brought  out  of 
one  of  the  edge-stitches  ;  it  is  then  carried  across  to 
another  "  open  overcast,"  and  taken  back  again,  which 
makes  a  foundation  of  two  threads  ;  upon  this,  four  or  five 
close  overcast  stitches  are  done,  and  the  next  begun  in  the 
same  way,  and  as  close  as  possible  to  the  last  one ;  but 
instead  of  being  drawn  up  tightly,  it  is  kept  down  by  the 
left  thumb-nail,  to  about  an  inch  long,  and  the  needle 
with  the  thread  passed  very  loosely  seven  times  over 
the  right-hand  thread  of  the  stitch,  and  then,  taking  care 
it  should  not  be  twisted,  it  is  drawn  up  tightly,  and  the 
dot  being  thus  formed,  the  needle  and  thread  are  passed 
up  at  the  back  of  the  stitch,  and  the  close  overcast  ia 
again  proceeded  with  to  the  end  of  the  bar. 

A  plain  piece  of  braid  forms  the  heading  to  this  design  ,- 
the  inner  edge  of  this  is  worked  in  "  open  overcast,"  and 
the  outer  one  has  three  stitches  of  the  same,  and  at  the 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


281 


LACE  WORK.      PATTERN   IN   SPANISH   POINT  TREFOIL. 


282 


COOKING. 


fourth  the  stitch  is  kept  under  the  thumb-nail,  but  quite 
short,  and  one  tight  overcast  is  made  across  it,  close  to 
the  braid,  thus  fastening  it  and  making  a  sort  of  pearl- 
stitch,  like  that  in  a  pearl-edging  ;  this  is  repeated  to  the 
end  of  the  straight  braid. 

Next,  all  the  open  portions  of  the  design  must  be  filled 
up  with  fancy  stitches,  and  of  these  there  is  such  a  variety 
as  almost  to  baffle  description.  However,  we  will  attempt 
to  particularise  some,  and  hope,  with  the  aid  of  the  designs, 
to  make  them  tolerably  intelligible. 

Fig.  4.  This  may  be  used  for  the  trefoil,  and  is  done  by 
stretching  threads  across  from  one  inner  edge  of  the  braid 
to  the  other,  in  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  the  one 
set  being  done  all  one  way  first,  at  about  the 
distance  given  in  the  pattern ;  the  other,  all  the 
other  way  afterwards  :  then  are  commenced 
diagonal  lines,  and  at  the  meeting  of  the  lines, 
or  where  they  intersect  each  other,  after  doing 
one  overcast  to  keep  the  threads  together,  the 
needle  and  thread  are  passed  under  and  over 
the  threads,  until  a  tiny  wheel  is  formed,  after 
which  the  thread  is  proceeded  with  diagonally 
to  the  next  intersecting  or  meeting  point,  where 
a  wheel  is  again  worked  and  the  thread  con- 
tinued as  before,  until  the  opposite  braid  is 
reached,  beginning  again  at  the  next  point 
with  the  diagonal  lines  and  wheels  as  before. 
A  second  set  of  diagonal  lines  may  be  made 
in  the  opposite 
direction,  so  as 
to  cross  those 
already  done, 
and  in  this  case, 
when  the  wheel 
is  reached,  the 
needle  must  be 
passed  under  it, 
just  catching  it 
lightly  at  the 
back.  In  those 
parts  where  the 
two  braids  lie 
near  to  each 
other,  it  will  be 

best  to  work  plain  bars  of  fine  thread  at 
intervals  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  as  at 
Fig.  3,  A  very  pretty  and  simple  open  stitch 
for  filling  in  is  Fig.  i.  This  is  merely  the 
single  overcast,  done  quite  loosely  and  with- 
out the  fastening  stitch,  in  rows,  one  under- 
neath the  other.  This  may  be  varied  by 
Fig.  5,  in  which  three  "  open  overcasts"  are 
worked  together  on  the  plain  thread,  which  is 
rather  longer  than  the  usual  stitch,  so  as  to 
make  a  larger  space  for  the  reception  of  the 
three  stitches  alternating  with  it.  This  may 
be  worked  backwards  and  forwards,  or  the  thread  may 
be  sewn  over,  to  take  it  back  to  the  left  side  each  time 
a  row  is  commenced,  and  in  that  case  a  sewing-over 
or  seam  stitch,  should  come  between  each  of  the  three 
overcasts,  and  three  seam  stitches  on  the  plain  thread. 
A  variety  in  Fig.  2  may.  be  made  by  using  only  the 
intersections  of  the  threads  stretched  at  right  angles  for 
the  wheels,  and  entirely  leaving  out  the  diagonal  lines, 
and  then  the  intersections  must  be  reached  by  seam 
stitches  on  the  single  parts  of  the  thread.  In  the  larger 
spaces  for  open  work  in  this  design,  two  or  three  different 
stitches  may  be  introduced,  but  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  joining  be  neat,  and  the  stitches  fitted  into  each 
other  as  well  as  may  be.  We  should  recommend  that 
three  Vandykes  be  traced  out  for  each  pattern  required, 
which  may,  of  course,  be  continued  to  any  desired  length, 
as  the  design  will  be  found  to  fit,  so  as  to  be  easily  pro- 


Fis.  2. 


ceeded  with.  This  style  of  pattern  is  very  suitable  for  a 
chimney-piece  trimming,  the  flat  slab  being  concealed  by 
a  board  to  fit  it,  covered  with  crimson  cloth  or  furniture- 
velvet,  and  the  Avork  forming  the  border  which  hangs 
down  round  the  edge  of  the  board  on  a  plain  piece  of 
crimson  velvet  ;  the  latter  should  be  cut  up  between  each 
Vandyke,  and  tacked  underneath  to  form  the  same  shape 
as  the  lace.  If  about  three  or  four  Vandykes  be  worked, 
a  handsome  bracket  may  be  made  by  nailing  the  lace 
round  the  edge  of  it,  over  crimson  velvet  arranged  in  the 
same  manner  as  for  the  bordure  de  cheminee,  and  a  banner- 
screen  of  the  same  material  looks  remarkably  handsome 
with  this  lace  laid  upon  it  at  the  lower  edge,  also  cut  up 
to  fit  it.  As  a  border  for  a  table-cover,  it  is  very 
effective  when  placed  over  crimson  velvet.  It 
may  again  be  used  as  a  trimming  for  curtains, 
or  portieres  of  velvet  or  wool  reps.  In  work- 
ing a  length  of  it,  the  fancy  stitches  should, 
in  each  repetition  of  the  design,  be  varied,  to 
prevent  entire  sameness.  We  may  in  a  future 
article  give  another  vandyke  of  the  same  di- 
mensions as  the  present  one,  and  which  may 
be  used  alternately  with  the  latter  for  any  of  the 
purposes  we  have  mentioned  ;  our  space  pre- 
vents its  appearing  in  this  paper.  Considerable 
variety  may  be  allowed  in  the  working  of  this 
pattern,  and  very  much  must  be  left  to  the  taste 
and  fancy  of  the  worker.  Instead  of  working 
♦  the  "  open  over- 

cast," an   open- 
edged  braid  may 
be  used  for  this 
design ;  but  it  is 
rather  difficult  to 
procure  one  suf- 
ficiently wide 
and  close  in  tex- 
ture to  look  well. 
In  fact,  in  this, 
as  in  many  kinds 
of   fancy   work, 
the  l^ner  will 
find    that,   after 
a  little  practice, 
she  will  be  able  herself  to  vary  successfully 
many  patterns  from  which  she  has  copied, 
and,  indeed,  to  invent  patterns  for  herself, 
suitable  in  size  and  character  to  the  place 
they  are  intended  to  decorate.     The  oppor- 
tunity which  lace-work  thus  affords  for  the 
exercise   of  individual   ingenuity  and   taste 
is  certainly  not  the  least  of  its  recommenda- 
tions.   We  propose  to  give  further  hints  upon 
this  subject  in  a  future  paper,  introducing 
several  other  patterns  and  different  kinds  of 
stitches,  and  showing  more  in  detail  than  we 
have  done  already  the  different  ends  to  which  this  ac- 
complishment may  be  turned,  whether  on  the  decoration 
of  the  home  or  the  adorning  of  the  person. 


COOKING. 

FISH  SOUPS  {contmued). 
For  White  Eel  Sonp. — Set  a  saucepan  of  water  on  the 
fire  ;. season  with  salt,  whole  pepper,  a  blade  of  mace,  a 
strip  of.  lemon-peel,  and  a  bunch  of  the  most  fragrant 
sweet  herbs  at  your  command.  When  it  boils,  throw  in 
the  eels.  As  soon  as  they  are  done  enough  (and  they  are 
spoiled  if  done  too  much),  just  enough  to  let  the  flesh 
come  away  from  the  bone,  take  them  out,  split  them  in 
two,  and  remove  the  bone.  Each  length  of  eel  will  thus 
make  two  pieces,  which  should  be  left  entire.  Set  them 
aside.      Chop  fine  thi'ee  or  four  white  onions.     Roll  a 


CASSELL'S  HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


283 


lump  of  butter  in  flour.  Put  it  in  a  stcwpan  with  the 
onions  ;  moisten  gradually  with  a  little  of  your  eel  broth. 
When  the  onions  are  tender,  add  the  rest  of  the  liquor 
(removing  the  herbs  and  the  lemon-peel),  stirring  it  in 
gradually,  with  a  teacupful  of  fresh  milk.  Throw  in 
your  eel  meats,  and  set  the  soup  aside  until  they  are  hot 
through.  While  they  are  so  heating,  you  may  further 
thicken  with  a  couple  of  cgg-yolks,  well  worked  into  a 
little  of  the  liquor.  Taste  if  sufficiently  seasoned.  You 
will  find  an  almost  impcrceptiole  dust  of  sugar  an  im- 
provement. In  fact,  most  white  soups,  even  when  seasoned 
with  salt,  are  the  better  for  a  sprinkling  with  sugar. 

Broivn  Eel  Soup. — Proceed  as  before,  only,  instead  of 
boiling  the  eels,  fry  them  brown,  after  rolling  them  in 
flour,  bread-crumbs,  or  batter.  Open,  take  out  the  bones, 
and  set  aside.  Fry  chopped  onions  brown  in  butter, 
browning  afterwards  enough  flour  to  thicken  your  soup 
without  egg-yolks.  Stir  in  gradually  either  water  or  stock ; 
during  the  process,  season  as  before.  When  it  has  had  a 
good  boil,  remove  the  herbs,  &c.  Put  in  your  eel,  and  if 
you  will,  you  may  add  at  the  same  time  a  glass  of  white 
wine.  After  one  boil  up,  serve,  accompanied  by  bread 
dice  toasted  or  fried. 

Similar  soups  can  be  made  with  other  firm-fleshed, 
middle-sized  fish,  as  small  conger,  soles,  &c.  By  the 
same  treatment,  cold  remnants  of  fish,  of  various  kinds, 
both  boiled  and  fried,  may  be  economised  by  appearing 
in  novel  and  palatable  forms  of  soup.  They  can  be 
enriched  by  any  lobster,  oyster,  or  anchovy  sauce  that  is 
left.  If  you  happen  to  have  a  few  shrimps,  pick  .a  handful ; 
boil  their  shells  ;  with  a  little  of  the  liquor  give  a  slight 
flavour  of  shrimps  to  the  soup,  at  the  same  time  that  you 
throw  in  your  shrimp  meats.  These  soups  bear  a  dust  of 
cayenne  and  sugar,  and  should  be  accompanied  by  bread 
or  rolls. 

Salmon  Soup  may  also  be  made  with  the  remains  of  a 
fish  that  has  appeared  at  table.  As  soon  as  removed,  and 
while  still  hot,  take  all  the  flesh  from  the  bones  and  skin. 
The  entire  quantity  should  be  something  between  one  and 
two  pounds.  Divide  it  into  two  portions.  One  half,  con- 
sisting of  handsome  bits  and  flakes,  you  set  aside  ;  the 
other,  broken  odds  and  ends,  you  pound  in  a  mortar  with 
a  httle  cream,  any  remnants  of  lobster  (the  coral  especially), 
a  teaspoonful  of  anchovy  sauce,  and  two  hard  yolks  of 
egg.  Have  ready  a  suf^ciency  of  good  veal  or  chicken 
broth,  flavoured  with  vegetables,  to  make  your  soup.  Put 
butter  in  a  stewpan  ;  brown  flour  in  it ;  stir  in  a  little 
broth  ;  then  mix  in  your  pounded  salmon,  &c. ;  then  the 
rest  of  your  broth.  Season  with  pepper,  salt;  and  perhaps 
cayenne.  Throw  in  your  reserved  flakes  of  salmon,  and, 
if  you  like,  a  few  force-meat  balls.  After  one  boil  up, 
serve. — N.B.  This  soup  may  be  made,  partly  at  least,  with 
the  boilings  of  the  salmon,  if  the  fish  were  very  fresh. 

Botiille-a-baisse,  or  Bouillabesse. — Allow  a  pound  of 
fish  and  four  or  five  mussels  or  oysters  (if  used)  per  head  ; 
six  pounds  of  fish  for  a  dinner  of  six  guests.  Red  and 
grey  gurnards,  haddocks,  whitings,  codlings,  mackerel, 
ling,  carp,  red  and  grey  mullet,  plaice,  soles,  weevers,  small 
craw-fish,  or  lobsters,  figure  admirably  in  a  Bouillabesse. 
Cut  your  fish  into  pieces  of  a  size  convenient  to  help 
with  a  spoon.  Chop  onions  fine,  and  toss  them  over  the 
fire  in  butter  without  browning  them.  Arrange  all  the 
pieces  of  fish  (mixing  the  different  kinds)  in  a  little  caul- 
dron or  wide  shallow  stewpan.  Pour  over  them  a  liberal 
allowance  of  the  best  olive-oil.  Add  the  chopped  and 
tossed-up  onions,  a  clove  or  more  of  garlic,  a  bay-leaf  or 
two,  a  few  slices  of  lemon,  two  or  three  tomatoes,  or  a 
little  tomato-sauce,  salt,  a  very  small  pinch  of  saffron  (tr>-, 
first,  a  single  thread,  or  dried  pistil  of  the  flower ;  the 
flavour  is  so  peculiar  that  it  must  not  predominate,  and 
yet  there  must  be  saffron),  and  a  glass  of  white  wine. 
Fill  up  with  cold  water  until  the  fish  is  entirely  covered, 
and  set  the  stew-pan  on  a  brisk  fire.     Skim  as  it  comes  to 


a  boil ;  let  it  boil  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  {i.e.,  take  it 
off  the  fire  when  the  fish  is  cooked  enough— just  before 
it  is  enough),  and  throw  in  a  dessert-spoonful  of  chopped 
parsley,  which  mil  turn  to  a  beautiful  bright  green. 
Arrange  the  pieces  of  fish  on  a  dish  by  themselves.  At 
the  bottom  of  a  deep  dish,  or  soup-tureen,  lay  sUces  of 
bread  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  over  them  pour 
the  liquor  of  the  Bouillabesse,  removing  the  garlic,  the 
lemon,  and  the  bay-leaves.  The  two  dishes  are  sent 
to  table  together,  and  the  guests  ought  to  help  themselves 
at  the  same  time  to  the  contents  of  each. 

MISCELLANEOUS  SOUPS. 

Tapioca  Soup. — Wash  the  required  quantity  of  tapioca 
in  cold  water.  Let  it  steep  therein  a  few  minutes.  Drain 
it ;  set  it  on  the  fire  in  a  saucepan  with  a  little  more  of 
the  cold  stock  than  will  cover  it ;  let  it  come  to  a  boil 
slowly,  then  boil  about  ten  minutes.  When  the  tapioca  is 
quite  clear  and  tender,  put  it  into  the  rest  of  your  hot  stock, 
and  serve.  Large-grained  tapioca  looks  best  in  soup. 
Sago  and  semolina  soups  are  prepared  in  the  same  way. 

Vermicelli  Soup. — Break  the  vermicelli  into  three-inch 
lengths,  or  thereabouts.  It  is  unnecessary  to  steep  it ; 
but  rinsing  it  in  cold  water  will  get  rid  of  dust,  floury  par- 
ticles, &c.,  and  often  be  the  means  of  keeping  the  soup 
clear.  Put  on  your  vermicelli  in  a  little  more  of  your 
stock,  cold,  than  will  cover  it,  and  let  it  boil  till  quite 
tender  without  dissolving.  It  will  take  from  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  to  twenty  minutes,  according  to  its  degree  of 
dryness.  Add  this  to  your  hot  stock,  and  serve.  Vermi- 
celli soup  and  the  following  may  be  accompanied  by 
grated  wnite  or  yellow  cheese,  for  the  guests  who  like  it 
to  dust  over  the  soup  in  their  plates. 

Macaroni  Soup. — As  above,  only  break  into  shorter 
lengths,  and  steep  an  hour  or  two  in  cold  water  before 
boiling  the  macaroni  in  the  stock. 

yulien7ie  Soup  {Potage  d  la  Julienne). — Take  an  equal 
I  quantity  of  turnips  and  carrots  ;  a  much  smaller  quantity 
of  onions,  leeks,  and  celery.  Cut  all  these  into  little  strips 
two  or  three  inches  long,  and  not  more  than  an  eighth  of 
I  an  inch  broad.  To  save  time,  there  are  instruments  for 
I  cutting  roots  rapidly  into  strips  for  yulienfie,  so  highly  is 
this  soup  esteemed.  The  vegetables  may  also  be  bought 
ready  cut,  preserved,  and  dried,  which  is  convenient  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year  {Julienne  is  really  a  spring 
and  summer  soup),  and  for  sailors  and  other  travellers. 
Add  to  these  a  small  proportion  of  chopped  lettuce, 
chervil,  and  sorrel.  Toss  the  roots  first  in  very  fresh 
butter,  then  add  the  herbs,  and  moisten  the  whole  with 
good  clear  stock.  Boil  an  hour.  Either  pour  the  whole 
over  crusts  in  your  tureen,  or  omit  the  bread  altogether, 
which  is  the  more  usual  and  modern  practice.  In  that 
case,  the  proportion  of  vegetables  ought  to  be  greater, 
and  you  may  add  to  those  already  mentioned  green  peas, 
kidney  beans  (boiled  separately),  sliced  artichoke  bottoms 
(ditto),  green  asparagus  chopped  short,  &c.  This  soup  is 
the  better  for  a  lump  or  two  of  sugar— just  little  enough 
not  to  betray  itself. 

White  Soups  can  be  made  by  employing  milk,  with 
rice,  vermicelli,  macaroni,  arrowroot,  sago,  semolina, 
tapioca,  and  pearl  barley.  The  process  is  the  same  as 
when  broth  is  used,  only  greater  care  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  burning  and  boiling  over.  Add  a  little  sugar  and 
a  dessert-spoonful  of  orange-flower  water.  Note  that  in 
all  soups  to  which  sugar  is  added,  there  still  requires  a 
dust  of  salt.  These  soups  may  also  be  thickened  by  raw 
yolks  of  egg,  carefully  and  gradually  stirred  into  a  little 
of  the  liquor,  which  must  not  boil.  Half  milk  and  half 
stock  is  a  good  proportion  for  white  soups. 

INVALID  BROTHS  AND  BEVERAGES. 

Hasty  Broth. — Of  the  fleshy  parts  of  beef  and  veal, 
with  a  fair  proportion  of  fat,  take  a  pound  each,  and  chop 


284 


SEASONABLE    FOOD. 


them  into  pieces  not  much  larger  than  a  haricot  bean. 
Chop,  nearly  as  small,  carrots,  turnips,  onions,  and  leeks. 
Mix  all  together  with  a  little  flour.  At  the  bottom  of  a 
large  stewpan  put  a  lump  of  butter  well  worked  in  flour 
and  a  pint  of  water.  In  this,  half-stew,  half-toss-up,  your 
chopped  meat  and  vegetables,  stirring  continually,  and 
separating  the  bits  of  meat  which  stick  together.  Do 
this  for  twenty  minutes.  You  may  either  let  them  take  a 
little  colour  in  the  floured  butter  before  adding  the  water, 
or  you  may  brown  with  a  bit  of  burnt  onion  afterwards. 
Then  add  three  pints  of  hot  water,  and  let  it  boil  for  half 
an  hour,  stirring  occasionally,  that  nothing  sticks  to  the 
bottom.  Season  lightly  with  pepper  and  salt.  You  may 
either  strain  the  broth  away  from  the  meat  and  vegetables, 
or  serve  them  in  it ;  when  it  will  be  a  veritable  ragout 
soup,  especially  if  enriched  with  a  bunch  of  sweet  herbs, 
a  glass  of  white  wine,  and  a  table-spoonful  of  mushroom 
catchup. 

Porridge. — Put  a  pint  of  water  into  a  stewpan.  When 
it  boils,  with  one  hand  dredge  into  it  two  ounces  of  oat- 
meal, and  with  the  other  stir  it  with  a  spoon.  Pour  it  out 
into  a  basin  or  soup-plate  ;  add  salt  or  sugar  according  to 
taste,  and  pour  over  it  half  a  pint  of  cold  milk,  mixing  the 
milk  and  boiled  oatmeal  together  little  by  little  with  a 
spoon.  This  will  be  found  to  make  an  exceedingly  nu- 
tritious breakfast  for  children. 

Gruel  is  usually  made  by  pouring  gradually  a  pint  of 
cold  water  over  two  table-spoonfuls  of  oatmeal  groats,  and 
keeping  it  stirred  till  it  has  boiled  two  minutes.  Mix  one 
tablespoonful  of  the  groats  with  two  of  cold  water.  Pour 
to  it  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  boil  from  five  to  ten 
minutes,  keeping  it  well  stirred.  Increase  or  diminish 
the  quantity  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  gruel  re- 
quired. No  straining  is  necessary.  Pour  it  into  a  basin, 
and,  to  make  it  more  palatable,  add  a  pinch  of  salt,  a  dust 
of  sugar,  a  bit  of  butter. 

Barley  Water. — Put  a  quart  of  cold  water  into  a  sauce- 
pan ;  throw  into  it  a  teacupful  of  pearl-barley;  let  it  come 
slowly  to  a  boil,  and  then  boil  it  gently  for  ten  minutes. 
Pour  it,  barley  and  all,  into  a  jug  ;  when  cold  it  is  fit  for 
use.  Leave  the  barley  in  the  water  until  it  is  all  drunk. 
Barley  water  may  also  be  slightly  flavoured  according  to 
taste. 


ODDS    AND    ENDS. 


Cheese  Cement. — Grated  cheese  one  ounce,  quicklime 
half  an  ounce.  These  are  to  be  beaten  into  a  paste  with  as 
much  white  of  egg  as  may  be  needed.  It  is  very  good  for 
joining  china  and  earthenware,  but  should  be  used  fresh. 

Solid  Ink. — Letters  and  figures  carved  upon  white 
marble,  metal,  or  stone,  may  be  filled  in  with  the  following 
mixture  : — One  pound  of  pitch  is  to  be  melted  over  a  fire, 
and  with  it  four  ounces  of  lampblack  must  be  incorporated. 
This  composition  must  be  applied  while  hot,  and  the  work 
must  be  dry,  as  also  must  be  the  following  : — Trinidad 
asphalte  four  ounces,  dissolved  in  an  equal  weight  of  oil 
of  turpentine.  Both  the  above  preparations  are  said  to 
be  very  durable. 

Ground  Colour  for  Walls  before  Painting.-— TAix  one 
gallon  of  water  with  one  pound  of  glue,  and  thicken  it 
with  red  lead.     Lay  on  the  colour  hot  with  a  paint-brush. 

Godfrey's  Cordial. — This  is  commonly  given  to  infants 
as  a  sedative,  but  as  its  active  ingredient  is  opium,  and  its 
strength  very  unequal,  it  is  a  thing  to  be  avoided.  No 
frue  mother  or  nurse  should  venture  to  administer  it.  Mr. 
Cooley  truly  says  :  "Its  frequent  and  excessive  use  has 
sent  many  infants  prematurely  to  the  grave."  Beasley 
says  :  "  No  terms  are  sufficiently  strong  to  express  the 
culpability  of  those  who  would  place  in  the  hands  of 
ignorant  persons,  for  administration  to  infants  and  children, 
compounds  containing  opium." 

Spermaceti  Ointjneftt. — Take  spermaceti  five   ounces. 


white  wax  fourteen  drams,  olive  oil  one  pint,  or  thereabouts. 
These  ingredients  are  to  be  melted  together  by  a  gentle 
heat,  and  afterwards  stirred  until  cold. 

Another  Recipe. — Take  spermaceti  four  ounces,  white 
wax  two  ounces,  pure  lard  twelve  ounces,  and  melt  and 
incorporate  as  before.  For  private  use,  smaller  quantities 
in  the  same  proportions  are  desirable,  as  the  ointment  is 
best  not  kept  too  long.  Let  it  be  made  in  very  clean 
vessels,  and  preserved  in  pots  well  closed. 

A  French  Paint. — Purified  yellow  wax  two  and  a  half 
pounds,  linseed  oil  two  and  a  half  pounds,  turpentine  two 
pounds,  and  common  rosin  one  pound.  Dissolve  the  wax 
in  the  linseed  oil,  and  the  rosin  in  the  turpentine,  sepa- 
rately, over  a  slow  fire.  When  the  ingredients  are  quite 
melted,  mix  them  by  stirring.  The  result  may  be  used  as 
a  transparent  priming.  To  give  it  colour,  mix  with  it 
about  three  pounds  of  ordinary  paint,  and  enough  turpen- 
tine to  reduce  it  to  a  proper  consistency.  This  paint  dries 
soon,  hardens  gradually,  and  is  very  durable. 

Paint  for  Out-door  Work.— Take  as  much  Parker's 
cement — a  powder  very  similar  to  fine  Roman  cement — 
as  may  be  necessary,  and  let  it  be  quite  dry.  Mix  it 
with  prepared  oil,  or  with  boiled  and  raw  linseed  oil,  in 
equal  proportions.  When  of  a  proper  consistency  it  may 
be  used  for  wood  or  iron.     It  is  both  durable  and  cheap. 

To  cleanse  Gold. — Wash  the  article  in  warm  suds  made 
of  delicate  soap  and  water,  with  ten  or  fifteen  drops 
of  sal-volatile.     (The  sal-volatile  makes  the  metal  brittle.) 

Precautions  against  Wet  and  Colds.  —  If  a  person 
getting  wet  through  were  to  try  the  experiment  of  rolling 
a  blanket  round  himself,  or  of  putting  on  an  india-rubber 
or  any  other  entirely  waterproof  covering,  in  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  he  would  find  himself  quite  warm.  The  wet-sheet 
process  of  the  water  cure  is  but  an  exemplification  of  this 
fact.  When  a  cold  attacks  any  one,  it  is  but  the  heat  of 
the  body  carried  too  quickly  away  from  it,  and  becomes 
chilled  by  the  rush  of  cold  air  from  the  outside ;  the  moment 
a  shivering  fit  is  felt,  if  the  victim  would  undress  and  he 
down  between  blankets—  the  newer  the  better — and  then 
take  a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  camphor  on  moist  sugar, 
heat  would  be  almost  instantly  generated  in  the  system, 
and  be  prevented  by  the  blankets  from  escaping  ;  but  if 
the  same  process  had  been  adopted  with  linen  or  cotton 
fabrics,  the  result  would  have  been  different. 

Weights  of  Bread  and  Flour. — What  is  called  a  four- 
pound  loaf  should  weigh  as  much,  and  the  purchaser  may 
require  it,  or  any  other  loaf  not  called  fancy  bread,  to  be 
weighed  before  him.  A  quartern  loaf  must  weigh  four 
pounds  five  and  a  half  ounces  ;  a  half-peck  loaf,  eight 
pounds  eleven  ounces.  A  peck  or  stone  of  flour  is  fourteen 
pounds,  a  bushel  fifty-six  pounds,  and  a  sack  or  five  bushels 
is  two  hundred  and  eighty  pounds,  or  two  and  a  half  cwt. 
The  baker  is  not  required  to  sell  fancy  bread  by  weight. 


SEASONABLE    FOOD. 

MARCH. 

Meat.—^eei,  veal,  mutton,  house-lamb,  pork,  doe- 
venison. 

Poultry  and  Game.—YovAs,,  chickens,  turkeys,  ducks, 
pigeons,  rabbits,  guinea-fowl,  woodcocks,  and  snipe. 

T^zj-^.— Turbot,  whiting,  soles,  plaice,  flounders,  skate, 
oysters,  lobsters,  crabs,  prawns,  cray-fish,  cod,  smelts, 
eels,  carp,  tench,  mullet. 

i^rwzVj-.— Apples,  pears,  oranges,  forced  strawberries, 
dried  and  preserved  fruits  as  in  February. 

Vegetables. — Savoys,  cabbages,  sprouts,  spinach,  let- 
tuce, radishes,  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  Jerusalem  arti- 
chokes, potatoes,  mushrooms,  parsley  and  other  garden 
herbs,  onions,  leeks,  Scotch  kale,  broccoli,  scorzonera, 
beet,  salsify,  sea-kale,  chives,  celery,  cress,  mustard, 
sorrel,  horse-radish,  rhubarb,  shalots,  cucumbers. 


CASSELUS   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


285 


FURNITURE. 
III.— BEDROOM  FURNITURE  {continued). 

Mattresses. — In  a  previous  chapter  a  brief  allusion  is 
made  to  this  necessary  article  of  bedding.  Formerly,  and 
even  now  in  some  countries  when  the  bedstead  has  a  good 
sacking  instead  of  laths  or  iron,  a  mattress  was  not  deemed 
necessary,  but  when  this  was  dispensed  with,  the  feather  bed 
was  one  of  fifty  pounds  of  good  goose  feathers,  or  mixed 
with  other  poultry  feathers.  Such  a  couch  needed  no 
mattress,  but  now  it  is  considered  almost  indispensable 
to  the  comfort  of  the  sleeper,  and  is  by  many  persons 
preferred  to  a  bed.  Of  mattresses  there  are  many  kinds, 
and  made  of  various  materials.  Among  the  first  in 
estimation,  the  spring  mattress  holds  its  place.  This  is 
formed  of  a  succession  of  coils  of  stout  copper  wire,  either 
galvanised  or  otherwise,  each  coil  somewhat  resembling 
an  hourglass.  These  are  often  set  in  a  solid  box-like 
frame;  but  when  completely  covered  it  is  difficult  to 
replace  a  weak  spring  or  repair  any  damaged  part.  A 
newer  and  much  better  form  is  where  the  bottom  frame- 
work consists  of  stout  laths,  resembling  those  of  an  ordi- 
nary wooden  bedstead,  but  much  thicker,  and  having  one  or 
two  transverse  bars  running  from  head  to  foot,  according 
as  the  width  needs  them.  The  springs  are  fastened  to 
the  laths,  and  on  the  top  are  secured  with  stout  twine  to 
strong  canvas,  upon  which  is  laid  a  padding  of  wool,  and  the 
whole  is  then  covered 
with  the  ordinary 
checked  covering.  The 
advantage  of  this 
make  is,  that  should  a 
spring  become  weak, 
or  in  any  way  injured, 
it  can  be  seen  at  once 
by  anybody  where  the 
mischief  lies,  and  can  be 
repaired  most  readily. 
A    mattress    of    three 

feet  wide  and  six  feet  in  length  is  purchasable  for 
27s.,  and  one  five  feet  wide  for  50s.  A  mattress  or 
bed  on  the  top  of  this  is  necessary  for  the'  protection  of 
the  springs  beneath.  A  horsehair  mattress  five  feet  six 
inches  wide  would  cost  74s.  ;  a  brown  wool,  45s.  ;  and 
a  superior  one  of  white  wool  -for. 5 5s.  to  90s.;  but  all  wool 
mattresses  require  to  be  pulled  to  pieces,  the  wool  purified, 
and  then  be  re-made,  every  year,  or,  at  the  farthest,  every 
two  years. 

For  putting  on  the  top  of  spring  mattresses,  nothing 
exceeds  the  comfort  of  six  blankets  quilted  as  a  mattress 
would  be,  and  which  can  be  readily  taken  apart,  washed, 
and  put  together  again  ;  neither  need  this  substitute  be 
expensive,  because  six  of  the  kind  known  as  "  Aldershot " 
blankets  can  be  placed  together  and  be  covered  with  a 
cotton  ticking  and  quilted  ;  the  expense  of  such  a  mattress 
would  not  exceed  23s.  The  advantages  of  it  over  those  of 
the  ordinary  kind  is,  that  it  can  readily  be  taken  to  pieces, 
washed,  and  put  together  again,  is  much  softer  than  a 
mattress  made  of  any  best  sheep's  wool,  and  it  will  not 
"mat"  or  get  into  lumps. 

Whatever  mattresses  are  needed,  those  of  cotton  flock 
should  not  be  chosen,  on  account  of  their  tendency  to 
become  lumpy. 

One  of  the  best  forms  of  spring  mattresses  is  that  shown 
in  our  illustration  ;  it  is  called  the  "  Rheiocline,"  and  may 
be  seen  at  Messrs.  Burton's,  in  Oxford  Street. 

Quilts  and  Cojinter panes. — The  warmest,  lightest,  best, 
and  consequently  most  expensive  bed  covering  is  an  eider 
down  quilt,  made  of  the  best  down  put  into  a  silken  cover- 
ing. One  for  a  full-sized  bedstead  would  cost  £^  5s. ; 
but  one  of  the  same  size  made  of  coloured  goose  down, 
termed  "  Arctic  down,"  and  in  a  coloured  cotton  covering, 
would   not   be   more   than   35s.      A   number  of   cotton 


counterpanes  piled  one  on  the  other  would  but  fatigue  the 
sleep>er,  and  not  impart  a  tithe  of  the  warmth  of  down  or 
sheep's  wool.  It  is  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  a  pile  of 
clothes,  simply  as  clothes,  will  impart  heat.  Warmth  is 
produced  in  the  human  body,  and  the  object  should  be 
to  retain  that  heat,  by  adopting  such  clothes  as  will,  with 
a  due  regard  to  ventilation,  prevent  much  of  it  from 
escaping.  Sheep's  wool,  either  as  blankets,  flannel,  or 
woollen  damask,  will  do  this  ;  also  feathers,  down,  and 
furs.  All  textures  of  wool  and  silk  are  non-conductors  of 
heat — that  is,  they  do  not  allow  the  heat  of  the  body  to 
escape,  consequently  beds  furnished  with  three  blankets, 
two  upper  and  one  under,  and  a  down  quilt,  or  with  an 
extra  blanket  instead  of  a  quilt,  will  be  found  to  be  both 
comfortable  and  healthy. 

The  next  counterpane  to  notice  is  the  Massillian  quilt, 
sometimes  termed  Marseilles  and  Marcella.  These,  on 
the  surface,  are  made  in  imitation  of  the  old-fashioned 
quilting  of  old  blankets  between  chintz  and  white  linen, 
which  were  formerly  so  prized.  These  Massillian  quilts 
are  comfortable,  light,  and  elegant,  and  are  purchasable 
at  prices  varying  from  17s.  to  40s.  for  a  full -sized 
bedstead. 

It  has  been,  and  is,  much  the  fashion  to  knit  or  crochet 
quilts  with  cotton.  The  material,  as  we  have  shown,  is 
not  suitable  for  such  purposes  ;  if  fleecy  wool  were  used 
instead  of  cotton,  the  weight  of  the  work  would  be  much 

less,  and  the  handsome 
appearance  and  com- 
fort considerably 
greater.  For  extra  quilts 
the  material  should  be 
invariably  of  wool.  As 
many  blankets  and  as 
much  flannel  as  need- 
ful, should  be  em- 
ployed, but  no  cotton 
unless  for  show. 

Servants'  coloured 
cotton  quilts,  if  of  tolerable  quality,  are  both  soft  and 
warm.  They  are  not  so  finely  woven  as  others,  and  the 
material  being  less  dressed  in  the  manufacture,  is  more 
fluffy  and  warmer. 

Supposing  that  economy  is  strictly  necessary,  and  tha^ 
a  quilt,  however  poor,  cannot  be  purchased,  and  yet 
warmth  in  bed  be  absolutely  necessary,  it  may  be  obtained 
in  the  following  manner  : — Line  a  sheet  or  other  calico 
article,  no  matter  how  old,  with  brown  paper — first 
well  crumpled  and  rubbed  to  render  it  soft — and  then 
let  the  sheets  of  paper  be  pasted  together  and  tacked  on  to 
the  calico.  The  warmth  this  produces  is  almost  incredible, 
because  it  does  not  allow  the  heat  of  the  body  to  escape. 

Another  warm  and  economical  coverlet  is  one  made 
of  flannel  "  list"  cut  into  narrow  strips  and  knitted  on 
somewhat  coarse  needles  into  strips,  each  of  a  finger's 
breadth,  every  alternate  strip  to  be  sewed  on  to  a  plain 
strip  of  tailor's  "  list,"  and  then  afterwards  the  whole  sewn 
together.  The  advantage  of  the  cloth  list  is,  that  it  keeps 
the  flannel  list  in  place,  and  the  coverlet  is  easily  ripped 
in  two  or  three  places  for  the  purpose  of  washing,  and  is 
readily  put  together  again. 

A  warm  and  useful  quilt  can  be  made  by  stripping  the 
down  off  poultry  or  goose  feathers,  which  may  be  pur- 
chased for  IS.  and  is.  4d.  per  pound.  Then  take  some 
strips  of  glazed  calico,  coloured  or  white,  each  strip  two 
yards  long  and  nine  inches  wide  ;  sew  the  sides  of  each 
strip  together  to  form  a  long  tube  ;  sew  up  one  end 
securely  ;  into  each  tube  put  three  ounces  of  feather  strip- 
pings,  but  gradually — that  is,  sew  a  quarter  of  a  yard  of 
the  tubing,  then  put  in  a  few  strippings,  and  pin  them 
in  while  proceeding  to  sew  another  portion.  Thus,  when 
the  sewing  of  a  tube  is  completed,  the  filling  will  be  also. 
These  tubings  are  now  to  be  sewed  together,  as  many  as 


286 


DOMESTIC  SURGE^IY. 


are  needed  for  the  length  of  the  bedstead  ;  and  will  form 
a  warm  and  pretty  quilt— the  pattern .  being  a  succession 
of  ridges — and  the  expense  is  almost  nominal  in  a  family 
where  poultry  is  kept.  Care  only  is  required  in  the 
matter  of  cleaning  and  drying  the  feathers.  When  a 
duck,  fowl,  or  goose  is  plucked,  the  feathers  should  be  put 
into  plenty  of  warm  water,  and  a  little  soda  be  well  stirred 
about ;  then  taken  out  and  thrown  into  cold  water  ;  then 
lifted  and  put  to  drain  on  a  cloth  over  a  large  pan,  or  in 
any  other  convenient  mode,  such  as  a  large  net,  which 
may  be  made  for  the  purpose.  When  drained,  spread 
the  feathers  between  cloths  to  absorb  the  moisture  ;  and, 
finally,  tie  them  up  loosely  in  two  or  three  very  coarse 
bags  of  muslin,  such  as  is  sold  for  fourpence  the  yard. 
Then  put  the  Ijags  in  a  warm  oven,  leaving  the  oven 
door  open,  and  thus  for  a  succession  of  nights,  till  the 
feathers  are  quite  dry  ;  then  they  may  be  put  away  in 
proper  bags.  If  this  be  done  at  each  poultry-picking, 
the  affair  is  one  of  little  trouble,  the  stripping  being  done 
at  any  leisure  time. 

Feather  Beds. — A  bed,  bolster,  and  two  pillows  com- 
plete, for  a  full-sized  bedstead,  may  be  had  at  from  three 
to  twelve  guineas,  the  difference  in  price  being  regulated 
by  the  quality  of  the  feathers,  the  make,  quality,  and 
description  of  bed-tick,  and  the  weight  of  the  bed.  The 
tmbordercd  beds  of  merely  two  surfaces  of  tick  sewn  to- 
gether within  the  band  round,  which  is  termed  the  border, 
seem  to  be  fitting  beds  for  the  nursery,  but  they  are  not 
so.  Moreover,  they  are  not  comfortable.  If  poultry 
feathers,  clean  and  sweet,  as  above  said,  cost  is.  a  pound, 
an  unbordered  bed,  containing  thirty-four  pounds  of 
feathers,  a  bolster  with  six  pounds,  and  two  pillows  each 
containing  one  and  a  half  pounds,  in  a  cotton  tick,  will 
cost  ;^3  ready-made  ;  and  this  mode  of  purchasing  is 
the  cheapest.  The  cost  of  the  feathers  being  £2  ys.,  the 
price  of  the  tick,  and  workmanship  for  it  and  the  bolster 
and  pillows  will  be  only  16s.  This  is  for  the  cheapest 
kind  of  full-sized  unbordered  bed.  The  next  description 
of  feather  is  English  grey  goose,  at  is.  4d.  per  pound; 
superior  realises  as  much  as  is.  lod.  and  2s.  2d.  per  pound; 
and,  lastly,  the  very  best  white  goose,  at  3s.  per  pound. 

In  purchasing  a  new  bed,  it  will  be  necessary  to  see  the 
feathers  ;  and  if  they  have  a  tolerable  quantity  of  fluff 
or  down  at  the  ends  of  them,  the  stems  small,  and 
the  feathers  well  curled,  they  are  good.  White  goose 
feathers  are  the  highest  priced ;  they  are  handsome,  and 
are  not  so  apt  to  be  mixed  with  fowls'  feathers,  which 
have  much  less  down  upon  them.  For  a  bedstead 
five  feet  six  inches  wide,  and  a  proportionate  length,  not 
less  than  forty-seven  pounds  of  feathers  should  be  appor- 
tioned to  the  bed,  seven  pounds  to  the  bolster,  and  two 
and  a  half  pounds  for  each  of  two  pillows ;  thus  fifty-nine 
pounds  of  feathers  will  make  the  bed  complete.  In  giving 
an  order  for  a  bed,  state  the  weight,  size,  and  quality 
required,  also  whether  to  be  of  cotton  or  linen  tick,  and 
mention  the  price  desirable  to  give  for  the  feathers 
per  pound.  A  cotton  tick,  instead  of  one  of  linen,  would 
considerably  lessen  the  price,  but  in  either  case  a  waxed 
tick  should  be  stipulated  for,  seeing  that  in  many  instances 
nothing  is  done  to  prevent  the  feathers  coming  through 
excepting  to  cover  it  on  the  inside  with  a  coat  of  white- 
wash, or  other  inferior  matter,  which,  after  a  little  time, 
comes  through  the  tick  in  clouds  of  dust,  and  which 
cannot  be  remedied  but  by  emptying  the  tick,  washing, 
and  waxing  it. 

The  quality  of  the  feathers  of  a  bed  ready  made  can 
be  pretty  well  judged  by  pressing  them  down ;  if  they  rise 
up  quickly,  the  feathers  are  new  and  downy ;  if,  on  the 
contrary,  the  rise  is  but  slow  or  not  at  all,  then  they  are 
old,  and  however  well  they  have  been  cleaned,  have  from 
age  lost  the  greater  portion  of  their  down,  and  are  worth- 
less. 

Purchasing  beds  at  public  auctions  and  p;iva:e  sa'es 


entails  some  risk  of  purchasing  with  them  the  seeds  of 
disease.  These  sales  are  often  consequent  upon  a 
'bereavement,  which  causes  a  home  to  broken  up,  and  if  the 
fatal  stroke  was  fever,  those  who  afterwards  lie  on  the 
bed  of  a  fever-stricken  patient  are  likely  to  get  the  disease. 
As  the  cost  of  purifying  feathers  is  not  more  than  3Ad. 
per  pound,  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  running  any  risk  of 
this  kind. 


DOMESTIC  SURGERY. 

VARIOUS      LOCAL     AILMENTS. 

Rupture  or  Hernia  means  the  protrusion  of  a  small 
portion  of  the  bowels  through  an  opening  in  the  groin  or 
at  the  navel.  It  occurs  in  children  from  violent  efforts  in 
crying,  and  in  older  persons  from  lifting  heavy  weights, 
coughing,  &c.  If  a  mother  notices  any  swelling  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  groin  in  her  child  (boys  being  much 
more  liable  than  girls  to  this  affection),  she  should  lose  no 
time  in  consulting  a  medical  man,  and  ascertaining 
whether  this  is  due  to  a  rupture  or  to  some  other  disease. 
In  order  to  eftect  a  cure  of  a  rupture,  it  will  be  necessary 
for  the  child  to  wear  a  properly-fitted  truss  for  some 
months,  and  it  will  be  well  worth  a  mother's  while  to  pay 
every  attention  to  this  matter,  so  as  to  bring  about  a  cure 
as  soon  as  possible.  It  is  not  necessary  that  a  truss  should 
be  worn  at  niglit,  except  in  the  case  of  an  infant  who  cries 
as  much  at  night  as  in  the  day,  but  the  mother  should  see 
that  the  child  never  runs  about  before  the  truss  is  put  on 
in  the  morning,  and  must  be  particularly  careful  to  see 
that  the  rupture  is  pushed  back  thoroughly  before  the  truss 
is  applied,  which  is  most  readily  accomplished  when  the 
child  is  lying  down.  It  is  convenient  in  children  to  cover 
the  truss  with  a  linen  cover,  which  can  be  changed  when 
soiled,  and  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
instrument  chafing  the  skin  by  powdering  it  thoroughly. 
In  grown-up  persons  the  occurrence  of  a  hernia  is  of 
even  more  importance  than  in  children,  since  it  is  more 
likely  in  them  to  become  "strangulated,"  i.e.,  it  cannot  be 
pushed  back  by  the  patient  himself,  obstruction  of  the 
bowels  results,  and  this  is  followed  by  vomiting,  and  even 
by  death,  unless  promptly  relieved  by  the  surgeon.  In 
any  case,  therefore,  where  a  rupture  cannot  be  returned, 
or  when  after  any  exertion  a  lump  has  appeared  in  the 
groin,  the  advice  of  a  surgeon  should  be  sought.  It 
unfortunately  happens  every  now  and  then  that  a  patient 
suffering  from  the  bilious  vomiting  caused  by  a  strangulated 
hernia  conceals  the  real  cause  of  the  disease,  either  from 
ignorance  of  the  connection  between  the  two  affections, 
or  from  a  feeling  of  false  delicacy.  No  one  is  justified  in 
trilling  with  his  or  her  own  life  in  such  a  matter,  and  a 
medical  man  will  rightly  insist  upon  making  the  necessary 
examination  if  his  suspicions  are  aroused  by  the  symptoms, 
as  they  probably  will  be.  When  a  surgeon  finds  that  he 
is  unable  to  return  a  rupture,  it  will  be  necessary  for  him 
to  perform  a  slight  operation  in  order  to  save  the  patient's 
life,  and  neither  patient  nor  friends  should  have  any 
scruple  in  consenting  to  this  being  done  at  once.  Every 
minute  is  of  importance  in  these  cases,  and  though  it  is 
perfectly  true  that  patients  die  after  the  operation  for 
strangulated  hernia,  it  is  equally  certain  that  they  die  in 
consequence  of  the  operation  having  been  delayed  too 
late,  rather  than  from  the  proceeding  itself. 

Started  Navel. — This  is  a  not  uncommon  affection  in 
young  children,  and  if  not  properly  attended  to  will  lead 
to  the  formation  of  a  rupture.  The  treatment  consists  in 
preventing  the  protrusion  from  taking  place  until  the  parts 
are  in  process  of  time  restored  to  their  natural  condition, 
and  this  can  only  be  effected  by  care  and  attention  on  the 
part  of  the  nurse  and  mother.  The  child  being  laid  on 
its  back,  and  the  protrusion  carefully  returned  with  fhe 
finger,  a  pad  made  of  a  slice  of  a  wine-cork  half-an-inch 
thick,  or  a  farthing,  should  be  v.-rapped  in  a  piece  of  soft 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


287 


linen  and  applied  over  the  spot,  and  bound  on  firmly  with 
strips  of  phiister  half-an-inch  wide.  The  strips  of  plaister 
(the  common  white  strapping)  should  be  about  twelve 
inches  long,  and  should  be  arranged  star  fashion  ;  they 
should  be  dipped  in  hot  water  in  order  to  warm  them,  as 
they  then  stick  much  more  firmly  than  if  held  to  the  fire. 
A  roller  of  linen  or  fine  flannel  should  be  applied  round 
the  infant's  navel  over  this.  In  cases  of  larger  protru- 
sion either  in  children  or  grown-up  persons,  a  suitable 
abdominal  support  should  be  procured  from  an  instrument 
maker,  and  should  bj  worn  witn  the  same  precautions  as 
have  been  given  for  the  use  of  a  truss. 

Piles,  are  often  a  very  troublesome  and  painful  affection, 
and  are  of  various  kinds,  each  of  which  requires  a  different 
treatment,  for  which  a  surgeon  should  be  consulted.  They 
are  mentioned  here  principally  in  order  to  impress  upon 
those  who  suffer  from  them  and  go  on  for  years  bearing 
pain,  or  even  having  their  health  undermined  by  constant 
loss  of  blood,  that  their  disease  is  curable,  and  that  they 
should  not  allow  feelings  of  false  delicacy  to  prevent  their 
applying  for  relief.  As  a  temporary  means  of  relief,  a 
sufferer  may  regulate  the  bowels  with  occasional  doses  of 
"lenitive  electuary,"  and  may  employ  an  enema  of  cold 
water.  Habitual  sufferers  from  affections  of  the  bowels 
frequently  derive  very  great  comfort  from  relieving  the 
bowels  at  night  rather  than  in  the  morning,  so  as  to 
obtain  some  hours'  rest  in  the  horizontal  position  after  its 
occurrence. 

Prolapse  of  the  bowel  in  children  should  be  gently 
returned  after  sponging  with  cold  water.  It  may  be 
simply  the  result  of  debility,  or  may  be  a  symptom,  in 
boys  especially,  of  a  much  more  serious  affection— stone 
in  the  bladder — and  the  advice  of  a  surgeon  should 
therefore  be  obtained. 

Incontinence  of  Urine  in  Sleep  is  very  common  among 
weakly  children,  and  is  often  the  cause  of  great  suffering 
to  a  child  at  school,  when  he  is  punished  for  what  he  is 
quite  unable  to  help.  Careful  supervision  will  often  effect 
a  cure  by  avoiding  too  long  intervals  of  unbroken  sleep, 
and  the  use  of  a  night-light  will  obviate  the  fear  of  rising 
in  the  night  ©r  early  morning,  which  is  often  a  cause  of 
the  disaster.  As  this  affection  may  be  only  the  evidence 
of  more  important  diseases,  it  will  be  well  to  have  medical 
advice  if  the  occurrence  appears  to  be  becoming  habitual. 
The  opposite  condition  of  things — retention  of  urine — is 
much  too  serious  an  affection  to  be  treated  domestically, 
and  immediate  surgical  attendance  should  be  obtained  for 
it,  at  whatever  age  it  may  occur. 


HOME  GARDENING. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN   [contimied). 

Asparagus. — The  young  shoots,  when  grown  about 
•two  inches  above  ground,  are  the  parts  to  be  used  ;  but  of 
this  we  shall  speak  more  explicitly  as  we  proceed. 

There  are  only  two  varieties  cultivated — the  red  topped 
and  the  green  topped  ;  the  former  rising  with  a  very  large, 
full,  close  head,  of  a  reddish-green  colour,  and  the  latter 
not  so  plump  and  close,  but  generally  considered  better 
in  flavour.  Of  these  the  former  are  the  most  esteemed 
by  market  gardeners  ;  the  latter  by  private  cultivators. 
One  mode  of  culture  is  applicable  to  both.  There  are 
several  sub-varieties,  as,  for  instance,  the  Battersea, 
Deptford,  Gravesend,  early  Mortlake,  Dutch,  and  large 
Reading. 

This  plant  may  be  propagated  by  dividing  the  root,  but 
the  most  general  and  best  way  is  by  seed,  which  should 
be  sown  in  March,  broadcast,  not  very  thickly,  on  beds 
four  feet  wide,  or  thereabouts,  and  in  length  according 
to  the  quantity  required.  Many  gardeners  make  it  a 
practice  to  tread  the  ground  after  sowing  the  seed,  but  we 
object  to  this  method,  and,  instead  of  it,  make  it  a  rule, 


after  sowing  the  seed,  to  rake  the  ground  smooth  and 
even,  being  careful  that  the  seed  is  all  well  covered  ;  and, 
when  the  plants  have  made  their  appearance,  to  keep  theni 
perfectly  clear  of  weeds,  and  stir  the  ground  about  them 
twice  or  three  times  during  the  summer.  Should  the 
weather  prove  dry  at  the  time,  a  little  water  should  be  given 
once  a  week.  In  October  protect  the  roots  by  covering 
the  ground  with  well-rotted  stable  manure  or  litter,  which 
must  remain  on  until  all  danger  from  frost  is  over. 

In  the  formation  of  new  plantations  the  first  thing 
necessary  for  our  consideration  is  the  situation,  which 
should  be  open  and  unsheltered  by  trees  or  bushes  ;  as, 
unless  the  spot  is  fully  exposed  to  the  sun,  success  is 
next  to  an  impossibility.  Damp  or  wet  ground,  or  where 
the  subsoil  is  retentive  of  an  undue  quantity  of  wet, 
should,  under  any  circumstances,  be  rejected,  as  being 
very  prejudicial  to  this  plant. 

The  soil  should  be  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet 
deep,  and  of  a  light  sandy  loam.  Some  months  previous 
to  commencing  planting  see  to  the  preparation  of  the 
ground,  by  trenching  it,  if  possible,  at  least  two  and  a  half 
feet  deep,  at  the  same  time  mixing  a  good  quantity  of 
well-rotted  manure  with  the  soil.  When  it  has  lain  in 
this  state  a  month  or  more,  if  the  weather  permit,  work  the 
ground  over  again  to  the  same  depth,  and  repeat  this  two 
or  three  times,  in  order  that  the  manure  and  soil  may 
become  well  incorporated  with  each  other.  At  the  last 
turning  over,  before  planting,  lay  a  solid  foundation  of  rich 
well-rotted  manure  in  every  trench,  as  no  more  can  be 
applied  for  several  years,  or,  indeed,  so  long  as  the  beds 
stand.  Make  it  a  practice  to  perform  this  work  in  the  - 
best  weather  that  can  be  commanded  during  the  winter 
months,  as  such  an  operation  should  never  be  attempted 
during  rainy  or  showery  weather,  inasmuch  as  it  would 
only  tend  to  make  the  soil  heavy  and  cold.  This  portion 
of  the  work  should  be  particularly  attended  to,  as  the 
preparation  of  the  soil  is  of  more  moment  than  anything 
else  during  the  whole  course  of  its  culture. 

In  the  removal  of  the  plants  from  the  seed-bed,  and 
final  planting,  take  especial  care  to  perform  the  work  of 
taking  them  up  by  means  of  a  fork,  being  very  careful 
not  to  break  or  cut  the  roots,  or  to  leave  them  a  longer  time 
exposed  to  the  sun  and  air  than  you  can  help,  as  very  few 
plants  feel  a  hurt  more  severely  than  this  ;  the  roots, 
being  brittle,  are  easily  brokeii,  and  do  not  readily  shoot 
out  again. 

Although  you  may  plant  from  the  beginning  of  March 
to  the  end  of  May,  the  operation  will  not  always  be 
followed  with  the  same  success. 

The  best  time,  so  far  as  our  own  experience  goes, 
is  just  when  the  plants  are  beginning  to  grow  ;  for  when 
they  are  removed  earlier  the  plants  lie  for  some  time  in 
the  ground  in  a  dormant  state,  and  consequently  the  roots, 
being  of  a  succulent  nature,  absorb  a  considerable  quantity 
of  moisture,  which,  in  nine  cases  out  of  every  ten,  causes 
them  to  rot,  and  then  the  destruction  of  the  plant  becomes 
inevitable.  On  the  other  hand,  if  removed  too  late,  the 
power  of  the  sun  and  air  will  greatly  injure  them,  unless 
very  great  care  be  taken,  and  the  roots  put  into  a  basket, 
or  some  other  receptacle,  with  sand,  as  they  are  taken  up. 

When  your  plants  are  ready,  and  the  ground  having  been 
previously  prepared  as  above,  stretch  a  line  lengthwise  nine 
inches  from  the  edge,  as  at  Fig.  2,  and  with  a  spade  cut 
down  a  trench  six  inches  deep,  perpendicular  next  to  the 
line,  turning  the  soil  to  the  outer  or  other  side  of  the  trench  ; 
then,  having  the  plants  in  readiness,  set  a  row  along  the 
trench,  nine  inches  apart,  with  the  crowns  of  the  roots 
two  inches  below  the  surface  ;  then  move  the  line  a  foot 
further  on,  as  shown  at  2,  Fig.  2,  and  open  a  second  trench, 
turning  the  soil  taken  out  of  this  into  the  first,  over  the 
roots  just  planted  ;  and  so  proceed,  making  an  allowance 
of  three  feet  between  every  four  rows  for  alleys.  Should 
the  weather  prove  dry  at  the  time,  give  a  little  water  to 


288 


HOME  GARDENING. 


settle  the  soil  to  the  roots,  and  repeat  the  application  until 
such  time  as  the  plants  become  well  established.  Fig.  i 
shows  a  section  of  the  bed.  As  a  rule  an  asparagus  bed 
should  not  contain  less  than  a  rod,  as  it  very  frequently 
takes  more  than  this  to  make  up  a  dish  at  one  time  ;  but 
for  a  large  family  twenty  poles  would  not  be  too  much. 

Never  gather  any  buds  for  the  first  three  years  after 
planting ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  permit  them  to  run  up  to 
seed,  and  keep  the  beds  clear  of  weeds,  stirring  the  soil 
at  each  weeding,  in  order  to  keep  it  in  a  loose  state. 

It  is  the  practice  of  some  gardeners  to  throw  out  the 
alleys  at  every  autumn  dressing,  and  cover  the  beds  with 
the  soil  so  taken  out.      Now  this  may  be  . 
done    the    first    year    after    planting,  but 
never  afterwards  ;    instead  of  which  give 
a  good  coat   of  rotten  dung,  and   fork  it 
evenly,  both  into  the  beds  and  alleys,  every 
season.     It   is,  or  should  be,  well  known 
that  this  plant  forms  a  new  crown  every 
year,  and  it  frequently  happens  that  in  a  few  years  the 
crown  extends   itself  into  the  alleys,  so  that  by  digging 
them  out  the  plant  is  certain  to  be  destroyed.     We  there- 
fore advise   that  nothing  at  all  be  done  to  them  rather 
than  they  should  be  treated  according  to  this  too  general 
practice.     The  first  two  years  a  little  celery  and  lettuce 
seed  may  be  sown  on  the  beds, 
and    a    few    cauliflower   plants 
may  be  planted  at  the  distance 
of   two    feet    asunder,    in    the 
alleys,    but    never  after,    as    it 
would    to   a   certainty   rob   the 
asparagus  of  a  great  portion  of 
nourishment 

At  the  end  of  October,  or  be- 
ginning of  November,  the  stalks 
will  have  done  growing  and 
begun  to  decay,  when  they  must 
be  cut  down  close  to  the  ground 
and  cleared  away,  taking  off  all 
weeds  and  other  litter  at  the 
same  time  ;  then  give  the  ground 

a  good  three-inch  coat  of  well-rotted  manure,  and  fork 
it   in   quite  dewn  to  the  crowns,  as   above   advised,  by 
which  means  the  winter  rains,  &c.,  will  wash  the  manure 
down  amongst  the  roots,  which  will  be  greatly  benefited 
thereby.     Many  peo]jle   have   a   notion   that  by   merely 
covering  the  beds  with  litter  or  recent  dung  from   the 
stable,  they  have  done  all  that  is 
necessary,  but  we   maintain  that 
such    treatment    does    far    more 
harm  than  good,  as  it  only  pre- 
vents the  winter  frost  from  having 

any  influence  over  the  soil  without  doing  the  least  in 
the  shape  of  enriching  it. 

At  the  end  of  March,  or  beginning  of  April,  just  before 
the  buds  begin  to  rise,  loosen  the  surface  of  the  beds  with 
a  three-tined  or  pronged  fork,  being  careful  not  to  wound 
the  crowns  with  the  points  of  the  tines  ;  then  rake  the 
surface  neatly  level,  drawing  off  all  large  stones  and  hard 
clods,  leaving  the  beds  as  loose  as  possible,  which  will 
not  only  enable  the  buds  to  rise  freely,  but  admit  sun,  air, 
and  rain  into  the  soil,  and  thus  encourage  the  roots  to 
throw  up  buds  of  a  superior  size  and  flavour. 

By  the  way,  we  may  mention  that  the  shoots,  or 
buds,  come  up  but  weak  and  slender  the  first  year, 
stronger  the  second,  and  still  stronger  the  third,  when 
some  old  buds  may  be  gathered,  and  in  the  fourth  year 
the  buds  will  be  in  full  perfection. 

So  far  as  cutting  and  gathering  is  concerned,  we  say 
never  begin  to  cut  till  the  plants  come  to  mature  growth — 
that  is,  three  or  four  years  after  planting,  at  which  time, 
and  not  till  then,  they  are  of  proper  strength  to  produce 
full-sized   buds.     The  buds   are  in  the  greatest  perfec- 


Fig.  I 


trAWSAAA/vVyv 


tion   when  they  have  risen  above  ground   from    two  to 
three     inches,   as   they  are   then  dose  and   plump.     In 
gathering  the  buds,  scrape  an  inch  or  two  of  the  earth 
from  the  shoot,  i.  Fig.  3,  and  then  slip  the  knife  down,  as 
at  2,  drawing  it  up  in  a  slanting  direction  towards  you, 
which  will  separate  the  head  or  shoot  from  the  stool  easily. 
Fig.  4  shows  the  best  shape  of  knife  for  this  purpose.    This 
implement  should  be  thrust  into  the  soil,  after  having  nearly 
bared  the  shoot  down  to  the  root,  and  with  a  saw-like 
motion  sever  the  same  in  a  slanting  direction  towards 
you.      The    same    plan    must    be   resorted  to   in  each 
instance,  until  you  have  entirely  cleared  the  bed.     Never 
cut  much   after   the   middle  of  June,  but 
permit   it   to   run   up  ;    in   fact,   the  weak 
shoots  should  not  be  cut  at  all.     If  on  any 
particular  occasion  cutting  should  be'  re- 
quired later  than  the  above  time,  be  careful 
to  leave  one  or  two  shoots  on  each  stool,  in 
order  to  draw  the  nourishment  to  it ;  for 
if  left  destitute  of  growing  shoots  they  would  perish,  and 
thus   fill   the   bed   with  vacant   spots.     A   plantation   of 
asparagus,  under  judicious    management,  will  generally 
continue  to  afford  plentiful  crops  for  twelve  or  fourteen 
years,  after  which  time  the  shoots  begin  to  decay,  or,  at 
all  events,  begin  to  decline  in  fertility,  and  the  shoots  are 
much  inferior  in  quality,  even  if 
they  do   vegetate  as   long  ;    so 
that    to    ensure    a    permanent 
supply  every  year  a  bed  or  two 
should  be  planted  every  now  and 
then,  so  as  to  get  them  in  readi- 
ness for  cutting  in  three  or  four 
years'  time,  in  order  that  they 
may  come  to  a  productive  state 
before      the      old      ones      are 
thoroughly    worn    out.       Some 
people  continue   their  beds  for 
twenty  years    or   more,  but,  in 
our  opinion,  by  so  doing  they 
lose  much  to  gain  little. 

Those  desirous  of  saving  seed 
— which  we  scarcely  think  necessary,  considering  how 
cheaply  it  can  be  purchased — should  select  some  of  the 
largest  and  earliest  buds  as  soon  as  they  rise  in  the 
spring,  to  which  place  sticks  or  stakes,  by  which  to  tie 
them  to  during  the  summer,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the 
crown  of  the  plant  when  driving  the  said  supports  into 
the  ground.  As  soon  as  the  berries 

,:(2r:—_ -.       are  ripe,  gather  and  spread  them 

~~  '    *       in  a  dry,  airy  situation,  keeping 

^*  4.  them  in  the  berry  until  the  time 

of  sowing. 
To  force  Asparagus. — Plants  about  five  or  six  years 
old  should  be  chosen,  if  they  appear  strong  enough  to  pro- 
duce vigorous  shoots  for  insertion  into  the  hotbed.  The 
first  plantation  for  forcing  should  be  made  about  the 
latter  end  of  September,  and  if  the  bed  goes  on  favour- 
ably a  crop  may  be  expected  in  four  or  five  weeks'  time. 
The  bed  will  afford  a  gathering  every  two  or  three  days, 
and  will  continue  in  bearing  about  three  weeks.  The 
hotbed  for  the  reception  of  the  plants  is  constructed  of 
stable-dung  or  other  material  in  the  ordinary  fashion. 
This  should  be  covered  with  about  five  or  six  inches  of 
tan,  or  other  light  material  sufficiently  porous  to  admit 
the  heat  from  the  bed  to  the  roots,  which  are  planted  in 
mould  laid  upon  the  tan.  The  bed  must  then  be  covered 
with  six  or  eight  inches  of  rich  light  soil.  The  plants  may 
be  inserted  as  close  together  as  possible,  several  hundred 
under  an  ordinary-sized  frame.  In  planting  draw  a  furrow 
the  length  of  the  frame,  and  place  the  first  row  of  plants 
against  it,  covering  their  roots  with  soil,  and  proceed  in 
the  same  way  throughout.  More  soil  is  gradually  to  be 
added  as  the  bed  acquires  a  steady  and  regular  heat. 


Fig.  3. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


289 


HOUSEHOLD     DECORATIVE     ART. 

VII.— FEATHER    SCREENS. 

Most  of  our  readers  have  seen,  no  doubt,  in  the  windows 
of  bird-stuffers'  shops,  screens  made  of  the  wings  and  head, 
with  more  or  less  of  the  breast  feathers,  and  often  the  tails 

of  different  kinds  of  birds  ;  but  few  perhaps  know  how  |  a  more  fanciful  shape,  the  wings  may  be  taken  off  nearer 
easily  they  are  made  by  amateurs,  and  what  exceedingly  [  the  body  of  the  bird  ;  but,  wc  are  assuming  that  this  is 
pretty  screens  may  be  produced  with  a  comparatively  small  a  first  attenvpt,  therefore  propose  the  easiest  shaf>e. 
amount  of  trouble  and  practice  (see  Fig.  i).  The  work  is  I  The  wings  may  now  bc  laid  aside  for  some  days  (if  neces- 
not  beyond  ordinary  skill,  and  we  have  seen  some  very  good  :  sary),  as  it  is  not  so  important  that  they  should  be  quite 
ones  made  by  ladies,  though  the  sight  of  raw  flesh,  and  the    fresh  for  the  purposes  of  our  operations,  as  that  the  head 


by  severing  the  muscles  at  the  elbow-joint,  and  is  most 
conveniently  done  from  the  inside  of  the  wing.  Fig.  2 
will  show  the  direction  the  cut  should  take,  so  as  to  get 
rid,  as  much  as  possible,  of  those  portions  which  we  do 
not  want,  and  retain  those  we  do  want. 

In  some  birds,  and  for  the  purpose  of  making  screens  of 


necessity  of  getting  over  scruples  about  touching  it  with 
the  fingers,  often  deters  them  from  attempting  the  neces- 
sary operations.     We  shall  now  give  the  result  of  our 
V   practical  experience,  and  explain  the  de- 
tails  of   the    manufacture   step   by   step, 
assuming  that  the  reader  is  totally  ignorant 
of  the  art  of  bird-stuffing. 

The    implements     required    are    very 
simple,  viz.,  a  good  strong  penknife,  ver> 
sharp  at  the  point,  a  quill  pen,  a  small 
quantity  of  flowers  of  sulphur,  arsenical 
soap,  wadding,  or  cotton  wool,  or  tow,  a 
smooth    board,   some   twine,   a   darning- 
needle,  some  strong  pins,  a  hammer,  and 
some  copper  bell-wire.     The  pen  is  to  be 
cut   in  the  shape  of  a  scoop   or  narrow 
spoon,    and    is    used    for    removing    the 
brains  from  the  head  of  the  bird,  and  for 
pressing  the  cotton  wool  or  other  mate- 
rial    when     saturated 
with     arsenical     soap, 
into     the     skull     and 
other  places.  Arsenical 
soap   can  be  obtained 
at  al most  any  chemist's, 
and   there  are  numer- 
ous   recipes,   all  more 
or   less  valuable  ;   but 
the    following     is     all 
that  is  really  requisite 
for   our    present    pur- 
pose : — Cut    into   thin 
slices  or  pieces  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  of 
common  brown    soap, 
put  it  into  a  pipkin  or 
earthen  jar  with  a  little 
water,  and    stir   it   on 
the  hob  till  it  becomes 
of  the  consistency   of 
paste  or   thick  cream, 
then  stir  into  it  about 
half  a  pound  of  powdered  white  arsenic,  and  the  mixture 
is  ready  for  use. 

The  first  thing  is  to  select  a  bird,  and  we  need  hardly  say 
that  it  is  useless  (at  any  rate  for  a  beginner)  to  attempt  to 
do  anything  with  a  bird  whose  wing-feathers  have  been 
torn  by  shot,  or  whose  head  or  neck  is  disfigured  by  blood. 

Some  birds  are,  of  course,  more  suitable  for  making 
screens  than  others,  and  some  require  a  different  treat- 
ment from  others,  and  are  more  difficult  to  manage.  There 
is  also  a  particular  season  of  the  year  when  wild  birds  are 
in  their  best  plumage,  which  does  not  apply  to  tame  birds, 
but  these  are  points  we  cannot  now  enter  into.  One  of  the 
birds  most  easily  obtained  is  the  common  house-pigeon, 
and  if  carefully  selected  he  will  form  as  pretty  a  screen  as 
any  British  bird  we  know  of  Generally  speaking,  a  male 
bird  should  be  selected,  the  plumage  being  brighter. 

Assuming,  then,  that  we  have  got  our  pigeon  dead,  and 


should  be  in  that  state. 

Place  the  bird  on  its  back  with  its  head  towards  you, 
and  a  lead  pincushion  or  other  weight  across  its  tail  and 
feet  to  keep  it  steady ;  then  raise  the 
breast  feathers  about  the  place  where  you 
would  expect  to  find  the  top  of  the 
merry-thought  (as  the  furcula  bone  is 
called)  and  carefully  holding  back  the 
feathers,  cut  the  skin  across  with  the 
point  of  your  knife,  taking  care  not  to 
cut  too  deeply.  Continue  this  cut  on 
each  side,  slanting  it  downwards  towards 
the  head,  so  as  to  escape  the  wings  ;  then 
turn  the  bird  over,  and  join  the  two  cuts 
straight  across  the  back.  After  this,  re- 
place the  bird  in  its  former  position,  and 
by  gentle  pulling  and  cutting,  the  skin 
will  come  off  very  easily,  inside  out,  over 
the  head  of  the  bird.  A  little  stretching 
of  the  skin  will  be  re- 
quired, and  a  little  fur- 
ther use  of  the  knife, 
when  the  skin  of  the 
neck  has  to  be  brought 
over  the  head,  and  care 
must  be  taken  when 
you  approach  the  ears 
of  the  bird,  to  cut  the 
skin  as  deeply  down 
into  the  orifice  of  the 
car  as  possible,  thus 
leaving  only  a  very 
small  hole.  Imme- 
diately succeeding  the 
ears  the  eyes  will  ap- 
pear, and  here  also 
care  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  cutting  the  eye- 
lids, while  the  muscles 
which  attach  the  lids 
to  the  circumference 
of  the  eyes  will  re- 
quire some  sharp  cuts  with  the  point  of  the  knife. 
During  the  whole  of  this  operation,  the  skin,  and,  indeed, 
the  flesh  of  the  neck,  may  all  from  time  to  time  be  dusted 
with  flowers  of  sulphur,  which  will  prevent  the  feathers 
from  getting  spoilt  by  curling  over  and  coming  in  contact 
with  the  flesh.  If  the  bird  has  been  shot,  and  the  neck 
or  skin  shows  traces  of  blood,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
have  a  cloth  at  hand  to  wipe  oft'  the  exudations  as  much 
as  possible,  or  a  piece  of  soft  paper  may  be  wrapped 
round  the  neck  where  the  skin  has  been  removed,  and 
thus  avoid  any  chance  of  spoiling  your  work.  Having 
skinned  down  as  far  as  the  base  of  the  beak,  your  bird 
will  present  an  appearance  like  that  seen  in  Fig.  3. 

The  neck  should  now  be  severed  from  the  head  at  the 
base  of  the  skull,  and  all  pieces  of  flesh  or  skin  on  the 
skull  and  jaws  should,  as  fir  as  possible,  be  scraped  or 
cut  off,  taking  care  not  to  sever  the  joints  where  the  lower 


that  he  lies  on  his  back  on  the  table  before  us,  the  first  [  jaw-bones  rre  fixed  to  the  head.     The  eyes  must  be  care- 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  remove  the  wings,  and  this  is  done  I  fully  cut  round  and  taken  out  whole,  and  the  brain  scooped 


VOL.  I. 


19 


290 


HOUSEHOLD    DECORATIVE    ART. 


out  from  the  hole  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  where  the  neck 
has  been  taken  off — this  hole  may  be  a  little  enlarged  for 
the  purpose.  When  this  has  been  done,  the  cavity  of  the 
skull  should  be  firmly  stuffed  full  of  the  wool,  with  sufficient 
arsenical  soap  to  completely  wet  it,  and  the  eyes  should  be 
replaced  by  little  balls  of  the  same  material,  made  as  solid 
as  possible,  and  rather  larger  than  the  natural  eye-ball.  The 
reason  for  filling  the  skull  firmly  with  this  mixture  will 
appear  hereafter.  Little  bits  of  the  same  should  also  be 
poked  into  the  palate,  where  divided  (taking  care  to  let  no 
arsenical  soap  run  down  into  the  beak,  or  the  feathers  will 
be  damaged),  and  the  space  between  the  jaws  should  also 
be  filled  with  the  soaked  wool.  When  this  is  done,  the 
skull  may  be  rubbed  over  with  arsenical  soap,  and  the 
skin  then  re-drawn  over  the  skull^ — this  is  easily  done  by 
feeling  for  the  end  of  the  beak,  and  holding  it  firmly, 
gently  pulling  the  skin  back  into  its  natural  place.  Special 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  openings  for  the  eyes  are 
over  the  centre  of  the  balls  of  cotton  wool. 

The  next  thing  that  should  be  done,  is  to  stuff  the 
exterior  nostrils  of  the  bird  (especially  if  prominent,  as  is 
the  case  with  many  pigeons)  with  the  soaked  wool,  for 
which  purpose  two  little  pieces  of  the  size  of  a  grain  of 
rice  each  will  generally  suffice.  The  mouth  must  then  be 
opened,  and  as  much-  soaked  wool  as  it  will  hold,  in  lieu  of 
the  tongue,  put  in,  carefully  plastering  it  down  with  your 
penknife,  so  as  not  to  show  when  the  beak  is  shut. 

The  eyes  (or  rather  eye,  for  one  will  generally  suffice) 
is  the  next  thing,  and  the  bird  should  now  be  carefully 
examined  to  see  which  side  is  the  most  presentable,  and 
which  eye  is  most  perfect  as  to  feathering  and  eyelid. 
Artificial  birds'-cyes  can  be  bought  of  bird-stuffers  at  id., 
or  sometimes  2d.,  a  pair,  and  you  have  only  to  specify  the 
colour  and  the  kind  of  bird,  to  obtain  what  you  want.  Of 
course,  you  should  endeavour  to  match  the  natural  colour 
as  nearly  as  possible.  To  put  the  eye  in  nicely  is  an  art 
that  experience  alone  can  teach.  A  little  hole  or  indenta- 
tion, should  be  made  in  the  centre  of  the  spurious  eye-ball 
with  the  knife  or  the  darning-needle  to  receive  the  wire  at 
the  back  of  the  eye,  and  the  rest  can  only  be  described  as 
a  process  of  putting  a  button  through  a  very  limp  button- 
hole with  the  aid  of  the  darning-needle. 

The  darning-needle,  or  some  implement  of  this  sort,  is 
also  useful  to  bring  up  the  eyelid  over  the  edge  of  the  eye- 
ball, and  to  arrange  it  in  its  natural  shape,  taking  care  to 
tuck  back  any  stray  hairs  of  wool  that  may  come  into 
sight.  We  are  aware  that  some  bird-stuffers  do  not  put  in 
the  eyes  while  the  lids  are  fresh  and  soft,  but  we  hold  to  our 
plan  notwithstanding. 

The  inside  of  the  skin  may  now  be  liberally  daubed 
with  arsenical  soap,  with  the  finger  or  a  brush,  and  then 
stuffed  with  plain  wool,  inserted  in  small  pieces,  and 
pressed  closely  up  to  the  skull.  Here  we  depart  from  the 
ordinary  practice  (so  far  as  dealing  with  pigeons  is  con- 
cerned), by  not  inserting  any  wice  to  support  the  head  at 
t-his  period,  and  the  benefit  obtained  is  that  the  natural 
pose  of  the  bird  can  be  obtained  without  difficulty  in  this 
way,  and  the  wire  can  be  inserted  afterwards,  when  the 
skin  is  hard. 

The  stuffed  head  i-s  to  be  now  arranged  on  a  board,  and 
a  good  way  to  fix  it  is  to  fast-en  a  piece  of  cork,  about  an 
inch  in  height,  or  rather  less,  down  to  the  board  with  a 
pin,  and  then  with  a  fine  needle  pierce  through  the  upper 
part  of  the  bird's  beak,  or  nostril,  down  into  the  cork. 
This  assun>es,  of  course,  that  you  have  put  in  one  eye 
only,  and  that  the  head  is  to  be  put  on  the  screen  in 
profile.  A  little  stroking  and  smoothing  of  the  feathers, 
and  perhaps  a  little  more  stuffing  with  wool,  so  as  to 
bring  up  the  breast  of  the  bird  into  its  natural  shape, 
will  be  all  that  is  required — possibly,  aided  by  a  pin  or 
two  being  stuck  through  the  edge  of  the  skin  of  the  breast 
into  the  board,  and  the  head  thus  fastened  is  complete  for 
the  present. 


The  wings  have  now  to  be  taken  in  hand,  and  the  only 
thing  required  before  stretching  them  out  on  the  board,  is 
to  remove  all  the  flesh  and  sinews  that  lie  between  the 
pinion  and  the  elbow-joints,  taking  care  not  to  cut  the 
connection  between  the  two  bones  at  these  joints.  No 
care  need  be  taken  to  preserve  the  skin  and  feathers  that 
cover  the  edges  of  the  wings  from  the  pinions  downwards, 
as  this  part  will  be  all  covered  by  the  head  when  the 
screen  is  made  up.  When  all  the  flesh  has  been  re- 
moved, rub  the  skin  and  bones  well  over  with  arsenical 
soap,  taking  care  not  to  soil  the  feathers.  The  best  way 
of  stretching  both  wings  so  as  exactly  to  match  each 
other  is  to  draw  a  straight  line  with  a  pencil  across 
the  board,  and  then  laying  each  wing  inside  downwards 
on  it,  stretch  it  out  straight,  up  to  the  line.  Begin  by 
confining  the  bone  close  to  the  elbow-joint  by  strong 
pins  hammered  into  the  board,  one  on  each  side  ;  then 
confine  the  pinion-joint  in  like  manner  ;  and  then  take 
hold  of  the  first  pinion-feather,  and,  with  a  single  pin 
put  in  close  to  the  stalk  of  the  feather  and  about  three 
inches  from  the  end,  bring  it  up  to  the  pencil  line  ;  and 
each  succeeding  feather  (where  they  do  not  naturally 
come  to  their  proper  places)  must  be  pinned  in  like 
manner.  Many  of  the  feathers  will  not  lie  flat  to  the 
board  when  this  is  done,  and  to  make  them  do  so,  strips 
of  card  or  mill-board,  may  be  pinned  down  across  the 
whole  wing  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them  lie  quite 
flat.  Take  care  in  stretching  the  wings  that  they  ar-e 
placed  opposite  one  another,  and  by  this  means  you 
will  be  able  to  get  them  exactly  to  match.  The  tail  or 
the  wing  coverts  may  then  be  taken  off  (one  or  the 
other  will  be  required,  and  the  latter  is  the  easier 
managed),  and  we  have  done  with  the  pigeon,  which 
may  then  be  sent  downstairs,  and,  if  all  sulphur  be 
removed,  may  be  put  into  to-morrow's  pie,  or  otherwise 
profitably  disposed  of  The  wing  coverts  are  tufts  of 
strong  feathers  that  grow  on  the  back  or  shoulders  of 
the  pigeon,  and  should  be  taken  off  with  the  piece  of 
skin  on  which  they  grew,  and  (after  being  rubbed  with 
arsenical  soap)  pinned  down  flat  on  the  board.  When 
this  is  done,  the  board  should  be  put  away  in  a  warm, 
dry  place,  where  it  will  be  free  from  dust  for  three 
weeks,  or  even  longer  ;  and  the  screen-handles  may  now 
be  prepared.  These  may  be  made  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
and  of  numberless  materials,  but  we  will  assume  that  we 
have  to  deal  with  one  of  the  ordinary  old-fashioned  gilt 
wooden  handles  (costing  about  2s.  6d.  a  pair),  cleft  at  the 
top  for  the  reception  of  the  ordinary  fancy  hand-screen. 
First  fill  up  the  cleft  by  cutting  'a  bit  of  wood  to  fit,  and 
let  it  project  two  inches  or  more  beyond  the  top ;  glue  this 
in  and  let  it  dry,  or  bind  it  firmly,  before  proceeding ; 
then  cut  a  bit  of  stout  millboard  about  three  or  four 
inches  square  or  round,  but  taking  care  that  it  is  well 
within  the  space  that  will  be  covered  by  the  head  of  the 
bird  (or,  rather,  by  the  breast  feathers,  as  arranged  on  the 
board),  and  having  pared  off  a  piece  from  the  side  of  the 
handle,  so  as  to  fit  flat  to  the  millboard,  glue,  and  tie  (by 
means  of  holes  bored  in  the  millboard)  the  handle  firmly 
to  it,  as  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  4,  p.  289.  Holes  should 
also  be  made  in  the  millboard,  as  drawn,  to  assist  in 
fastening  the  wings,  which  is  our  next  job.  The  wings 
being  now  taken  oft"  the  board,  will  be  found  quite  stiff 
and  flat,  and  do  not  require  any  additional  support.  Lay 
them  side  by  side,  as  they  were  on  the  board  ;  glue  the 
millboard  and  the  space  on  the  outside  of  each  wing  that 
it  will  cover ;  and  tie,  with  a  darning-needle  and  some 
twine,  the  wings  into  their  proper  position.  The  drawing, 
Fig.  4,  shows  the  handle  with  the  cleft  filled  up,  the  piece  of 
millboard  attached,  and,  on  one  side,  the  wing,  as  fixed, 
covering  half  of  it. 

When  both  wings  have  thus  been  fixed,  they  should  be 
tied  together  at  points  A  and  E.  At  the  point  A,  by  using 
the  darning-needle  and  twine,  but  keeping  under  the  short 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD  GUIDE. 


291 


feathers  on  the  outside  of  the  win^j ;  and  at  the  point  r, 
by  using  a  fine  needle,  and  passing  it  through  the  stalk  of 
each  first  feather.  In  this  way,  nothing  will  be  seen  from 
the  outside.  This  last  tie  will  also  form  a  means  of  hanging 
the  screen  up,  if  desired,  by  means  of  a  pin  driven  into 
the  wall.  The  head  should  now  be  put  on,  and  for  this 
purpose,  take  it  off  the  board,  and  pull  out  all  the  wool  as 
far  as  the  skull,  taking  care  not  to  soften  the  hardened 
skin,  or  displace  the  feathers  ;  sharpen  a  piece  of  copper 
bell-wire  to  a  fine  point,  and  inserting  it  up  the  neck-bore 
through  the  skull,  holding  the  pigeon's  head  in  the  palm 
•of  your  hand,  until  the  wire  comes  out  at  the  top  of  the 
head.  The  advantage  of  stuffing  the  skull  firmly  will  now 
appear,  as  it  will  give  it  solidity,  and,  though  it  may  add 
to  the  labour  of  boring,  will  make  the  head  more  compact 
and  secure  than  if  left  empty.  The  extreme  end  of  the 
wire  may  now  be  turned  down  with  a  small  pair  of  pincers, 
and  the  wire  withdrawn,  till  the  turned  end  is  hidden 
amongst  the  feathers.  Then  replace  the  cotton  wool, 
taking  care  to  bend  the  wire  to  tiie  shape,  and,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  keep  it  in  the  centre  of  the  neck ;  and,  having 
tjored  a  hole  in  the  millboard  to  match  the  position  of  the 
wire,  glue  the  millboard  and  the  edges  of  the  skin  of  the 
breast,  pass  the  wire  through,  press  the  head  close  down, 
and  then  turn  the  wire  on  the  other  side,  tying  it  also  to 
one  of  the  wing-bones,  or  to  some  of  the  strings  by  which 
the  wings  were  fastened  on. 

To  complete  the  screen,  the  wing  coverts  are  glued  on, 
side  by  side,  on  the  inside  of  the  wings,  to  cover  the  bones 
and  fastenings,  making  their  upper  ends  just  cover  the  tie 
A ;  and  at  the  other  ends,  if  they  are  not  quite  neat  in  them- 
selves, a  small  bow  of  ribbon  may  be  glued  on  afterwards. 
All  this  may  seem  difficult,  but  \ery  little  practice  will 
§oon  render  it  easy. 

At  a  future  time  we  may  have  something  to  say  on  the 
kinds  of  birds  best  fitted  for  screens,  and  their  different 
treatment  from  the  above ;  on  the  way  of  obtaining 
them,  and  killing  them,  if  obtained  alive  ;  and  the  season 
of  the  year  when  they  are  in  their  best  plumage. 


.MAKING    SWEETMEATS. 

Candled  Horehouftd. — Take  some  horehound  and  boil 
it  till  the  juice  is  extracted,  when  sugar,  which  has  been 
previously  boiled  until  candied,  must  be  added  to  it.  Stir 
the  compound  over  the  fire  until  it  thickens.  Pour  it  out 
into  a  paper  case  dusted  over  with  fine  sugar,  and  cut  it 
into  squares  or  any  other  shapes  desired. 

Peppermint  Drops. — A  brass  or  block-tin  saucepan 
must  be  rubbed  over  inside  with  a  little  butter.  Put  into 
it  half  a  pound  of  crushed  lump  sugar  with  a  table- 
spoonful  or  so  of  water.  Place  it  over  the  fire,  and  let 
it  boil  briskly  for  ten  minutes,  when  a  dessert-spoonful  of 
essence  of  peppermint  is  to  be  stirred  into  it.  It  may  then 
be  let  fall  in  drops  upon  writing  paper,  or  poured  out  upon 
plates  which  have  been  rubbed  over  with  butter. 

Ginger  Drops. — Mix  one  ounce  of  prepared  ginger  with 
one  pound  of  loaf  sugar  ;  beat  to  a  paste  two  ounces  of 
fresh  candied  orange  in  a  mortar,  with  a  little  sugar.  Put 
the  above  into  a  brass  or  block-tin  saucepan  with  a  little 
water.  Stir  them  all  well,  and  boil  until  they  are  suffi- 
ciently amalgamated,  which  will  be  when  the  mixture 
thickens  like  ordinary  candied  sugar.  Pour  out  on 
writing  paper  in  drops,  or  on  plates  as  for  peppermint 
drops. 

Lemon  Drops.— Gxtl^c  three  large  lemons  ;  then  take  a 
large  piece  of  best  lump  sugar  and  reduce  it  to  a  powder. 
Mix  the  sugar  and  lemon  on  a  plate  with  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  flour,  and  beat  the  compound  with  the  white 
of  an  egg  until  it  forms  a  light  paste.  It  must  then  be 
placed  in  drops  on  a  clean  sheet  of  writing  paper,  and 
placed  before  the  fire — to  dry  hard  rather  than  to  bake. 


Damson  Drops.— Take  some  damsons  and  bake  them 
without  breaking  them.  Remove  the  skins  and  stones, 
and  reduce  them  to  a  fine  pulp  by  pressing  them  through 
a  sieve.  Sift  upon  the  pulp  some  crushed  lump  sugar,  and 
mix  it  with  a  knife  or  spatula  until  it  becomes  stiff.  Place 
it  upon  writing  paper  in  the  form  of  drops ;  put  them  in  a 
gentle  oven  to  dry,  ?.nd  when  dry  t.ake  them  out  and  turn 
them  on  a  sieve.  Then  wet  the  paper,  and  the  drops  will 
separate  from  it,  after  which  they  are  again  to  be  placed 
in  a  very  slack  oven,  and  dried  until  they  are  hard.  They 
are  placed  in  layers  in  a  box  with  paper  between  each 
layer,  and  ia  that  way  will  keep  well,  if  air  and  damp  arc 
excluded. 

Raspberry  Drops. — Gently  boil  some  raspberries  with  a 
little  Avatcr,  and  then  remove  the  skins  and  seeds,  after 
which  a  pulpy  juice  will  remain.  To  one  pound  of  this  juice 
add  the.  whites  of  two  eggs  and  one  pound  of  sifted  lump 
.sugar,  well  beat  up  together.  The  addition  must  be  gradu- 
ally made,  and  the  mixture  well  beat  up  for  a  couple  of 
hours.  When  arrived  at  a  proper  degree  of  consistency, 
the  composition  is  to  be  placed  in  large  drops  upon  paper 
slightly  rubbed  over  with  butter.  They  may  be  dried  either 
in  a  warm  sun  or  before  a  slow  fire,  but  not  hastily.  A 
larger  raspberry  drop  or  lozenge  is  made  as  follows  :— Take 
of  raspberries  two  or  three  pounds,  and  boil  them  slowly, 
stirring  them  until  there  is  little  or  no  juice  left ;  then  put  into 
the  saucepan  as  much  moist  or  crusted  sugar  as  there  was 
fruit  at  first ;  mix  the  two  off  the  fire,  and  when  thoroughly 
incorporated  spread  the  compound  upon  plates — china  oV 
ironstone  are  best — and  let  it  dry  either  in  the  sun  or 
before  a  slow  fire.  When  the  top  is  dried,  stamp  or  cut 
into  small  cakes  of  any  shape  you  choose ;  set  these  again 
down  to  dry,  and  when  ready  lay  them  in  boxes,  with  a 
sheet  of  paper  between  each  layer.  Like  all  similar  pre- 
parations, they  are  best  kept  quite  free  from  all  damp  ;  and, 
therefore,  tin  boxes,  with  closely-fitting  lids,  are  better 
than  any  other.  At  the  same  time  more  depends  upon 
the  dryness  of  the  place  they  are  kept  in  than  upon  the 
material  of  the  box. 


THE    REARING   AND    MANAGEMENT   OF 

CHILDREN. 

IX. — CHILDREN'S  CLOTHING  {continued). 

Thk  best  out-door  dress  for  a  child  two  years  to  four 
years  old  is  a  pelisse  and  cape.  In  winter  it  is  warm 
and  comfortable,  and  it  always  has  this  advantage — if  a 
child  makes  its  frock  dirty  in  the  house,  the  pelisse  is 
fresh  and  clean  for  out  of  doors.  In  very  cold  weather  it  is 
put  on  over  the  frock,  or  frock  and  pinafore  ;  in  warmer 
weather  the  frock  is  removed.  In  winter,  serge  or  merino 
or  velveteen  are  good  substances  for  pelisses  ;  in  spring, 
fancy  mixtures  of  wool  and  cotton  ;  and  in  summer,  pretty 
prints,  brown  holland,  plain  linen,  and  checked  muslins 
and  \\\\\\c  piques. 

To  take  a  pattern  for  a  child's  pelisse  and  dress. 

To  cut  a  Cape. — Take  a  small  newspaper,  as  it  lies, 
folded  in  four.  We  assume  it  to  measure  twelve  and 
a  half  inches  long  from  A  to  B,  Fig.  82,  page  293.  Fold  the 
corner  i;  back  to  c.  The  fold  will  come  at  the  dotted  line 
A  to  I),  Cut  the  paper  at  the  dotted  line  from  D  to  c. 
Turn  the  paper  over,  and  cut  another  piece  like  the  first, 
or,  rather,  continue  the  cut  from  D  to  C  along  the  back  of 
the  paper,  as  shown  in  Fig.  83,  at  the  dotted  line  E  to  F. 
You  now  ha\e  two  squares  in  one,  marked  G  and  H  in 
Fig.  83.  Fold  these  exactly  together,  as  at  Fig.  S4,  page 
292,  one  scjuarc  ;  fold  again  I  to  J,  at  the  dotted  line 
K  to  L.  The  piece  of  paper  is  now  the  shape  of  Fig.  85. 
Cut  it  with  a  slight  circular  slope  from  O  to  P  and  M 
to  N,  taking  care  that  it  is  as  long  from  O  to  M  as  from  P 
to  N.  Then  open  it,  and  it  will  resemble  a  half-circle 
(F'ig.  86}.     It  may  be  folded  in  half  again,  and  sloped  by 


292 


THE    REARING   AND    MANAGEMENT   OF    CHILDREN. 


the  slanting  line  shown  by  dots  at  A  and  R  from  the  centre 
S  very  shghtly.  The  pattern  is,  of  course,  much  smaller 
than  a  child's  cape,  but  it  instructs  the  mother  how  to 
cut  a  cape.  She  can  afterwards  easily  cut  one  any  size 
desired. 

The  Pelisse. — ^The  cape  of  a  pelisse  should  half  cover 
the  skirt,  and,  indeed,  be  an  inch  over  the  half-measure 
at  the  centre  behind.  The  length  of  the  pelisse  must  be 
determined  by  the  size  of  the  child,  and  the  cape  by  the 
pelisse.  The  pelisse  for  an  infant  in  arms  should  be 
made  long  enough  to  cover  the  feet,  and  just  touch  the 
ground.  If  the  child  walks,  it  should  come  half-way  be- 
tween the  sock  and  the  top  of  the  boot,  which 
it  will  do,  when  worn,  if  the  measure  is  taken 
from  the  waist  to  the  top  of  the  boot.  For 
the  body,  measure  the  length  of  the  child 
from  the  neck  to  the  waist,  and  round  the  waist 
very  loosely.  Take  a  piece  of  double  paper  as 
long  as  the  length  from  neck  to  waist,  and  a 
quarter  the  width  of  the  waist  (doubled  paper). 
Measure  the  size  of  the  child 
round  the  neck,  at  the  place 
where  the  top  of  the  pelisse 
would  come,  not  tightly.  Then, 
from  the  top  of  the  piece  of 
paper,  measure  from  the  centre 
a  quarter  of  the  size  of  the 
neck  (from  A  to  b.  Fig.  87), 
and  just  cut  off 
die  corner  by 
a  little  slope, 
exactly  to  the 
measure.  Then 
measure  the 
length  of  the 
child's  shoulder 
from  the  neck  to 
the  arm,  and 
mark  the  length 
on  the  paper,  be- 
ginning at  B  and 
measuring  to  C. 
You  will  then  cut 
off  the  piece 
there  at  the  slanting  line 
dotted.  Measure  the  child's 
arm  at  the  top  of  it,  loosely. 
Make  a  mark  on  the  paper 
from  C  to  D,  a  quarter  of  the 
size  of  the  arm.  Make 
another  mark  from  half-way 
between  C  and  D  to  E  also  as  long  as  a 
quarter  the  size  round  of  the  child's  arm. 
Now,  by  the  help  of  these  marks,  cut  out 
a  small  half-circle  from  c  to  D  and  to  E. 
Measure  the  length  of  the  child's  side 
under  the  arm  from  the  arm-pit  to  the  waist.  The 
paper  from  E  to  F  ought  to  be  as  long  as  this 
measure.  If  it  is  shorter,  you  must  pin  a  piece  as  much 
longer  as  is  needed  across  the  end  of  the  pattern,  from 
F  to  G  exactly  equal.  Your  pattern  is  now  complete. 
There  is  no  slope  under  the  arm  of  a  young  child's  body 
from  E  to  F.  Your  paper  being  double,  you  can  now 
open  it,  and  leave  the  front  of  the  body  entire,  like  Fig. 
88.  Double  it  to  cut  by,  and  double  the  material.  Cut 
the  material  doubled  from  the  paper  for  the  front.  The 
same  pattern  will  do  for  the  back^  cutting  from  the  material 
also  doubled,  but  allowing  two  inches  larger  at  the  doubled 
part  (c  D,  Fig.  89),  as  a  hem  for  the  backs,  and  leaving 
half  an  inch  at  top  and  bottom  to  pipe  and  to  turn  in 
on  the  shoulder  and  side.  Put  pins  in  the  material  along 
the  edge  of  the  paper  pattern  to  indicate  how  much  is 
allowed  to  turn  in.     For  the  fronts  allow  an  inch  at  the 


side  and  shoulder.  Allow  nothing  where  the  material  is: 
doubled.  Allow  half  an  inch  top  and  bottom  and  round 
the  arm-hole.  Cut  the  body  on  the  straight  of  the  stuff — 
that  is,  the  sides  level  with  the  selvage  ;  the  width  of 
this  is  to  be  taken  the  narrow  way  of  the  stuff — that  is, 
with  the  selvage  on  a  level  with  H  and  I,  Fig.  88. 

To  make  a  frock  body,  cut  a  paper  pattern  first  from  the 
one  like  Fig.  88,  and  then  mark  the  dotted  line  at  H  in 
Fig.  87  on  it,  and  cut  it  across  there.  This  makes  it  a 
low  body,  that  will  serve  for  a  petticoat  or  frock.  The 
bodies  of  any  material  are  best  cut  as  directed,  with  the 
stuff  double,  backs  as  w^ell  as  fronts,  because  otherwise 
tyros  are  apt  to  fashion  both  backs  for  one 
side,  and  discover  the  error  too  late,  after  the 
fabric  has  been  wasted. 

To  cut  the  sleeve.  Fig.  90,  measure  the  length 
of  the  outside  of  the  arm.  Mark  it  on  a  piece 
of  paper  from  E  to  F.  Measure  the  length  of 
the  inside  of  the  arm.  The  length  outside  is 
measured  from  the  arm-hole  in  the  frock  be- 
hind, with  the  arm  bent,  and  the  inside  from 
the  arm-hole  in  front  with  the 
arm  straight.  The  inside  mea- 
sure is  an  inch  or  two  shorter 
than  the  outside.  Mark  the  in- 
side length  on  the  paper  from 
C  to  D,  Fig.  90,  allowing  equal' 
space  to  each  end.  Measure  the 
arm  loosely  at  the 
top.  Mark  half 
the  size  round 
from  c  to  E.  Mea- 
sure the  wrist  large 
enough  for  the' 
hand  to  slip 
through  easily. 
Take  half  of  this, 
and  measure  from 
D,  sloping  it  as 
low  as  F,  Fig.  90. 
Make  a  dot  for  the 
elbow  exactly  half- 
way down  the  pat- 
tern, at  G.  Then 
draw  a  curved  line  (like  the 
dotted  line  in  Fig.  90)  from  E 
to  F,  a  well-rounded  line  from 
C  to  E,  and  a  straight  line 
from  D  to  F.  Cut  out  the 
pattern  as  you  have  drawn  it. 
Cut  two  pieces  alike  for  each 
sleeve,  doubling  the  stuff  first,  or  else 
taking  care  to  reverse  the  pattern.  Sleeves 
like  this  are  cut  straight — down  the  mate- 
rial— as  it  is  called  ;  the  selvage  is  level 
with  c  and  D  on  the  straight  side.  The 
shape  of  the  curve  at  the  outside  makes  that  part  of 
the  sleeve  in  effect  on  the  cross,  although  the  inner 
side  is  straight  and  level  with  the  selvage.  This  is 
shape  enough  for  a  young  child's  sleeve.  Allow  half 
an  inch  in  cutting  all  round  the  paper  pattern.  Take 
the  dotted  line,  K,  for  a  pattern  for  a  short  sleeve 
for  a  frock  or  petticoat.  If  the  petticoat  is  first 
cut  from  this  pattern,  cut  the  body  and  sleeves  of 
the  dress  a  little  wider — a  quarter  of  an  inch  on  each 
side.  Short  sleeves  are  not  cut  in  two  pieces  like  the- 
long  ones,  but  in  one,  at  the  side  E,  and  joined  once  at 
the  side  C. 

Measure  the  child  to  cut  the  skirt.  Allow  half  an  inch 
for  gathers.  The  hem  had  better  be  two  inches  deep, 
therefore  allow  two  and  a  half  for  it,  as  it  has  a  turning., 
in.  A  tuck  is  well  in  a  growing  child's  skirt.  As  a  tuck 
is  double,  allow  double  the  depth.     Four  inches  is  wanted 


Fig.  84. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


293 


T- 


for  a  two-inch  tuck,  which  is  best  with  a  two-inch  wide 
hem.  A  skirt  for  a  child  of  two  should  not  measure  less 
than  two  yards  round.     Often  three  yards  is  allowed. 

To  make  up  the  Pelisse. — Cut  a  lining  of  thin  calico, 
or  cambric  muslin,  the  same  size  as  the  pieces  of  the 
body  and  sleeves.  Tack  each  piece  of  the  body  and 
sleeves  to  the  lining,  half  an  inch  in  from  the  edge.  To 
do  this,  lay  the  material  on  the  lining,  on  a  bare  table 
(always  cut  out  and  tack  on  a  bare  clean  table),  using  a 
rather  large  needle  charged  with  a  long  thread  of  very 
fine  white  cotton,  such  as  you  would  use  to  mend  lace. 
Tack  the  body  and  sleeves  together  at  the  places 
marked  by  the  pins  for  turning  in,  and 
try  them  on.  Any  alteration  desired  can 
now  be  made.  Then  stitch  together  the 
sides  and  shoulders  neatly  with  cotton  the 
colour  of  the  material.  Pipings  are  cut  from 
the  material  on  the  cross,  and  first  run.  As 
soon  as  the  backs  arc  hemmed,  run  a  piping 
round  the  neck,  waist,  and  arm-holes  of  the 
body.  Run  the  piping  on  the  right  side, 
the  cord  downwards,  half  an  inch  in.  This 
is  afterwards  turned  down  at  the  back  and 
hemmed.  It  is  neater,  however,  to  run  a 
narrow  white  ribbon 
{ox  twilled  tape)  on 
after  the  piping,  still 
•on  the  right  side,  and 
then  turn  down  pip- 
ing and  ribbon.  If 
the  ends  of  the  pip- 
.ing  are  too  wide,  cut 
them  away,  and  run 
down  the  ribbon  to 
the  body  on  the 
wrong  side.  The 
pipings  round  the 
arm-hole  must  not 
have  the  ribbon  run 
on,  nor  yet  be  turned 
down  and  hemmed. 
The  sleeves  are 
stitched  in,  and  the 
-ends  cut  away  close 
and  overcast.  Stitch 
the  sleeves  together 
cuffs,  turning  them 
•Overcast  the  sleeves. 

A  neater  way  is  to  stitch  the  sleeves 
separate  from  the  lining,  and  run  the 
lining.  Then  slip  the  lining  into  the 
sleeve,  the  turnings  of  both  inside  face  to 
face.  Pin  them  together  by  the  seams. 
Pipe  the  edge  as  described  before.  Tack  ' 
the  top  of  sleeve  and  lining  together  before 
stitching  it  into  the  arm-hole.  This  way 
there  are  no  raw  edges  in  the  sleeve  to  irritate  the  child's 
arm. 

To  put  the  sleeve  into  the  arm-hole,  fix  the  seam  of  the 
•sleeve  quite  an  inch  behind  the  shoulder-seam  of  the 
body. 

The  skirt  is  not  generally  lined.  Hem  the  bottom,  and 
make  the  tuck  if  there  is  one.  For  a  trimmed  pelisse 
there  had   better  be  no  tuck,  only  a  deep  hem.     Cut  a 


^37 


s 

Fig.  86. 


Fig.  82, 


Fig.  98, 


"  plait"  is  the  correct  spelling),  because  "  plait "  also  spells 
that  kind  of  trimming  used  in  millinery  and  dress-making 
made  like  plaits  of  hair,  and  confusion  might  arise  if  no 
distinction  were  made. 

The  cape  must  be  lined  with  fine  cambric  muslin,  or 
twilled  muslin,  to  match  it  in  colour.  Cut  it  out  from  the 
same  pattern,  and  tack  it  to  the  cape  when  trimmed,  both 
lining  and  material  face  to  face,  and  the  wrong  sides 
outwards.  Run  these  nicely  together  half  an  inch  in. 
Take  out  the  tacking  threads  and  turn.  The  cape  is  run 
all  round  the  edge  and  sides,  the  throat  only  left.  It  is 
turned  through  the  opening  at  the  throat.  Tack  it  to- 
gether all  round  again.  If  the  cape  is  to 
be  faced  with  silk,  cut  the  silk  the  shape  of 
the  dotted  line  T  in  Fig.  86 ;  run  the  edge 
next  T  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  silk  to  the 
right  side  of  the  lining  ;  turn  it  over  and 
tack  it  down  before  tacking  the  whole  of 
the  lining  to  the  material.  Cut  a  small 
collar,  and  also  line  it  after  it  is  trimmed. 
Turn  the  lining  as  the  cape  lining  was 
turned.  Run  the  neck  of  the  collar  to  the 
material  of  the  cape,  not  taking  up  the  lining. 
Then  turn  inasmuch 
of  the  lining  of  the 
cape  as  you  have  run 
into  the  collar  of 
the  material  (about 
half  an  inch),  and 
hem  it  neatly  to  the 
collar,  taking  care 
the  stitches  do  not 
come  through. 

The  Trimming. — 
The  trimming  is  put 
on  the  cape  and 
collar  before  they  are 
lined;  on  the  cuffs  of 
the  sleeves  before  the 
straight  or  under  scam 
is  closed  so  that  the 
ends  may  be  turned 
in ;  on  the  skirt  it 
is     set     before     the 


first,   and    pipe    the 
down    with    ribbon. 


Fig.  97. 

pleats  are  made.  Lay 

the  cape,  &c.,  flat  on  a  table,  and  tack  the 

^  trimming  first,  not  pulling  it  tight,  but  letting 

it  go  easy.     Lay  the  trimming  down  on  the 

material  the  way  it  is  to  be,  then  put  a  pin 

or   two  to  steady  it,  and   afterwards   tack 

it  ;    lastly,  run  it  on  neatly,  taking  a  back 

stitch   every   time   the   needle   is   inserted 

afresh.     The  skirt  may  be  either  trimmed 

"  before  the  last   seam  is  run   up — leaving 

the  ends  of  the  hem  open  an  inch  each  way, 

and  closing  them   after — or  half  the  skirt 

can   be   laid   on   the   table,   the   trimming   tacked,  then 

turned,  and  the  other  half  tacked.     In  that  case,  open  a 

bit  of  the  scam,  and   let   in   the  ends    of  the  braid  or 

velvet.     Fringes  and  muslin  edges  are  put  on  last,  when 

the  cape  is  lined. 

Capes  of  muslin  or  piqut5  are  not  lined,  but  piped  at 
the  edge,  and  the  pipings  hemmed  down.  Some  of  the 
,  pique  ones,  with  muslin-worked  edges,  have  the  muslin 
slit  in  the  centre  of  the  breadth  behind  for  a  placket  hole;  j  hemmed  down  over  the  pipings  ;  others  are  cut  rather 
hem  one  side  inch-wide,  the  other  quite  narrow.  Fold  the  I  close,  left  loose,  and  overcast  neatly.  This  stiffens  out 
broad  over  the  narrow  hem,  and  stitch  the  fold  across  at  I  the  embroidered  edge  well.  Piqud  is  piped  with  cambric 
the  bottom.     When  the  trimming  is  on,  turn  down  half    muslin. 

an  inch  at  the  top  of  the  skirt,  and  pleat  it  in  small  pleats.  It  is  better  not  to  attempt  to  put  elaborate  trimmings 
turning  towards  the  front,  and  beginning  two  inches  apart  |  on  pelisses  made  at  home,  for  it  needs  much  practice  to 
in  front  ;  these  pleats  are  closer  and  larger  towards  the  1  carry  these  out  well.  Crimson,  bright  blue,  and  violet 
back.  cashmere  pelisses  are  pretty  for  children,  trimmed  with 

Dressmakers  always  write  this  word  "  pleat "'  (though  I  one  straight  deep  row  of  velvet  ribbon,  or  one  deep  and 


294 


COFP'EE    MAKING. 


one  narrow  above  the  hem  of  the  skirt,  round  the  cape, 
collar,  and  cuffs.  An  edging  of  piece  velvet  round  the 
cape  and  collar  makes  a  handsome  trimming  to  a  cash- 
mere pelisse,  but  is  more  dit^cult  to  put  on.  It  is  cut  on 
the  cross,  shaped  to  the  slope  of  the  cape,  and  joined  in 
breadths,  and  run  on  the  wrong  side  and  turned  over  on 
the  cape,  and  tacked  down  before  the  lihmg  is  added. 
There  is  then  no  trimming  on  the  skirt,  which  may  have 
a  tuck  if  plain.  Sable,  chinchilla,  &c.,  make  pretty  edges 
for  capes  for  children  in  winter. 

Velveteen  has  been  very  much  in  fashion  with  a  broad 
and  narrow  white  braid  as  a  trimming,  and  wears  well, 
but  has  become  very  common,  which  is  an  objection  to 
some  mothers.  In  that  case  we  recommend  them  to 
trim  the  cape  only  with  two  rows  of  inch-wide  black 
military  braid. 

For  a  costly  toilette,  a  silk  velvet  pelisse  is  handsome, 
eithc;"  black,  dark  blue,  or  dark  green.  In  winter,  a 
narrow  tip  edge  of  sable,  chinchilla,  or  a  band  of  ermine 
or  minever,  is  appropriate.  For  any  time  of  year,  nothing 
can  be  handsomer  than  a  rich  lace  of  Irish  crochet  on 
the  cape  and  collar,  and  robing  the  sides  or  round  the 
hem  of  the  skirt. 

Brown  hoUand  pelisses  look  well  with  capes  edged  by 
embroidery,  and  a  row  of  white  washing  braid  above. 
Plain  linen  pelisses  can  be  merely  trimmed  with  em- 
broidery, or  braided  in  patterns.  White  piques  are  now 
braided  in  elaborate  patterns,  and  trimmed  with  em- 
broidered edges.  A  neat,  and  pretty,  and  easy  way  is  to 
place  a  narrow  ornamental  braid  on  a  cape  like  herring- 
bone, wide  enough  apart  to  admit  a  ribbon  an  inch  wide 
through  it,  which  can  be  removed  to  be  washed  (see 
Fig.  91).  Checked  thick  muslins,  and  sprigged  Swiss 
muslins,  are  pretty  for  summer.  The  checked  may  merely 
be  trimmed  on  the  cape  with  an  embroidered  edge,  or 
have  an  insertion  let  in,  run  with  coloured  ribbon,  and 
be  worn  with  a  sash,  the  hat  or  bonnet  corresponding  in 
colour.  The  Swiss  muslin  may  be  made  the  same,  or  for 
grande  toilette  worn  over  a  silken  slip  of  pink  or  blue  ; 
the  cape  trimmed  with  ribbon,  and  the  waist  with  a  sash. 

Fig.  92  shows  a  plain  pelisse  for  a  child  from  two  to 
four  years  old.     Fig.  93  is  the  cape. 

Little  boys  of  two  years  old  wear  velvet  hats — a  plain 
buckram  shape  of  the  turban  or  "pork  pie"  make,  covered 
with  a  piece  of  velvet  hemmed  to  the  crown,  the  edges 
turned  down  in  reversed  pleats  round  the  brim  and  inside. 
Tack  it  down  with  small  stitches,  that  are  not  seen,  on 
the  right  side,  and  long  ones  inside.  Line  it  with  silk, 
run  on  the  wrong  side  over  the  tacking  stitches,  and  then 
turned  over  and  into  the  crown.  A  short,  curled  white 
feather  commences  in  front,  under  a  velvet  bow  or  rosette, 
not  coming  beyond  the  margin  of  the  brim,  and  the 
feather  lies  round  the  brim  to  the  left.  Little  girls  wear 
bonnets  like  hoods.  The  Marie  Antoinette  shape  is 
pretty,  made  in  quilted  white  or  coloured  silk  or  satin, 
edged  with  a  narrow  scanty  ruche  of  ribbon,  and  a 
ribbon  bow  or  rosette  on  one  side.  In  summer,  satin  or 
silk  hats,  or  even  straw  ones,  may  be  used  for  boys,  and 
crinoline  bonnets  for  little  girls.  Some  mothers  like 
the  white  straw  sailor  hats,'  with  blue  ribbon,  for  little 
boys  ;  but  these  better  suit  older  children,  say  about  four 
years  old. 

There  are  many  miothers  who  prefer  jackets  to  pelisses. 
There  are  several  objections  to  jackets.  The  frock  must 
be  fresh.  They  are  not  warm  in  winter.  They  are  less 
ladylike  than  pelisses.  We  shall,  however,  give  directions 
for  making  jackets  for  girls  and  boys  of  more  advanced 
age,  which  can  also  be  used  for  younger  children  by 
catting  the  patterns  a  little  smaller.  In  summer,  capes 
without  pelisses  are  worn.  P'ig.  92  shows  a  pelisse,  and 
Fig.  93  a  cape  made  up.  Fig.  98  is  a  dummy  showing  a 
velvet  pelisse  trimmed  with  crochet  lace,  suitable  for  a 
child  of  two  vcars  of  aire. 


Pinafores  are  made  various  ways.  A  piece  of  diapet 
may  be  folded  in  half,  lengthwise,  and  then  in  half  again 
lengthwise,  taking  from  the  second  folds  a  slope  off  the 
top  at  A  (Fig.  95)  for  the  shoulders  to  be  run  and  felled 
together,  and  a  circular  slope  at  B  to  form  an  arm-hole 
and  epaulette  with  the  narrowest  hem  possible,  the 
epaulette  edged  with  muslin  work  ;  at  the  top  a  wide 
hem  and  a  string  to  draw,  a  hem  at  the  sides  and  bottom, 
and  a  second  pair  of  strings  at  C,  completes  it.  Fig.  97 
shows  another  way  of  cutting  a  pinafore.  The  slope 
on  the  shoulders  can  be  made,  but  the  pinafore  looks  quite 
as  well  without  it.  The  arm-hole  is  cut  and  hemmed 
round  ;  the  front  is  gathered  on  to  a  band  at  l),  shown 
better  in  Fig.  94.  with  ends  to  tie  behind.  This  pinafore  is^ 
more  ornamental  made  of  embroidered  muslin  or  diaper, 
with  epaulettes  with  worked  edges  and  work  round  the  neck. 
Brown  holland  braided  is  pretty.  Some  make  pinafores 
of  coloured  print,  but  these  are  very  common.  Many 
children  wear  pinafores  which  arc  really  little  frocks  ;  for 
girls  a  skirt  and  body,  for  boys  a  plain  piace  of  holland 
wide  enough  to  go  round  them  over  their  clothing,  is- 
sloped  over  the  shoulders  like  A  in  Fig.  95,  and  then  the 
whole  of  the  front  set  in  three  box  pleats,  and  the  whole 
of  the  back  in  three  box  pleats  at  the  top,  sloped  a  little 
for  the  neck,  and  set  in  a  narrow  band.  Arm-holes  are 
cut,  and  the  rest  left  loose.  Epaulettes  are  set  in  the  top 
halves  of  the  arm-holes,  and  the  rest  hemmed  narrow. 
The  opening  of  the  pinafore  is  behind,  between  the  second 
and  third  pleat.  The  skirt  has  a  deep  hem.  A  two-inch 
broad  belt,  with  a  button  behind,  is  put  on  over  the 
pinafore,  but  separate.  It  is  very  easy  to  wash  and  iron, 
and  keeps  the  child  entirely  clean.  It  may  be  plain,  or 
with  a  half-inch  wide  braid,  white,  scarlet,  or  black,  over 
the  neck  band,  edging  the  epaulettes  and  waist  belt,  and 
at  the  top  of  the  hem.  Where  style  is  wished,  use  white 
cotton  braid,  and  edge  such  epaulettes  and  belt  both  sides- 
with  narrow  muslin  work. 

Day  frocks  may  be  made  quite  plain,  with  a  simple 
edge  of  lace  to  the  neck  and  sleeves  which  can  be  washed 
and  renewed.  A  good  imitation  Valenciennes  does  well 
for  such  a  purpose  and  is  not  dear.  An  inch  wide  is  suffi- 
cien-t.  The  lining  of  the  sleeve  can  be  cut  plain,  and  the 
material  cut  wider  and  longer,  and  gathered  over  it  in  a 
puff.     Pipe  the  edge  and  tack  the  top  before  stitching  it  in. 

For  common  wear,  wool  plaids,  merinos,  and  velveteens- 
are  very  warm  in  winter.  A  mother  can  often  make 
warm  frocks  out  of  her  own  store,  but  not  always.  Some- 
times she  can  utilise  her  old  dresses  for  herself,  and  then 
it  would  be  extravagance  to  cut  them  up  for  a  child. 
The  holland  pinafore  may  be  worn  over  winter  frocks, 
and  alone  in  summer.  Light  cotton,  as  well  as  other 
frocks  for  every  day,  are  best  made  full  large  in  the  body^ 
and  with  tucks  in  the  skirt.  Boys  and  girls  at  this  early 
a^c  need  little  or  no  distinction  in  frocks. 


COFFEE    MAKING. 


Coffee  in  English  middle-class  houses  is  often  badly 
served.  It  should  not  be  boiled,  nor  made  in  quantity  twice 
a  week,  to  be  heated  up  when  wanted.  The  kernels  should 
be  sufficiently  and  equally  roasted.  As  it  is  the  roasting 
which  develops  the  aroma,  under-roasted  coffee  is  so 
much  lost ;  whilst  over-roasted  is  so  much  driven  off  and 
wasted  or  lost  in  another  direction.  Of  the  two  faults, 
the  former  is  the  worst.  Unroasted  coffee  is  useless. 
Most  of  us  remember  the  cruel  cheat  of  sending  unroasted 
coffee  to  the  Crimea,  the  purveyors  of  which  might  as  well 
have  sent  horse-beans  to  our  besieging  army.  Indeed, 
roasted  beans  or  wheat  would  have  been  far  better. 
Circumstances  often  compel  the  buying  of  coffee 
ready  ground,  almost  always  ready  roasted  ;  but  more 
rcccnilv  coffee  is  used  after  both  roasting  and  grinding, 


CASSELL'S  HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


295 


the  better.  It  is  only  a  healthy  amusement  to  give  a 
coffbc-mill  a  few  turns.  Coffee  is  easily  roasted  .at  home 
(it  should  be  done  in  the  open  air)  in  an  iron  cylinder  or 
barrel  of  small  diameter,  standing  on  two  feet,  over  a 
coke  and  cinder  or,  better,  a  charcoal  fire,  turned  by  a 
handle  like  that  of  a  grindstone.  The  turning  must  be 
slow  and  continuous  from  beginning  to  end.  A  little 
intelligent  practice  will  teach  the  exact  moment  when  the 
coffee  is  done  to  a  turn  and  must  be  taken  out  to  cool. 
Make  your  coffee  in  a  biggin,  the  well-known  form  of 
filter  which  allows  the  water  to  drain  slowly  through. 
Have  different-sized  biggins,  according  to  the  number  of 
persons  you  have  to  serve  with  coffee.  Putting  a  spoonful 
or  two  of  ground  coffee  into  a  full-sized  biggin  is  like 
giving  a  dinner-party  of  three  in  Westminster  Hall. 
Be  liberal  and  allow  for  each  person  a  good  dessert- 
spoonful of  the  very  best.  When  you  have  put  it  into  the 
filter  of  your  biggin,  pour  on  it  two  or  three  spoonfuls  of 
boiling  water,  just  enough  te  soak  it  without  draining 
through,  and  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  or  twenty  minutes.  Then  pour  on  the  rest  of  your 
boiling  water,  and  let  it  gradually  percolate.  The  time 
to  take  coffee  is  either  in  the  morning  (with  milk  mixed 
in  due  proportion)  or  after  lunch  or  an  early  dinner. 
In  the  evening  it  is  to  be  avoided,  unless  you  intend, 
like  Lady  Macbeth,  to  "murder  sleep;"'  for  which  you 
are  sure  to  be  punished  ne.xt  morning. 


ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PLEASURE  AND 
PROFIT.— THE  HORSE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Of  all  animals,  excepting  those  which  serve  for  man's 
sustenance,  none  equal  the  horse  in  importance.  He  is 
at  once  a  valuable  servant  and  a  trusty  companion,  and 
he  is  never  more  a  companion  than  when  he  is  our  ser- 
vant. It  is  the  business  of  our  superior  intelligence, 
therefore,  to  make  him  a  useful  servant,  and  to  keep  him 
so.  We  desire,  in  these  articles,  to  give  horse-owners  the 
greatest  amount  of  practical  knowledge  of  the  horse,  with 
all  things  pertaining  to  his  stabling,  food,  equipment,  and 
management,  conveyed  in  the  most  concise  and  intelli- 
gible language.  Where  technicalities  occur,  we  shall 
explain  them,  but  we  shall  endeavour  to  steer  clear  of 
stable  expressions  and  horse-dealers'  slang,  so  far  as  the 
peculiarities  of  our  subject  will  allow. 

The  first  object  in  a  treatise  of  this  sort  should  be  to 
give  that  infonnation  of  which  the  majority  stand  most  in 
need.  For  this  purpose,  when  we  come  to  consider  the 
horse  himself,  as  a  beast  of  burden  or  of  draught,  we  shall 
begin  with  the  requirements  of  those  who  are  able  to  keep 
one  horse  for  general  purposes  of  saddle  and  harness. 
Keeping  distinct  their  uses,  our  first  practical  article  will 
be  written  on  the  hack  and  harness  horse  of  ordinary 
price  and  of  extraordinary  utility;  for  it  is  somewhat 
remarkable  that  in  the  horse,  as  in  some  other  animals 
we  know,  the  useful  and  the  ornamental  are  frequently 
found  in  an  inverse  ratio  to  one  another.  The  hunter 
serves  a  more  limited  class,  as  do  all  horses  used  purely 
for  pleasure,  or  kept,  as  many  are,  for  show  ;  while  the 
race-horse — unhappily  being  now  little  more  than  a 
medium  for  gambling — will  only  be  considered  in  his 
capacity  as  the  thorough-bred  sire  for  the  improvement  of 
his  race.  The  agricultural  or  cart-horse,  being  of  a  dis- 
tinct breed,  and  belonging  to  the  most  useful  and  profit- 
able class,  will  receive  very  early  attention. 

OF  THE  DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  HORSES. 

But  before  going  to  these  divisions  of  our  subject,  it 
becomes  those  who  wish  to  have  a  proper  knowledge  of 
the  horse  to  consider  it  from  a  point  of  view  which  will 


enable  them  to  become  gradually  acquainted  with  his 
perfect  symmetry  of  form,  and  adaptation  for  his  work  ; 
and  with  his  higher  qualities — sagacity,  docility,  and 
courage.  For  this  purpose  we  must  regard  the  principal 
breeds  from  which  the  ordinary  horse  of  this  country  has, 
by  various  crossings,  been  derived.  It  is  not  possible  to 
determine  accurately  which  breed  was  the  original  stock, 
but  for  our  purpose  of  investigation,  we  may  classify  the 
prominent  divisions  under  three  heads  :—  the  Eastern,  the 
Western,  and  the  European  breeds.  The  question  is  far 
too  deep  and  too  full  to  be  satisfied  by  the  hasty  inquiry 
which  we  can  afford  to  give  it. 

It  seems  at  first  impossible  to  regard  the  sleek,  blood- 
like Arab  as  being  derived  from  the  same  stock  as  the 
rough,  under-sized  Shetland,  the  London  dray-horse,  and 
the  lady's  hack;  and  yet  it  is  more  difficult  to  believe  that 
they  are,  not.  Nature  is  pliant,  and  accommodates  herself 
to  circumstances  of  climate  and  of  food  ;  and  in  the  case 
of  the  Arab  and  the  Shetland  she  has  acted  the  part  she 
acts,  in  changing  "  wool  to  fur,  and  hair  to  down." 

THE   HORSE   IN   SCRIPTURE. 

The  first  mention  made  of  the  horse  is  in  .Scrip- 
ture ;  and  without  quoting  from  passages  in  Genesis, 
we  refer  our  readers  to  Job,  who  lived  before  Moses, 
and  after  Jacob ;  but  as  Moses  described  in  Genesis 
the  habits  of  life  of  the  days  of  the  patriarchs,  we  may 
conclude  that  no  horses  swelled  the  retinue  of  Jacob's 
goats,  cam'els,  sheep,  and  asses,  and  that  it  was  not  till 
after  they  came  into  Egypt  that  they  had  any  personal 
knowledge  of  the  horse.  Jacob,  on  his  death-bed,  speaks 
of  the  "  horse  and  his  rider  ;"  and  Pharaoh,  with  chariots 
and  "horses,"  pursued  the  Israelites  to  the  Red  Sea. 
Therefore,  the  question  may  naturally  arise  as  to  the 
indigenous  nature  of  the  breeds  of  Arabia.  There  is  no 
description  given  of  these  horses  to  assist  us  ;  and  1,000 
years  before  the  Christian  era,  Solomon  was  importing 
them,  40,000  at  a  time,  from  Egypt.  The  description 
given  by  Job  is  less  definite  than  that  of  Homer  or  Virgil, 
whose  horses  may  be  better  seen  in  the  relievi  in  the 
British  Museum.  We  doubt  very  much  whether  the 
inspired  writer  intended  to  convey  any  physical  identifi- 
cation of  the  horse  at  all,  but  rather  to  express  his 
spirit  and  disposition,  when  he  wrote,  "  His  neck  is 
thunder,  the  glory  of  his  nostrils  is  terrible,  he  swalloweth 
the  ground,  he  smelleth  the  battle,"  these  being  poetical 
symbols  of  his  strength,  power,  and  courage  ;  but  they 
give  us  no  more  idea  of  the  original  breed  of  the  horse 
than  do  the  virtues  of  the  man  of  the  size  of  his  body. 
The  probability  is,  that  the  original  horse  was  a  native  of 
Africa,  improved  by  slow  degrees,  by  crossing,  by  care, 
by  feeding,  by  domestication  ;  and  that  the  Arabian  of 
the  desert  is  another  form  of  the  African  of  the  desert, 
which,  as  civilisation  and  mutual  intercourse  increased, 
had  its  antitype  in  many  parts  of  the  globe,  improved  or 
degraded,  accordtng  to  external  circumstances,  into  the 
English  race-horse  or  the  Irish  "  hobby." 

OF  EASTERN  BREEDS. 

The  principal  of  these  is  the  Arabian,  of  which  there  are 
at  least  six  varieties,  different  in  value  and  in  appearance. 
The  best  of  these  is  the  "  Kochlaini,"  said  by  the  Arabs 
to  be  descended  from  the  horse  of  the  prophet  Mahomet. 
This  is  a  breed  almost  unpurchasable,  from  the  dislike  of 
the  Arabs  to  part  with  it  ;  we  believe  there  is  a  law  for- 
bidding the  exportation  of  the  mare.  Some  have  said  that 
from  the  money  value  of  the  horse,  he  seldom  finds  his 
way  to  this  countr>- ;  but  there  are  plenty  of  Englishmen 
to  whom  price  for  a  horse  they  want  is  no  object  whatever. 
The  peculiarities  of  the  Arab  of  high  class,  one  of  which 
we  once  possessed,  arc  a  head  very  light,  wide  in  the  fore- 
head, small  in  the  jaw,  nostrils  expanded,  and  very  red 
and  transparent  when  in  motion  ;   neck  short,  and  full 


296 


ANIMALS    KEPT   FOR   PLEASURE  AND    PROFIT. 


where  it  enters  the  fauces,  or  what  horsemen  call  the 
"  vivesj"  ears  small  and  pricked  ;  shoulders  oblique,  but 
not  fine  ;  legs  peculiarly  flat,  and  the  bone  as  hard  and 
heavy  as  can  be  conceived;  "arms"  large  and  muscular,  as 
are  the  thighs ;  the  quarters  are  most  beautifully  rounded ; 
and  though  the  "  barrel"  is  not  large,  the  horse  is  deep  in 
the  girth,  which  gives  him  endurance,  wind,  and  a  capacity 
for  carrying  weight.  His  absolute  pace  with  our  own 
thorough-bred  race-horse  has  not  been  fairly  tried,  as  we 
have  not  had  a  first-class  Arab  in  condition  on  any  of  our 
courses.  Their  performances  in  their  own  country,  and 
according  to  the  statements  of  their  own  people,  are  past 
all  credibility.  Their  endurance  of  thirst  and  hunger  is 
beyond  anything  we  dream  of,  and  we  have  well-authenti- 
cated accounts  of  their  travelling  from  sixty  to  a  hundred 
miles  over  the  desert  without  food  or  water,  and  almost 
without  a  halt.     The  height  of  the  Arab  does  not  exceed 


ing  on  the  deck.  The  horses  bred  at  the  Cape,  or  at 
Pietermaritzburg  in  Natal,  might  be  very  serviceable  as 
soldiers'  remounts,  and  would  reach  India  at  a  moderate 
expense. 

We  give  below  a  portrait  of  "  Varna,"  the  Arab  alluded 
to  as  having  been  in  the  possession  of  the  writer.  The 
reader  will  notice  one  peculiarity :  the  unusual  way  in 
which  the  animal  carried  his  tail — so  much  out. 

WESTERN  BREEDS. 

Of  Western  breeds — meaning  Egypt  and  westward — 
the  principal  is  the  Barb.  His  peculiarities  are  the  ful- 
ness of  his  crest,  the  fineness  of  his  shoulders,  and  the 
sudden  fall  of  his  quarters  or  haunches.  He  is  larger 
than  the  Arab  in  some  respects,  but  in  height  is  about  the 
same.  The  country  of  the  Barb  is  Morocco.  His  is  one 
of  the  breeds  which  is  credited  with  the  ancestry  of  the 


"  VARNA,"  A  HIGH-BRED  ARAB. 


fifteen  hands,  and  he  is  usually  about  fourteen  hands  two 
inches.  He  has  the  finest  temper  in  the  world,  till  ill- 
treated,  but  when  roused  he  is  indomitable. 

The  Persian  Horse  is  larger  in  every  respect,  and  not 
so  handsome  as  the  Arab  ;  and  the  description  given 
by  Sir  John  Malcolm  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  Xeno- 
phon.  They  are,  when  roused,  and  loose  among  them- 
selves, furious  and  vicious  beyond  measure. 

The  Turkoman  is  of  the  Tartar  breed,  but  of  a  very 
superior  class.  Instead  of  small,  awkward,  heavy-shoul- 
dered, wild  horses,  which  are  hunted  for  the  flesh,  on 
which  the  Tartars  live,  the  horses  used  by  the  Turks  are 
from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high,  held  in  high  esti- 
mation, of  considerable  value,  and  exhibiting  much  of  the 
fire  and  form  of  the  Arab,  for  which  he  is  sometimes 
mistaken.  He  is,  however,  most  likely  a  cross  between 
the  last-named  and  the  Barb. 

India  has  some  native  breeds,  but  none  of  any  import- 
ance. The  climate  is  said  to  be  unsuitable,  save  in  the 
north  of  Bahar  and  Orissa  ;  and  the  importation  of  Euro- 
pean blood  was  found  to  be  absolutely  necessary.  Good 
Arabs  are  very  expensive  ;  and  frequently  suffer  from  the 
sea  voyage,  disembarking  with  foot  lameness  from  stamp- 


English  thorough-bred  horse — the  Godolphin  Arabian,  of 
which  our  readers  have  probably  heard  or  read,  being, 
in  all  probability,  a  Barb,  sent  direct  from  Barbary  to 
Louis  XIV.  The  ups  and  downs  of  life  are  pictured 
in  his  histor}',  for  he  was  bought  from  a  water-cart  in 
Paris  by  an  English  gentleman,  and  found  his  way  into 
the  hands  of  Lord  Godolphin.  He  died  in  1752.  He 
was  brown  in  colour,  and  rather  better  than  fifteen  hands 
high  ;  and  so  truly  remarkable  are  the  peculiarities  of 
his  head  and  neck,  that  we  add  a  sketch  from  an  au- 
thentic likeness. 

Egyptian  Horses. — Egypt  as  a  breeding  country  is  far 
inferior  to  those  we  have  already  mentioned,  and  cer- 
tainly to  its  own  reputation  in  the  days  of  Pharaoh 
and  Solomon.  The  docility  of  these  horses  is  the 
theme  of  praise  with  writers  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  interesting  facts  are  recorded  of 
the  exercises,  ridden  by  the  Mamelukes  of  the  Sultan 
of  Egypt,  which  remind  us  of  the  ancient  Persians, 
as  described  by  classical  writers.  They  possess,  how- 
ever, very  httle  interest  for  us,  as  they  are  entirely 
unconnected  with  those  breeds  which  have  so  greatly 
assisted  in  improving  our  own. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


297 


South  and  North  American  Horses. — South  America  instance,  but  transmitted,  as  other  acquired  qualities  may 
possesses  herds  of  wild  horses,  which  are  caught  and  be.  A  mile  has  been  done  in  2  min.  20  sec,  and  ten 
subdued  by  the  horse-hunters  ;  but  whose  skill,  although  j  miles  in  28  min.  10  sec,  in  harness.  We  are  satisfied 
truly  admirable,  as  it  is  described  by  Sir  Francis  Head,  ,  with  ten  miles   an   hour,  and   consider   that   fast  work. 


HEAD  AND  NKCK  OF  THE  GODOLPHIN  ARABIAK. 


is  certainly  far  less  than  that  of  the  professional  breaker 
of  the  artificial  horse.  These  South  American  horses 
are  rather  diminutive,  clumsy,  and  "  tricksical,"  in  all 


Great  improvements  in  the  American  studs  are  being 
wrought  by  constant  crossings  with  the  best  of  our 
own. 


THB  SHETLAND. 


probability  acquiring  this   property  from  their  breakers 
or  rough-riders. 

The  North  American  breed  are  chiefly  crosses  with  the 
European  horse — French,  Flemish,  and  English— and  no 
man  who  has  not  seen  it  can  have  the  slightest  idea  of 
their  powers  of  trotting — an  acquired  quality  in  the  first 


EUROPEAN  HORSES. 
Of  European  horses  the  first  we  shall  mention  is  the 
Flemish  breed.  This  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  in  our 
country,  and  in  the  reign  of  John  were  imported  in  great 
numbers.  They  improved  very  much  our  agricultural 
and  war  horses,   and   many   of  them   found  their  way 


298 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR   PLEASURE   AND   PROFIT. 


during  the  Crusades  to  the  East,  from  which  cause 
mutual  benefit  was  derived  both  to  England  and 
Flanders,  Arabs  doubtless  returning  to  both  countries. 
The  rest  of  the  Continental  breeds  from  which  we  have 
gained  most  benefit,  but  which  we  have  long  ago  repaid 
in  kind,  are  the  Norman,  Hanoverian,  and  Spanish.  It 
does  not  appear  that  we  owe  anything  to  Prussia  or 
Austria  ;  they,  on  the  contrary,  are  greatly  our  debtors 
for  the  best  horses  they  possess. 

The  Flemish  Horse  is  generically  a  heavy  horse,  with 
a  magnificent  crest,  broad  chest,  small  head,  and  round 
"  barrel."  His  legs  are  small  for  the  weight  he  has  to 
carry.  He  has  high  and  good  action,  and  properly 
crossed,  makes  a  valuable  carriage  horse.  We  have 
travelled  in  Flemish  diligences,  which  were  very  heavy, 
nearly  as  fast  as  on  our  own  stage-coaches — certainly 
eight  miles  an  hour. 

The  Norman  Horse  came  to  us  in  great  numbers  with 
William  the  Conqueror.  He  was  pre-eminently  the  war- 
horse  of  that  period,  and  must  have  been  used  for  all 
purposes  of  state.  He  was  occasionally  mixed  with 
French  and  Spanish  breeds  ;  the  latter  adding  quickness 
to  his  great  strength.  Considering  what  he  had  to  carry 
in  the  way  of  armour  and  heavy  arms,  the  latter  quality 
was  the  less  indispensable  of  the  two. 

The  Hanoverian  Horses  are  very  large,  and,  covered 
with  harness,  look  handsome  and  showy.  They  have 
high  crests,  small  heads,  and  very  luxuriant  manes  and 
tails,  and  are  almost  invariably  black  and  sleek  in  coat. 
But  they  have  great  faults ;  bad  shoulders  and  small  back 
ribs,  and  their  muscular  development  is  very  light.  We 
have  seen  the  Queen's,  which  are  not  free  from  the 
national  imperfections.  Those  which  are  in  this  country 
are  usually  met  with  in  the  hands  of  the  undertakers. 

The  Spanish  Jentiet  was  (and  is,  we  believe)  a  very 
quick  and  useful  little  horse,  combining  great  courage 
with  extreme  good  temper,  which  makes  it  so  valuable 
as  a  lady's  horse.  Many  of  these  horses  are  said  to 
have  found  their  way  into  this  country  at  the  time  of 
the  Spanish  Armada,  A.D.  1588,  having  been  cast  ashore 
and  secured  by  the  English.  The  cross  is  said  to  have 
been  most  serviceable,  as,  indeed,  it  must  have  been 
while  horsemanship  was  in  high  repute,  and  race-courses 
were  being  established  both  in  this  country  and  Scotland, 
at  a  time  when  the  Arab  was  not  introduced — that 
attempt  not  being  made  until  the  following  reign,  when 
James  I.  obtained  what  is  known  as  the  Markham 
Arabian,  and  Place's  White  Turk,  so  called  from  his 
original  owner.  The  Spanish  horse,  however,  has  long 
ceased  to  influence  the  English  breed,  but  is  too  prominent 
in  romance  and  history  to  be  passed  over. 

The  British  Horse,  with  something  of  his  history  and 
varieties,  must  form  a  part  of  our  introductory  article. 
The  earliest  notice  of  any  kind  of  British  horse  is  to 
be  found  in  Cesar's  description  of  the  invasion  of  these 
islands,  for  even  then  the  Briton  was  a  horseman,  and, 
according  to  a  partial  judge,  a  good  one.  This  horse 
could  not  have  been,  as  he  is  sometimes  represented, 
small,  and  similar  to  the  Shetland  or  mountain  pony  of 
Wales,  because  he  was  manifestly  capable  of  drawing 
the  chariots  of  war  on  unmade  roads,  heavy  and  cum- 
brous as  they  were,  and  of  carrying  the  warrior.  He  had 
certainly  not  yet  attained  the  strength  and  size  which 
later  cultivation  gave  him,  but  he  must  have  been  much 
more  like  our  galloway  or  cob.  Ca:sar  is  reported  to 
have  taken  back  several  with  him  to  Rome.  Roman 
cavalry  was  not  a  strong  arm  of  the  service,  and  when 
England  was  garrisoned  by  Roman  soldiers  the  advantage 
of  the  crosses  was  about  mutual.  Athelstane  improved 
the  English  breed  by  presents  of  French  horses  which  he 
accepted  from  Hugh  Capet,  King  of  France.  William  I., 
as  we  have  seen,  introduced  the  Norman,  and  John 
the  Flemish  eleinents  in  our  breed  ;  and  the  first  Arab 


had  been  previously  brought  in  by  Henry  I.,  A.D.  1120. 
The  encouragement  given  to  horse-breeding  by  the 
Edwards  arose  from  their  love  of  tournaments  and  their 
talents  for  war  ;  and  during  this  period  the  native  breeds 
increased  in  size  and  strength,  as  well  as  by  the  judicious 
introduction  of  Spanish  and  French  blood.  They  had 
increased  in  value  from  30s.,  in  the  reign  of  Athelstane, 
to  £1  6s.  8d.  in  that  of  Edward  III.  Henry  VIII. 
enacted  arbitrary  but  salutary  laws  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  our  horses,  and  despotically  forbade  the  use  of 
all  inferior  classes  for  breeding.  We  can  give,  too,  some 
idea  of  the  size  of  our  horses  at  this  time  by  telling  the 
reader  that  the  nobility  and  gentry  were  compelled  to 
keep  a  certain  number  of  entire  horses  of  not  less  than 
fourteen  hands  high,  obviously  for  the  propagation  of 
larger  stock  than  the  ponies  and  galloways,  which  were 
considered  indigenous.  There  happened  then  wjiat  we 
fear  is  happening  now,  a  great  exportation  of  the  best 
horses  by  the  foreigners — for  in  Elizabeth's  reign  it  was 
with  difficulty  that  a  supply  equal  to  the  demand  could 
be  obtained  ;  and  as  coaches  were  invented,  increased 
substance  and  increased  numbers  were  called  for.  The 
Stuarts  and  Cromwell  both  encouraged  the  promotion  of 
sport,  we  believe,  from  different  causes  ;  but  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  after  the  civil  war  the  great  impetus,, 
which  we  feel  to  the  present  day,  was  given  to  improve- 
ment in  breeding.  Newmarket  became  the  centre  of 
raciing,  and  in  Anne's  reign  the  last  seal  was  set  upon 
it  by  the  introduction  of  the  Darley  Arabian.  He  was 
bought  from  a  merchant  of  thart  name  in  Aleppo,  and 
became  the  sire  of  Flying  Childcrs.  This  is  said  to- 
have  been  the  fastest  and  most  enduring  horse  that 
ever  ran.  He  did  the  round  course  at  Newmarket  (3 
miles  6  furlongs  and  93  yards)  in  6  minutes  and  40 
seconds ;  and  the  Beacon  course  (4  miles  i  furlong  and 
138  yards)  in  7  minutes  and  30  seconds.  The  royal 
mares  imported  by  Charles  II.  with  Place's  White  Turk,, 
laid  the  foundation  of  our  thorough-bred  stock,  and  through 
it  of  our  pre-eminence  as  horsemen  and  horse-breeders. 
P'rom  that  time  the  descent  of  our  best  horses  has  to 
be  recorded  from  the  Byerley  Turk  through  Herod  ;  from 
the  Godolphin  Arabian  through  Matchem  ;  .and  from  the 
Darley  Arabian  through  Eclipse.  In  this  blood,  or  strain, 
is  to  be  found  that  of  all  the  great  horses  of  this  country,, 
and,  consequently,  from  them  are  descended,  by  provincial 
sires,  the  ordinary  classes  of  hacks,  hunters,  and  harness 
horses,  which  do  not  claim  to  be  pure  descendants  fronv 
other  Eastern,  Western,  or  Continental  breeds. 

The  Scotch  Galloway  was  by  some  writers  supposed  to 
be  indigenous  to  Scotland.  He  has  existed  there  as  long 
as  we  have  any  records  of  the  horse  in  the  British  Isles 
at  all.  Those  who  refer  him  to  Spanish  origin  can  have 
no  knowledge  of  the  Spanish  horse.  He  is  now  seldom 
to  be  met  with,  though  a  clever  useful  sort  of  pony. 

Tlie  Shetland,  or  Sheltic,  of  which  we  give  an  engraving, 
is  very  small,  but  very  handsome  ;  short  on  the  leg, 
muscular,  active,  and  intelligent.  Horses  of  this  breed 
have  small  heads,  very  long  manes  and  tails  ;  are  tractable 
and  courageous.  They  were  formerly  to  be  met  with 
frequently  at  country  fairs.  We  have  seen  them  sold  for 
^3  and  for  ^^40.  Another  sort,  called  the  Highland  pony, 
is  mentioned  ;  but  he  differs  little  frOm  the  Shetlander. 
He  is  rather  taller,  but  not  stronger.  As  he  is  a  clever 
jumper  and  creeper,  he  is  valuable  for  the  moors  and 
the  stubbles. 

The  New  Forest  Pony,  and  the  Exmoor  or  Devonshire- 
Pojiy,  are  both  good  in  their  way — the  latter  is  especially 
esteemed  in  his  own  coimty — but  they  are  too  small  for 
general  riding,  excepting  by  very  short  men,  or  children. 
They  are  docile,  and  the  lat4;er  is  fast  under  a  heavy 
weight. 

The  VVelshtnan  is  the  most  useful  of  all  these  little 
horses.     He  is  usually  from  thirteen   to  fourteen  hands. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


299 


high,  and  wc  have  known  them  to  grow,  by  good  keep, 
nearly  a  hand  higher.  They  arc  well  made  and  active, 
and  make  excellent  hunters  for  boys  and  light  weights, 
and  wc  may  say  more  about  them  when  we  come  to  the 
details  of  horse-dealing. 

For  the  present  wc  have  said  enough  of  the  different 
breeds  to  give  our  readers  a  fair  amount  of  information 
on  a  subject  which  is  almost  inexhaustible.  We  shall 
next  consider  the  various  classes  (not  breeds)  of  English 
horses,  with  their  adaptability  to  our  service. 


ODDS    AND    ENDS. 


Keeping  Liquids  Wann. — To  keep  liquids  warm  for 
any  length  of  time,  it  is  usually  said  that  vessels  of 
polished  metal  should  be  used,  and  that  such  vessels 
should  always  be  kept  perfectly  bright,  in  which  con- 
dition they  are  estimated  to  radiate  (or  part  with)  heat 
as  one,  although  if  tarnished  they  will  radiate  it  as  nearly 
two  and  a  half.  But  polished  metals  arc  good  con- 
ductors of  heat,  and  by  contact  part  readily  with  it. 
The  best  vessels  for  such  a  purpose  are,  therefore,  vessels 
made  with  earthenware  and  coated  with  metal,  earthen- 
ware being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  and  polished  metal 
a  bad  radiator. 

Back  Windows. — To  shut  out  a  disagreeable  view  from 
a  back  window,  the  gkiss  may  be  rendered  ornamental,  and 
the  obnoxious  objects  shut  out,  by  a  very  simple  plan, 
which  makes  a  fair  imitation  of  ground  glass.  This  is 
effected  by  cutting  out  stars  or  diamonds  upon  a  piece  of 
white  muslin,  tarlatan,  or  common  tissue-paper,  which  is 
then  gummed  or  pasted  on  to  each  pane  of  glass,  the 
great  point  being  to  get  the  gum  or  paste  as  colourless  as 
possible.  By  washing  the  glass  over  with  a  hot  saturated 
solution  of  Epsom  salts,  or  sal  ammoniac,  or  Glauber's 
salts,  or  blue  stone,  very  beautiful  effects  of  crystallisation 


can  be  obtained,  by  which  also  the  above  purpose  is  served 
in  shutting  out  an  obnoxious  view,  and  the  window  has  also 
a  very  ornamental  appearance.  By  a  saturated  solution 
is  meant  one  containing  as  much  of  the  salt  as  the 
water  will  dissolve.  The  solution  must  be  applied  while 
hot,  and  with  a  brush.  Be  careful  not  to  use  salts  of  a 
deliquescent  nature.  To  aid  our  readers  in  making  their 
choice  of  crystals,  wc  give  a  diagram,  in  which  Fig.  i 
represents  the  cr\'stals  formed  by  the  sal  annnoniac.  Fig. 
2  those  formed  by  Epsom  salts  (four-sided  prisms)  ;  Fig. 
3,  the  crystals  of  Glauber's  salts  (six-sided  prisms). 

Stools  for  Children. — Children  should  have  stools  low 
enough  to  let  them  rest  their  feet  upon  the  ground  ;  and 
these  stools,  if  made  after  the  manner  of  the  north  country 
"  crackct,"  are  easily  knocked  together  at  home.  The 
seat  is  round,  made  of  a  thick  piece  of  deal  ;  three  holes 
are  drilled  or  burnt  within  this  with  a  red-hot  poker,  and 
into  these  the  legs  are  fixed. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda  {a  Hint  for  the  Laundry). — 
We  arc  informed  that  the  above  is  an  excellent  substitute 
for  common  washing  soda,  by  the  adoption  of  which  the 
laundry  would  be  really  benefited.  It  docs  not  appear 
to  injure  the  texture  of  linen  and  cotton  articles  as  the 


coarse  soda  commonly  employed  does :  clothes  come  from 
the  wash-tub  in  which  it  is  used  softer  and  cleaner,  and 
they  dry  whiter. 

IVashin^  Blankets. — We  append  a  few  hints  on  the 
best  way  of  washing  blankets.  lit  the  first  place  use  tepid 
water  with  a  little  soda  in  it.  The  blankets,  first  rubbed 
well  over  with  soap,  then  put  into  the  water  and  kneaded 
with  the  fists,  as  in  kneading  dough.  If  a  little  ox-gall — 
a  very  little — be  put  in  the  first  water,  the  impurities  soon 
mingle  with  it.  Scotch  lasses  jump  on  blankets  when  in 
the  tub,  and  so  tread  out  the  dirt.  The  water  must  be 
changed  often,  or  until  it  looks  clean  ;  but  the  blankets 
must  be  soaped  each  time,  or  put  in  a  lather  of  soap  and 
a  little  soda,  prepared  in  a  copper.  The  rinsing  water 
must  also  be  soapy,  or  the  wool  will  dry  harsh,  and  the 
blankets  shrink.  They  must  be  wrung  as  dry  as  possible, 
and  after  hanging  on  the  drying-line  for  r.«:i  hour,  be  taken 
down  and  be  pulled  on  all  sides  by  two  persons,  to  pre- 
vent them  "felting."  Blankets  will  "felt,"  or  "mat,"  if 
the  water  they  are  washed  in  be  very  hot — tepid  water 
only  should  be  used — or  if  much  water  be  left  in  them 
when  hung  up  to  dry. 

Pearl  White. — This  is  an  oxide  of  bismuth,  and,  though 
very  clear,  is  very  evanescent.  If  it  comes  into  contact 
with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  it  at  once  turns  black. 
Ladies  inclined  to  use  it  as  a  cosmetic,  ought  to  be  made 
aware  of  its  liability  to  change  colour  under  circumstances- 
which  might  lead  to  unpleasant  consequences. 


THE    HOUSE-HOLD    MECHANIC. 

GAS  {continued). 

We  now  come  to  the  second  division  of  the  subject,, 
viz.,  the  burning  of  gas  for  heating  purposes.  The  principle 
to  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  use  of  gas  as  a  heating, 
medium,  is  that  any  emission  of  light  from  the  flame  will 
result  in  a  corresponding  loss  of  heat,  a  blue  non-luminous- 
flame  giving  the  best  result.  Such  a  flame  will  be  pro- 
duced by  allowing  the  stream  of  gas  from  an  ordinary  jet 
to  pass  through  a  sheet  of  fine  gauze.  The  gas  being 
lighted  above  it,  it  will  be  thoroughly  mixed  up  with  a 
larger  amount  of  air  than  it  could  come  in  contact  with 
as  a  simple  flame.  Again,  an  ordinary  gas  flame  being 
interrupted  by  striking  upon  a  surface  of  any  object,  the 
heating  and  incandescence  of  the  carbon  particles  will  be 
disturbed,  and  in  consequence  of  the  imperfect  combus- 
tion these  particles,  instead  of  being  wholly  consumed,, 
will  become  condensed  and  deposited  in  the  form  of  soot. 
In  this  case,  as  before,  every  particle  of  soot  or  smoke 
produced  is  the  positive  waste  and  loss  of  heat  It  is  to 
prevent  this  loss  of  heat  and  production  of  soot  and  smoke 
that  the  gas  and  air  burner  now  so  generally  known  and 
used  is  contrived.  Fig.  82  is  a  rude  embodiment  of  the 
principle  on  which  its  action  is  dependent,  shown  in  sec- 
tion (p.  300).  A  jet  of  gas  from  the  main  service  through 
the  pipe  A  shoots  into  the  larger  pipe  15,  at  a  part  of  which 
tube  15,  lower  than  the  nozzle  of  A,  are  holes,  C  C,  open  t» 
the  air.  The  force  of  the  gas  through  A  is  sufticicnt  to 
draw  in  through  the  holes  c  C  a  considerable  amount  of 
air,  which  mixes  with  the  gas,  and  is  consumed  at  the 
flame  D,  which  becomes  exposed  to  the  outer  air  at  that 
end  in  addition.  The  principle  is  embodied  into  all  sorts 
of  shapes  and  sizes  of  pipes,  and  for  all  sorts  of  purposes 
and  requirements,  but  it  remains  the  same,  being  a  jet  of 
gas  forced  into  a  pipe  open  at  the  end  behind  which  the 
gas  enters,  the  force  of  which  drags  after  it  a  large 
quantity  of  air,  which  mixing  with  it  escapes  at  the  holes, 
where  it  is  burnt.  These  holes  are  very  much  larger  than 
the  ring  burner  as  usually  made — a  great  advantage,  as 
the  very  small  holes  soon  become  corroded  and  stopped 
up  by  the  gas,  and  the  vapour  which  is  always  the  product 
of  combustion  of  mi.xturcs  of  hydrogen  and  oxygon  gases. 


300 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 


'M 


Messrs.  Pettit  and  Co.,  of  New  Oxford  Street,  are  the 
patentees  of  this  very  excellent  system,  of  air  and  gas 
burners,  and  have  carried  it  to  the  utmost  perfection, 
adapting  it  to  all  the  requirements  for  warming  and  cook- 
ing purposes,  from  a  small  burner  to  keep  a  kettle  boiling, 
neat  enough  to  stand  upon  a  drawing-room  table,  up  to  a 
complete  range  suitable  for  the  most  extensive  kitchen. 
The  objections  urged  against  an  ordinary  gas  cooking- 
stove — viz.,  the  tendency  to  make  meat  cooked  with  it 
acquire  a  decided  flavour  of  gas,  and  also  their  manifest  ex- 
travagance— are  no  mere  myths ;  but  the  above-mentioned 
firm  have  completely  overcome  all  these  defects.  The 
same  burners  are  fitted  by  them  to  their  patent  asbestos 
fires,  which,  for  the  purposes  they  are  intended  to  serve, 
are  most  decidedly  a  success. 

An   ordinary  grate    is   fitted   with   lumps  of  clay  and 
asbestos    (a   practically    incombustible   material),   and   a 
series  of   burners  ranged  under  the  bottom  grating,  so 
•that  four  or  five  streams  of  gas  and  air  are  allowed  to 
flow  up  among  the  asbestos,  which  becomes  red-hot  in  a 
few  minutes  after  the  fire  is  lighted,  and  the  carbon 
of  the  gas    being  wholly  oxidised  by  the  admix- 
ture of  the  air,  no  soot  is  formed,  as  would  be  the 
case  were  an  unmixed  jet  of  gas  poured  through. 
The  comfort  of  a  bright  and  clear  fire  which  re- 
quires no  attention  whatever,  but  which  is  capable 
of  the  most  delicate  regulation,  is  too  obvious  to 
require   anything   but  the  mere  mention.      These 
stoves  will  be  found  especially  useful  for  bedrooms, 
for  invalids  and  others,  where  the  constant  atten- 
tion required  by  coal  fires  seriously  prejudices  the 
benefit  to  be  derived  from  their  warmth. 

By  having  a  pipe  to  supply  the  gas  jet  so  con- 
trived as  to  be  controllable  by  a  tap  within  reach, 
a  patient,  without   the   necessity  of  getting  out  of 
bed,  can  regulate  the  fire   to  the  greatest  nicety, 
•or,  if  left  alone,  it   remains    in   exactly  the  same 
state  for  any  length   of    time.      We    can  testify 
from  positive   ocular   experience, 
that  these  fires  are  as  cheerful  and 
comfortable  as  coal  fires,  and  the 
heat  evolved  is  certainly  not  less  _ 

than  would  come  from  a  bright    ^ 

-clear    coke   fire,    which,    in   fact,  F'&-  ^^• 

they  so  closely  resemble  as  to  be 

nndistinguishable  by  a  casual  observer.  Of  course  we 
do  not  say  that  the  use  of  gas  for  this  purpose  is  more 
economical  than  the  use  of  coal,  but  the  advantages  gained 
are,  in  our  opinion,  fully  equal  to  any  possible  apparent 
difference  in  cost  ;  we  say  apparent,  because  the  facility 
of  almost  instantly  producing  or  putting-out  a  gas-jet 
must  be  set  against  the  fact  that  a  coal  fire  takes  a  con- 
siderable time  to  become  of  any  use,  and  must  be  allowed 
to  die  out  of  its  own  accord,  at  a  large  waste  of  material. 
We  should  strongly  advise  any  person  requiring  such  a 
fire  to  visit  Messrs.  Pettit's  establishment,  where  one  may 
be  seen  in  action,  and  also  a  large  number  of  useful 
contrivances  introduced  by  that  firm.  A  small  air  and 
gas-stove  for  cooking  chops,  steaks,  &c.,  by  means  of 
heat  thrown  downwards  by  radiation  from  asbestos  bricks 
deserves  especial  notice,  because  of  the  impossibihty  of 
smoking  or  burning  the  meat  by  the  fat  falling  into  the 
fire. 

In  our  next  paper  we  shall  pass  on  to  the  treatment  of 
■gas-meters,  and  conclude  with  the  consideration  of  a 
question  of  importance  to  all  who  use  gas  for  household 
.purposes — namely,  the  effects  its  burning  produces  upon 
the  atmosphere  of  our  apartments.  However  convenient 
or  pleasant  gas-light  may  be,  its  use  should  always  be 
adopted  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  serious  evils  which 
accompany  it,  evils  which  can  only  be  guarded  against  by 
proper  ventilation.  In  ill- ventilated  rooms  pains  in 
the   head,  nausea,  languor,  and  bronchial  irritation  arc 


frequently  experienced  by  those  who  occupy  them  for  any 
length  of  time.  The  serious  consequence  of  inhaling 
unburnt  gas  are  but  too  often  forgotten,  and  there  are 
thousands  now  burning  it  who  never  heard  or  read  a  word 
upon  the  subject.  We  should  ill  deserve  the  title  House- 
hold Guide  if  we  did  not  set  up  our  warning  here,  and 
point  out  not  only  what  to  do,  but  also  what  to  avoid. 


COTTAGE      FARMING. 

IV.— FENCING  {co7itinued). 
The  more   common  plan,  perhaps,   is  not  to  prune  the 
young  hedge  until  the  second  year,  but  there  is  no  gene- 
ral rule  observed.     Much  depends  upon  the  season  and 
growth.      When   the   plants   grow   uniformly   thick   and 
bushy  at  the  bottom,  then  prune  the  second  year ;   but 
otherwise   prune   down   rambling    plants   the   first  year. 
When   the   plants   grow   rapidly   in   height,   but   not   in 
breadth,  cut  down,  the  second  year,  to   lo  inches  or  a 
foot,  so  as  to  make  the  hedge  fill  out  below.    When 
fully  grown,  it  should  be  about  2  feet  wide  at  the 
bottom,  tapering  up  to  a  few  inches  round  at  the 
top  ;  5  feet  high  when  grown  on  the  flat,  and  from 
3^  to  4J  feet  on  mounds.     Some  prune  twice  a  year 
— July    and    November  ;     others   only  once  ;    we 
prefer  twice.     Always  prune  with  a  sharp  hedge- 
bill  or  switching-knife,  the  sharper  the  better,  and 
with   an   upright    stroke,  so  as  to  make  a   clean 
cut ;    and  remember    that    a    quick   smart    stroke 
will  make  a  clean  cut,  when  a  slow  lazy  one  will 
not  keep  hedges  free  fi-om  weeds. 

Beech   and   hornbeam   hedges  are  planted  and 

treated  in  the  same  way  as  white  thorn,  and  they 

will  grow  on  soils  of  lower  fertility.     Furze,  gorse, 

or  whin  fences  will  grow  on  some  poor  ferruginous 

soils,  where  neither  of  the  above  will  rise  to  make 

a  fence.    And  a  gorse  hedge  has  this  to  commend 

it  to  the  cottager  in  such  places, 

that   the   annual   cuttings,    when 

bruised,    make    excellent    forage 

for  milch  cows  during  the  winter 

^ months.     In  this  case,  no   other 

preparation  of  the  ground  is 
necessary  than  to  raise  a  narrow 
mound  about  4  feet  high,  and  of  no  greater  breadth 
at  the  base  than  the  earth  will  lie,  until  the  seed  has 
taken  root  ;  afterwards  the  roots  will  bind  the  earth 
together  in  a  body.  Some  sow  in  three  tiers,  or 
rows,  along  the  bank,  but  the  better  plan  is  to  dibble 
in  all  over  the  sides  of  the  bank,  6  inches  or  so  asunder, 
so  as  to  have  a  close  briard  and  crop.  Keep  the  bank 
clear  of  weeds,  and  mow  close  every  year,  beginning 
about  November.  And  on  poor  land  where  gorse  thrives, 
the  space  occupied  by  the  hedge  will  be  the  best  paying 
land  on  the  farm.  About  10  lbs.  of  seed  will  sow  an  acre 
of  hedge-bank,  if  the  seed  is  good  and  well  put  in. 

There  are  three  ways  of  renewing  or  renovating  thorn 
hedges,  according  to  the  state  they  are  in.  i.  If  the 
plants  are  healthy,  but  the  hedge  overgrown  from  inatten- 
tion to  pruning,  cut  them  down,  leaving  the  stumps  about 
6  inches  high.  Dig,  and  apply  lime  and  manure  to  the 
land  on  both  sides.  2.  If  the  plants  are  healthy,  and 
have  been  pruned,  but  begin  to  be  open  at  the  bottom, 
cut  off  the  lateral  branches  on  one  side,  close  to  the  up- 
right wood,  and  when  the  young  shoots  grow  so  as  to  fill 
up  the  hedge  on  that  side,  then  prune  the  other  side  close 
to  the  wood.  3.  If  the  hedge  is  full  of  gaps,  clear  away 
all  the  dead  wood,  then  drive  in  hedge-stakes,  3  feet 
apart  in  the  line  of  the  fence,  and  3  feet  above  ground. 
Sometimes  old  stumps  may  be  left  to  form  the  hedge- 
stakes.  This  done,  the  standing  wood  is  then  cut  by  two 
slanting  strokes  about  two-thirds  through,  the  first  cut 


LA.^bhLL'S    HOUSEHOLD    UUIUE. 


301 


near  the  bottom,  and  the  other  8  or  10  inches  above. 
The  growinj^  wood  thus  cut  is  gently  bent  over,  and 
wattled  or  woven  in  between  the  stakes,  and  so  on  for  the 
others,  dead  wood  being  wattled  at  the  gaps,  where  re- 
quired. The  stakes  are  then  ''  eddcrcd "  at  the  top,  to 
keep  down  the  cut  thorn  and  dead  wood,  by  planting 
hazel,  elm,  ash,  &c.,  saplings.  The  operation  is  techni- 
cally termed  "  plashing."  No  more  dead  wood  should  be 
used  in  plashing  than  is  necessary  to  form  a  fence,  until 
such  time  as  the  young  shoots  grow  up  through  the  bent 
boughs.  If  gaps  are  so  wide  as  to  require  more  dead 
wood  than  this,  they  should  be  filled  up,  either  from  old 
hedges  stubbed  out,  or  by  stubbing  out  part  of  the  fence 
under  repair,  and  then  by  planting  the  part  thus  stubbed 
with  young  quicks,  as  previously  directed.  The  gaps 
should  also  be  trenched,  limed,  and  manured,  before  the 
plants  from  the  old  hedge  are  put  in  to  fill  them  up.  If 
carefully  transplanted,  they  will  bear  plashing,  but  when 
there  is  a  sufficient  supply  of  them,  it  is  better  to  head 
down  to  6  inches  from  the  ground,  and  plant  close,  so  as 
to  insure  a  thick  hedge  of  young  shoots. 

Subdivision  fences  are  not  economical  on  a  small  farm, 
and  as  the  ring  fence  is  a  march  fence,  it  may  jointly 
belong  to  two  proprietors 
or  two  tenants  ;  or  the 
ditch  outside  the  hedge 
may  be  the  march  fence. 
In  practice,  the  several 
questions  thus  raised  are 
settled  on  the  spot. 
Where  a  straight  sub- 
division fence  runs  the 
length  of  a  10  or  20  acre 
farm,  it  may  not,  how- 
ever, be  advisable  to  re- 
move it,  as  the  removal 
of  cross  fences  will  allow 
the  land  to  be  profitably 
cultivated  by  steam. 

In  such  examples,  iron 
hurdles  may  be  profitably 

used  in  the  place  of  the  cross  hedges  removed,  as  they  can 
easily  be  shifted  during  the  operation  of  ploughing  ;  but 
as  the  hurdles  would  not  be  required  on  land  under  crop, 
one  length  of  hurdles  would  supply  the  place  of  two  or 
three  cross  hedges  removed,  while  the  produce  of  the 
e.xtra  land  thus  under  crop  would  pay  remunerating  in- 
terest on  the  outlay  invested  in  the  hurdles.  The  annexed 
engraving  shows  one  of  the  St.  Pancras  Iron  Work  Com- 
pany's patent  hurdles,  highly  recommended  by  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  and  other  societies.  It  is  furnished 
with  a  rabbit  screen,  of  which  there  are  a  variety  of 
patterns ;  or  hurdles  may  be  had  without  the  screen. 
That  which  gives  the  hurdle  its  high  merit  is  the  ring  on 
the  cross-bar,  at  the  central  upright,  which  by  its  being 
placed  alternately,  strengthens  the  hurdle  far  more  effec- 
tually than  diagonal  stays,  and  at  less  cost  and  weight 
of  iron. 

ARABLE   HUSBANDRY. 

Roads  on  arable  farms  are  made  and  kept  in  repair  in  a 
similar  way  to  those  already  described  for  grass  farms  ; 
but  where  the  land  is  either  soft  naturally,  or  liable  to 
poach  in  wet  weather,  a  greater  length  of  road  may  be 
required.  Much  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  land, 
its  extent  and  how  it  is  laid  out,  the  situation  of  the  home- 
stead, and  the  accommodation  afforded  by  public  roads. 
The  expense  of  hired  carting  on  small  farms  of  from  two 
to  five  acres  is  a  serious  drawback — so  much  so  that  the 
manure  is  often  wheeled  out  and  the  bulk  of  the  crops 
breught  home  by  wheelbarrows.  The  corn  and  hay  are 
not  unfrequently  carried  on  the  back  of  the  cottager  to 
avoid  injury  to  the  land  in  wheeling.    To  obviate  harm  to 


the  land,  and  reduce  the  labour  of  wheeling,  a  narrow 
walk  is  made  up  through  the  smaller-sized  farms  by 
digging  out  a  trench  eighteen  inches  wide  and  about 
twelve  inches  deep,  and  filling  it  with  small  stones, 
gathered  off  the  land,  or  with  gravel  or  burnt  clay,  in  the 
absence  of  small  stones.  A  stone  tramway,  in  districts 
where  quarries  arc  at  hand,  is  much  better.  Wooden 
planks  and  iron  trams  are  also  used.  A  long  light 
skeleton-framed  barrow,  without  sides,  is  used  for  wheel- 
ing home  the  sheaves  and  hay  ;  and  the  common  garden- 
wheelbarrow  for  wheeling  out  the  manure,  and  home  tiic 
potatoes,  turnips,  &c.  (We  shall  return  to  details  under 
Spade  Husbandry.) 

On  five-acre  farms  and  upwards  cottagers  generally 
contrive  to  get  the  carting  done  at  as  few  hirings  as  pos- 
sible ;  but  the  losses  sustained  are  often  heavy.  If  the 
cottager  keeps  a  horse  accustomed  to  heavy  carting  at 
other  jobs,  a  road  up  the  middle  of  his  farm  may  not  be 
necessary  on  dry  gravelly  soils  ;  but  on  soft  or  hilly  land, 
where  the  feet  of  the  horse  in  hauling  do  immense- 
harm,  a  road  about  seven  feet  in  breadth,  is  advisable, 
especially  under  high  farming,  where  from  forty  to  eighty 
tons  of  root  and  forage  crops  are  grown  per  acre,  and 

from  one  hundred  to  four 
hundred  tons  of  water 
applied.  If  the  horse  is 
used  for  saddle,  car- 
riage, or  dog-cart,  heavy 
carting  on  land  is  ob- 
jectionable, as  it  breaks 
the  pace  of  the  animal 
on  the  road  ;  but  by 
means  of  a  stone  tram- 
way, or  the  artificial  rails 
now  in  use,  and  a  light 
spring  market -cart,  all 
the  light  carting  may  be 
done  without  any  harm 
— much  less  than  on 
newly-metalled  roads.  It 
should  also  be  borne 
carting  has  to  be  done  by 
reatly    reduce    the    expense 


in  mind 
hirine,    j 


that   when 
good   road 


the 
win 

often  more  than  half.  There  is  an  old  proverb  which 
says  that  "  A  good  road  is  the  best  paying  land  on 
the  farm  ;"  so  that  in  cases  of  country  demesnes  where 
the  lawns  and  pleasure-grounds  are  being  converted 
into  cottage  farms,  it  may  be  advisable  to  preserve 
the  old  gravel-walks  for  roads.  In  other  examples  the 
materials  of  the  old  walk  will  make  a  new  road.  Such 
farms  are  mostly  kept  in  grass  ;  but  some  are  partly  and 
others  wholly  broken  up  for  aeration.  There  is  another 
class  of  mixed  examples,  partly  gardening  and  partly  park 
farming,  where  a  gravel-walk,  with  a  belt  of  garden-land, 
surrounds  a  few  acres  of  permanent  grass  laid  out  in  the 
form  of  a  park,  and  fenced  in,  either  with  strained  wire 
or  iron  hurdles,  or  some  kind  of  rustic  wooden  fence  ;  but 
the  former — iron  hurdles  and  strained  wire  fences — are 
objectionable,  as  they  induce  most  milch  cows  to  walk 
alongside  and  thus  trample  out  the  grass.  A  wire  screen 
upon  the  hurdle  will  sometimes  do  much  to  obviate 
harm,  and  when  this  fails  a  few  hurdles  placed  across  the 
path,  at  short  distances  asunder,  will  turn  the  cows  from 
the  fence-side.  The  yearly  routine  for  a  few  acres  of  grass 
laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  park,  will  be  treated  in  our  paper 
under  the  head  of  Park  Farming. 

Cottage  Farm  Buildings. — In  a  few  of  the  old  small 
country  demesnes  converted  into  cottage-farms,  and  also 
in  many  small  freeholds,  of  from  two  to  twenty  acres, 
there  is  ample  household  accommodation  for  cattle ;  but 
in  the  vast  majority  of  examples  milch  cows,  pigs,  and 
poultry,  are  not  well  provided  for — so  much  so  that  it 
would  be  cheaper  in  the  end  to  build  new  ones  than  alter 


DOMESTIC    MEDICINE. 


the  old,  and  this  applies  to  very  my.ny  of  the  new  build- 
ings recently  erected,  where  the  different  kinds  of  live 
stock  are  housed  on  the  old  plan.  The  different  kinds  of 
crops  and  cattle  should  all  be  housed  separately;  the 
corn,  hay,  and  root  crops  in  their  respective  barns,  and  so 
on  for  the  cottage  cow  and  pig. 

Information  for  the  ordinary  management  of  farm 
cattle  will  be  found  in  another  section  of  the  Household 
Guide  ;  we,  therefore,  refrain  from  dwelling  upon  the 
necessities  of  cleanliness,  ventilation,  Slc.  in  buildings  of 
•this  description. 


DOMESTIC    MEDICINE. 

WORMS. 

We  now  come  to  a  disease  in  which  domestic  medicine 
is  apt  to  be  thought  quite  sufficient.  The  symptoms  of 
worms  are  often  very  equivocal  and  doubtful,  and  the 
cause  of  worms  is  a  still  more  difficult  question.  Yet 
every  old  lady  thinks  herself  a  judge  of  when  a  child  has 
worms,  and  often  puts  aside  the  fine  speculations  of  em- 
barrassed doctors,  by  exclaiming,  "  That  child  is  troubled 
with  worms."  Nevertheless,  the  question  of  worms,  and 
the  cure  of  them,  when  their  presence  is  ascertained,  are 
among  the  things  that  require  judgment;  and  it  may  here 
be  said  that,  probably,  worms  are  not  so  common  in 
human  beings,  even  in  children,  as  is  generally  supposed. 
They  are  very  rarely  met  with  in  young  children  under  a 
year.  They  are  more  frequently  met  with  in  the  children 
of  the  poor,  which  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  of  their 
being  ill-fed,  and  to  their  houses  being  badly  ventilated 
and  unhealthy.  The  principal  worms  which  affect  the 
human  body  are  of  three  kinds  :  the  first,  the  small 
threadworm  (Ascar/s  vcrDiicitlaris) ;  secondly,  the  round- 
worm {Luvibrici") ;  thirdly,  the  long  tapeworm,  which  is 
flat,  and  made  up  of  links  or  segments  [Taenia). 

The  Small  Thread-woj-ni,  so  called  from  the  fact  that  it 
is  like  pieces  of  white  thread,  is  very  common  in  young 
children,  and  exists  low  down  in  the  bowel,  very  near  the 
seat.  Hence  it  often  causes  much  itching  here,  and 
sometimes  also  in  the  neighbouring  passages,  especially 
of  female  children.  The  child  is  apt  also  to  pick  its 
nose,  and  grind  its  teeth  at  night  ;  to  have  a  variable 
appetite  ;  to  look  pale  and  pinched.  These  symptoms  are 
quite  sufficient  to  make  us  suspect  the  presence  of  worms  ; 
but  they  have  other  causes,  and  there  is  only  one  proof 
■of  our  suspicions  being  right — and  that  is  actually  seeing 
worms. 

The  Roiind-ivorm  is  not  unlike  a  garden  worm,  and  is 
narrow  at  both  ends.  It  is  of  a  light  yellow  or  brown 
colour.  It  infests  a  higher  part  of  the  intestine  than  the 
thread-worms,  and  not  the  large  intestine,  but  the  small. 
It  may  even  crawl  up  into  the  stomach  and  be  vomited, 
or  it  may  crawl  up  higher  and  enter  the  nostrils,  or  even 
the  windpipe  ;  but  such  cases  are  very  rare.  It  may 
exist  singly  or  in  great  numbers.  The  mucous  membrane 
in  contact  with  the  worm  may  be  inflamed  from  the 
movements  of  the  worm  or  worms.  They  occasionally 
wriggle  their  way  into  all  the  recesses  of  the  bowels. 
They  give  rise  locally  to  colicky,  gnawing  pains  about  the 
navel,  and  often  to  a  kind  of  diarrhoea  ;  and  occasionally 
serious  nervous  symptoms  are  caused  by  round-worms, 
such  as  squinting,  twitching  of  the  muscles,  or  actual 
convulsions,  heaviness,  headache,  grinding  the  teeth  in 
sleep,  and  picking  the  nose  ;  but,  as  wc  have  said,  these 
symptoms  may  have  other  causes,  and  we  cannot  be  sure 
that  they  arise  from  worms  unless  we  see  the  worms ;  and 
even  when  worms  are  known  to  co-exist  with  serious 
symptoms,  it  does  not  follow  that  they  are  the  cause  of 
the  symptoms.  In  addition  to  these  symptoms,  the  child 
is  often  pale,  and  has  a  fetid  breath  and  a  quickened 
pulse.  At  the  same  time  the  child's  general  health  may 
be  little  impaired, 


The  Tape-tuorm  {Tccnia  solium)  is  a  long  flat  worm 
consisting  of  many  segments,  or  four-sided  pieces.  It  is 
of  a  white  colour,  and  has  a  length  of  five  to  fifteen  feet. 
It  has  its  abode  in  the  smaller  intestine ;  and  is  rare  in  early 
life.  The  symptoms  arc  not  in  themselves  characteristic 
apart  from  the  presence  of  links,  or  pieces  of  the  worm  in 
the  motion ;  but  in  a  patient  who  by  this  sign  is  known  to 
have  had  tapeworms,  its  presence  may  be  again  suspected 
if  he  is  depressed,  and  has  uncomfortable  or  gnawing  feel- 
ings about  the  stomach,  irregular  appetite,  and  the  other 
symptoms  which  we  have  described  as  often  caused  by 
worms. 

Worms  may  cause  severity  or  irregularity  in  tlic  symp- 
toms of  other  diseases. 

Causes. — Worm  disease  is  much  more  common  in  some 
places  than  others  ;  thus,  in  Paris  there  are  few  cases ; 
while  in  the  provinces,  and  other  parts  of  France,  it  is  a 
common  affection  ;  it  is  more  common,  as  we  have  said, 
among  the  poor  than  the  rich.  Good  food,  thoroughly 
cooked,  tends  to  prevent  the  disease.  Certain  unhealthy 
states  of  the  constitution  favour  worms,  as  paleness, 
indigestion,  &C.  Too  much  fruit  and  too  much  sugar  are 
favourable  to  worm  disease,  and  underdone  bad  meat, 
probably,  often  contains  the  germs  of  worms,  especially 
of  tape-worm.  It  is  often  observed  that  people  who  are 
troubled  with  tape-worms,  are  fond  of  meat  underdone  or 
half-cooked,  especially  of  pork. 

Treatment  and  Remedies.  —  The  treatment  depends 
largely  on  the  kind  of  worm.  For  the  small  thread-wortn 
a  local  remedy  is  the  best  in  the  form  of  an  injection. 
It  comes  directly  into  contact  with  the  worms,  and  destroys 
them.     The  following  injection  may  be  used  : — 

Tincture  of  perchloride  of  iron         ...   ^drachm. 

Infusion  of  quassia     ...         Bounces. 

Mix. 

A  sixth  part  of  this  may  be  injected  every  other  n-ight 
into  the  bowel  till  the  symptoms  are  relieved. 

Injections  of  three  or  four  ounces  of  lime-water,  too, 
containing  ten  or  fifteen  drops  of  tincture  of  perchloride 
of  iron,  are  also  very  useful  for  the  cure  of  these  small 
worms. 

For  the  Round-worms,  two  or  three  grains  of  santonine 
for  one  or  two  nights,  followed  next  morning  by  a  dose  of 
castor  oil,  is  a  good  remedy  ;  but  it  should  be  given  only 
by  a  medical  man. 

For  Tape-worm  there  is  one  remedy  that  is  generally 
most  effective,  the  oil  of  male  fern  in  some  such  form  as 
the  following  : — 


Oil  of  male  fern  ... 
Mucilage  of  acacia 
Peppermint  water 


^  to  I  drachm. 
I  ounce. 
I  ounce. 


Mix. 


To  be  taken  early  in  the  morning  ;  the  stomach  having 
been  cleared  by  light  feeding  the  day  before  on  broths, 
beef  tea,  &c.  &c.  It  is  very  seldom  that  this  remedy  fails 
to  bring  away  the  worm  either  at  once,  'or  after  a  second 
dose.  A  few  days'  interval  should  be  observed  between 
the  doses.  A  dose  of  castor  oil  may  be  given  the  day 
before  the  dose  of  fern  oil  is  given,  and,  if  necessary,  the 
day  after.  In  addition  to  worm  medicines,  care  should  be 
taken  to  give  the  patient  good  air,  good,  sound,  well- 
cooked  food,  and  a  httle  tonic  medicine  containing  iron, 
such  as  the  following,  for  a  child  five  years  old  : — 


Tincture  of  perchloride  of  iron 
Simple  syrup     ... 

Infusion  of  quassia      

Mix. 


I  drachm. 
I  ounce. 
6  ounces, 


One  table-spoonful  night   and   morning,  in  water,   after 
m.eals. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


303 


Leaving  this  subject  and  turning  to  other  common  dis- 
eases, we  sly.iU  adopt  the  following  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment in  treating  of  the  common  diseases  that  we  mean  to 
describe ;  and  when  we  have  reached  the  end  of  our  list, 
should  space  remain,  we  shall  treat,  by  way  of  supple- 
ment, of  any  subjects  that  we  may  have  omitted : — 


Abscess. 

Ague. 

Apoplexy. 

Asthma.     See  Bronchitis. 

Bilious  Disorders,  including 
Jaundice. 

Bladder,  Diseases  of. 

Boils. 

Bronchitis,  including  Asthma. 

Carbuncle. 

Colic. 

Common  Cold,  including  In- 
fluenza. 

Constipation. 

Consumption 

Deafness . 

Debility. 

Diabetes. 

Diarrhoea. 

Di-phtheria. 

Dropsies. 

Drunkenness. 

Dysentery. 

Dyspepsia,  including  Flatu- 
lence, Censtipation,  and 
Bilieus  Disorders. 

Epilepsy. 

Erysipelas. 


Faintness. 

Flatulence. 

Goitre. 

Gout. 

Gravel. 

Heart,  Diseases  of. 

Influenza.    .5'^'^  Common  Cold. 

Insanity. 

Jaundice. 

Kidney,  Diseases  of. 

Hysterics. 

Lead  Poisoning. 

Liver.     See  Bilious  Disorders. 

Lungs,  Inflammation  of. 

Lumbago. 

Menstruation,  and  Diseases  of. 

Paralysis. 

Piles. 

Pleurisy. 

Rheumatic  Fever. 

Rheumatism. 

Scurvy. 

Sore  Throat. 

St.  Vitus's  Dance. 

Styes. 

Water  in  the  Head. 

Womb,  Diseases  of  the. 


ABSCESS. 

An  abscess  means  any  collection  of  matter  within  a 
circumscribed  cavity.  This  may  vary  in  size  from  a 
common  boil  to  those  large  collections  of  matter  which 
are  connected,  for  the  most  part,  with  diseases  of  the 
glands  or  of  the  bones.  Boils  will  be  treated  of  by  them- 
selves ;  and  larger  collections  of  matter,  either  in  the 
neck  or,  still  more,  in  the  groin,  are  generally  attended 
with  some  fault  of  the  system  which  requires  medical 
consideration.  Such  collections  in  the  neck  often  occur 
in  teething  children.  They  should  not  be  poulticed  too 
!ong,  and  the  matter  should  be  let  out  almost  as  soon 
as  it  is  certain  that  it  is  there ;  for,  if  the  opening 
of  the  abscess  by  a  lancet  is  deferred  too  long,  the  skin 
gets  thin,  and  is  destroyed  by  pressure.  In  this  way 
ugly  scars  of  the  neck  arc  often  left,  which  would  be 
prevented  by  an  early  small  opening.  The  same  remarks 
hold  equally  true  of  collections  of  matter  in  the  groin. 
In  the  groin  and  in  the  arm-pit  swellings  of  the  glands 
often  occur  in  which  matter  is  formed.  These  generally 
depend  on  sores  in  the  neighbourhood,  as  in  the  foot  or 
leg  in  the  one  case  and  in  the  fimgers  or  arm  in  the  other. 
Such  sore  places  should  be  poulticed.  Patients  with 
abscesses  require  good  support.     \_See  BoiLS.] 

AGUE. 

Ague  is  a  disease  not  much  seen  in  England  now, 
except  in  some  marshy  parts,  chiefly  along  the  eastern 
coast— in  parts  of  Kent,  Essex,  Cambridgeshire,  Norfolk, 
Lincolnshire,  and  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  Agues 
used  to  be  very  frequent  and  fatal,  even  in  London. 
James  I.  and  Cromwell  both  died  of  ague  contracted  in 
the  metropolis.  Doubtless  the  decline  of  the  disease  is 
due  to  the  improved  drainage  of  the  countr>\  It  is  still 
very  common  in  some  countries,  as  along  the  low  and 
level  coast  of  Holland  ;  in  parts  of  Italy,  especially  the 
Pontine  Marshes,  near  Rome  ;  in  parts  of  America,  as 
North  and  South  Carolina  and  Virginia  ;  in  various  parts 
of  India  and  Africa.     The  ague  is  a  fine  specimen  of  a 


periodicdl  disease.  It  comes  on  in  fits  at  a  particular 
time,  as  if  it  kept  a  watch,  goes  through  distinct  stages, 
and  then  leaves  the  patient  pretty  well,  as  he  continues  to 
be  until  the  next  fit  returns.  An  ague-fit  consists  of 
three  well-marked  stages: — ist,  the  cold  stage  ;  2nd,  the 
hot  stage ;  and  3rd,  the  sweating  stage.  There  are 
different  kinds  of  ague— the  quotidian  (daily),  the  tertian 
(third  day),  the  quartan  (fourth  day  ague).  In  the  first 
kind  there  is  an  interval  of  twenty-four  hours  between  the 
fits ;  in  the  second  of  forty-eight  hours  ;  and  in  the  third 
of  seventy-two.  In  the  daily  form  the  fit  occurs  for  the 
most  part  in  the  morning;  in  the  tertian  form  at  noon  ; 
in  the  quartan  form  in  the  afternoon. 

Symptoms. — As  we  have  said,  the  ague  has  three  stages 
—  the  cold,  the  hot,  and  the  sweating.  The  cold  begins 
by  the  patient  feeling  very  shivery,  until  he  shakes  and 
chatters  with  his  teeth  and  looks  the  picture  of  cold  and 
misery.  It  lasts  from  half  an  hour  to  three  hours.  It 
then  gives  place  to  the  second  or  hot  stage,  in  which  the 
patient  gets  as  uncomfortably  hot  as  he  was  previously 
cold.  This  stage  may  last  from  three  to  twelve  hours — 
generally  not  less  than  three — it  is  succeeded  by  the 
sweating  stage,  which  does  not  last  more  than  a  few 
hours,  and  ends  in  complete  relief.  The  patient  is  left 
comparatively  well  in  the  interval.  But  if  the  disease  is 
not  treated  with  the  wonderful  remedy  for  it,  various 
internal  discomforts  and  congestions  are  apt  to  arise. 
The  internal  organs — especially  the  spleen  and  the 
liver — seem  to  get  loaded  with  blood  during  the  cold 
stage,  and  sometimes  remain  for  a  time  congested  and 
enlarged. 

Tn-atmcni. — The  treatment  of  ague  is  perhaps  the  most 
successful  thing  in  the  practice  of  medicine,  for  we  have 
a  remedy  that  is  almost  a  specific  for  it,  and  cures  it  like 
a  charm.  We  mean  quinine.  If  the  value  of  quinine,  or 
bark — for  quinine  is  just  the  active  part  of  bark — had 
been  discovered  in  time,  probably  the  lives  of  both  James  I. 
and  Cromwell  would  have  been  saved.  It  is  curious  to 
think  what  might  have  been  the  political  consequences  of 
the  earlier  discovery  of  this  medicine.  As  will  be  readily 
imagined,  the  treatment  of  the  disease  varies  in  its  stages. 
When  a  patient  is  in  the  first  stage  the  only  thing  to 
do  is  to  promote  the  return  of  warmth  by  covering  him 
over  with  warm  blankets,  putting  warm  bottles  to  the 
feet,  stomach,  &c.,  and  giving  warm  drinks.  In  the  hot 
stage,  on  the  other  hand,  the  heat  must  be  moderated  by 
light  clothing,  cooling  or  effervescing  drinks  ;  and  in  the 
sweating  stage  the  chief  thing  to  do  is  to  administer  freely 
pleasant  drinks,  and  to  let  the  patient  be  still  and  com- 
fortably covered.  It  is  in  the  interval  of  the  fits  that  the 
great  remedy  must  be  administered  ;  and  the  administra- 
tion of  it  in  any  particular  case  should  be  regulated 
according  to  medical  advice.  Where  this  cannot  be  had 
we  may  lay  down  the  following  rules : — Two  er  three 
grains  of  quinine  should  be  given  in  water  containing  a 
few  drops  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  every  four  or  six  hours. 
.Sometimes  a  dose  of  opening  medicine  greatly  helps  the 
favourable  action  of  the  quinine.  If  the  disease  occurs  in 
a  very  severe  form,  or  in  a  tropical  country,  larger  quan- 
tities of  quinine  will  very  likely  be  required;  and  the 
patient  should  begin  to  take  it  in  the  sweating  stage.  If 
the  quinine  does  not  soon  take  effect,  it  is  probable  that 
there  is  some  internal  congestion  hindering  the  patient's 
recovery,  about  which  he  should  take  advice.  If  he  can- 
not get  this  he  may  take  a  purgative,  put  large  mustard 
plaistcrs  over  the  liver  and  spleen — that  is  to  say,  at  and 
below  the  edge  of  the  ribs— on  both  sides,  and  then 
resume  the  quinine 

There  are  other  diseases  in  marshy  countries  which 
are  very  apt  to  have  the  feature  of  periodicity,  and  the 
treatment  of  them  is  often  rendered  much  more  suc- 
cessful by  the  addition  of  quinine  to  other  medicines, 
as  all  ^^  ho  have  had  experience  in  this  direction  know. 


304 


COOKING. 


COOKING. 

SOUPS  AND   PUREES.. 

Mock-Turtle. — Half  a  calf's  head,  with  the  skin  on, 
scalded,  will  be  enough  for  a  middle-sized  family.  As 
soon  as  the  head  is  received,  remove  the  cartilage  of  the 
nostril,  and  put  it  to  steep  and  draw  the  blood,  &c.,  out 
in  a  pail  of  cold  water  with  a  handful  of  salt  in  it.  Set 
it  on  the  fire,  well  covered  with  cold  soft  water,  without 
salt  in  it.  Let  it  come  slowly  to  a  boil ;  remove  the  scum 
as  fast  as  it  rises.  As  soon  as  it  really  boils,  let  it  have  a 
bubble  or  two,  and  then  take  it  out.  Reject  the  water  in 
which  it  was  boiled.  This  is  done  to  get  rid  of  certain 
impurities,  which  might  prejudice  people  against  the  call's 
head  boilings  being  used  in  the  soup.  After  rinsing  the 
boiler,  return  the  calf's  head  to  it,  and  set  it  to  boil  again 
in  hot  water  with  a  little  salt  in  it. 

When  the  calf's  head  is  done,  which  will  take  from  two 
hours  to  two  and  a  half  (for  it  should  be  still  firm  and  not 
fall  to  pieces),  take  it  up,  and  set  it  aside  to  cool.  When 
cold,  take  out  the  brains,  and  set  it  aside.  Cut  the  flesh 
into  handsome  mouthful  pieces,  removing  the  white  skin 
of  the  palate  ;  do  the  same  with  the  tongue,  and  set  all 
these  pieces  aside.  The  remaining  trimmings  may  either 
be  returned  to  the  broth  to  enrich  the  soup,  or,  if  there  is 
enough,  they  may  be  made  into  a  small  calf  s  head  cheese. 

To  make  the  stock  for  your  soup.  To  the  calf's  head 
broth  add  as  much  water  as  you  are  likely  to  want, 
allowing  for  boiling  down.  Put  to  it  a  calf  s  foot  neatly 
prepared  and  split,  or  a  neat's  foot  idem  ;  three  pounds  of 
knuckle  of  veal,  cut  across  in  slices,  is  better  than  either. 
Put  in  also  two  pounds  of  shin  of  beef  ditto.  Add  carrots 
and  onions  peeled  and  sliced  ;  you  yourself  must  judge 
how  highly  you  wish  your  soup  to  be  flavoured  with 
vegetables,  as  well  as  of  its  richness  in  gelatine  and 
extract  of  meat.  Skim  scrupulously  ;  let  it  boil  slowly 
several  hours,  till  the  meat  falls  to  pieces.  Half  an 
hour  before  that  time  season  with  pepper,  salt,  cayenne 
(if  approved),  a  blade  of  mace,  a  stick  of  celery,  a  brown- 
ing ball,  or  a  bit  of  burnt  onion,  a  bay  leaf  or  two,  a  bit  of 
lemon-peel,  and  a  bunch  of  the  sweetest  herbs  at  your 
command,  including  sweet  basil  and  knotted  marjoram, 
if  possible.  When  the  soup  is  well  impregnated  with 
their  perfume,  strain  it  through  an  ordinary  cullender,  and 
set  it  aside  to  cool.  This  soup  being  thick,  not  clear, 
straining  it  through  a  sieve  or  five-holed  cullender  would 
only  rob  it  of  many  nutritive  particles. 

To  thicken  your  soup.  Roll  a  good  lump  of  butter  in 
as  much  flour  as  you  can  make  it  take  up.  Put  it  into  a 
stew-pan,  and  when  it  begins  to  brown,  dust  in  more 
flour,  and  stir  in  gradually  some  of  your  stock,  adding 
more  and  more  as  it  incorporates,  and  so  on,  until  you 
have  sufficient  thickening  to  bring  your  soup  to  the 
desired  consistency.  Then  warm  up  the  whole  together, 
and  if  you  will,  stir  in  a  couple  of  glasses  of  madeira  or 
good  marsala,  or  any  other  good  white  wine.  Now  add 
your  dice  of  calf's  head  and  tongue  to  the  soup,  as  also 
forcemeat  balls,  brain  cakes,  and  egg  balls,  if  you  use 
them.  Though  liked  by  many,  they  are  not  indispensable. 
We  add  instructions  for  their  making. 

For  Forcemeat  Balls. — Make  some  turkey  stuffing  thus  : 
— Chop  fine  separately  a  bit  of  beef  or  veal  suet  as  big  as 
an  &gg,  the  rind  of  half  a  lemon,  sprigs  of  parsley,  thyme, 
and  chervil.  Mix  these  in  a  bowl  with  a  large  breakfast- 
cup-full  of  grated  bread-crumbs  ;  season  with  pepper  and 
grated  nutmeg  ;  break  into  them  a  couple  of  eggs,  and 
work  all  together  into  a  stiff  paste.  Roll  portions  of  this 
paste  into  the  size  and  shape  of  the  forcemeat  balls  re- 
quired ;  roll  them  in  flour,  and  bake  them  brown  and  crisp 
outside  in  your  Dutch  oven,  or  the  oven  of  your  stove. 

For  Egg  Balls. — To  one  G^'g  put  just  as  little  flour  as 
will  make  it  into  a  paste  that  you  can  pinch  into  shape 
with  your  fingers.     Season  with    pepper,  a  little  grated 


nutmeg,  and  with  less  chopped  lemon-peel  cut  very  thin. 
Work  these  into  pellets  the  size  of  marbles,  making  a 
few  of  them  long  like  miniature  sausages.  Throw  them 
into  boiling  broth,  and  let  them  boil  galloping  till  their 
substance  is  set. 

Mock-turtle  will  keep  several  days,  being  the  better  for 
it,  and  will  even  travel  in  jars.  It  is  best  warmed  up  by 
setting  the  jar  in  boiling  water.  If  only  a  portion  of  it  is 
taken  at  a  time,  it  must  be  well  stirred  up  to  get  your 
share  of  the  meat  which  has  settled  at  the  bottom. 

Potage  a  la  Tortjie. — This  potage  is  so  substantial  that 
it  may  supply  the  place  of  an  entire  repast.  Half  boil  in 
salt  and  water  a  piece  of  a  calfs  head,  taking  only  the 
lean.  Cut  it  into  little  pieces,  the  shape  of  playing  dice. 
Brown  them  in  butter,  with  the  addition  of  parsley,  thyme, 
basil,  bay-leaf,  small  onions,  mushrooms,  cloves,  pepper, 
nutmeg,  ginger,  and  lean  ham  also  cut  into  dice.  When 
your  meat  and  ham  are  fried  enough,  take  them  out  and 
set  them  aside.  Put  a  good  lump  of  butter  in  a  stew-pan, 
brown  in  it  a  dessert-spoonful  or  more  of  flour  for  thick- 
ening ;  stir  in  gradually  the  quantity  of  water  or  broth 
necessary  to  make  your  soup  ;  season  with  salt,  lemon- 
juice,  and  allspice.  Add  glazing,  or  gravy  reduced  to  a 
jelly,  if  you  have  any.  Let  it  boil  up  ;  skim,  and  pass  it 
through  a  coarse  strainer  or  cullender.  Then  return  to 
the  soup  the  fried  bits  of  calfs  head  and  ham  and  a 
few  forcemeat  balls  made  as  above,  only  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  minced  cold  meat  (veal  or  fowl  is  preferable) 
and  bread-crumbs. 

Ox-Tail  Soup. — Take  two  fresh  ox-tails  ;  stale  ones 
would  infallibly  spoil  your  soup  ;  see  that  they  are  quite 
clean  ;  cut  them  into  their  separate  joints.  Wash  them 
well  in  salt  and  water,  but  do  not  leave  them  in  it.  Set 
them  on  the  fire  with  a  good  quantity  of  cold  soft  water, 
to  allow  for  reduction  by  evaporation.  Add  to  them 
sliced  carrots,  onions,  leeks,  a  few  peppercorns,  and  a 
couple  of  cloves.  Skim  well  as  they  come  to  a  boil. 
\yhen  the  tails  are  nearly  tender  (which  will  take  from 
three  to  four  hours  of  gentle  stewing),  add  a  bunch  of 
sweet  herbs,  a  bay -leaf,  and  half  a  stick  of  celery.  When 
the  tails  are  cooked,  take  them  out  and  set  them  aside. 
Skim  the  fat  from  the  top  of  the  broth  and  set  it  aside. 
Crush  the  vegetables  through  a  middle-sized  holed 
cullender,  and  add  to  the  broth  all  that  passes  through  in 
the  shape  of  mash  or  puree.  To  increase  the  quantity  of 
your  soup,  you  may  prepare  at  the  same  time,  or 
previously,  a  strong  stock  made  with  two  pounds  of  shin 
of  beef,  and  one  pound  of  knuckle  of  veal  boiled  down 
with  carrots,  leeks,  and  onions  (with  careful  skimming) 
until  their  goodness  is  all  extracted.  Pour  the  liquor 
from  the  meat,  skim  off  the  fat,  and  set  it  aside.  With 
this  fat,  and  that  from  the  tails,  make  a  brown  thickening 
with  flour  ;  mix  it  with  the  soup,  add  the  jointed  tails, 
and  season  with  salt  and  a  tablespoonful  or  two  of 
mushroom  catchup.  It  is  usual  to  eat,  not  toasted  bread 
dice,  but  fresh  rolls,  with  this  and  mock-turtle  soup. 
By  serving  the  joints  of  ox-tail  with  a  snjall  quantity  of 
the  thickened  soup  more  highly  seasoned  (with  pepper,, 
and  if  you  will,  half  a  glass  of  red  wine),  and  surrounded 
with  the  cooked  vegetables  left  unbroken,  you  produce 
excellent  stewed  ox-tail,  which  you  may  further  garnish 
by  triangles  of  toasted  bread  laid  round  the  dish. 

Cherry  Soup  {Germaji  Recipe). — Pluck  the  cherries 
from  their  stalks,  and  boil  them  sufficiently  in  water,  with 
cinnamon,  lemon-peel,  and  lemon-juice.  Then  add  wine 
and  sugar,  and  serve  it  poured  over  bread  cut  into  dice 
and  fried  in  butter.  You  may  also  pound  a  few  cherries 
small,  boil  them  in  water,  and  pass  them  through  a  sieve. 
This  soup  may  likewise  be  made  with  dried  cherries,  or 
prunes,  and  pearl  barley,  boiled  several  hours  in  water, 
passed  through  a  sieve,  and  then  served  as  above.  In 
German  bills  of  fare  sweet  soups  are  frequent,  and  cinna- 
mon is  a  favourite  condiment. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


305 


INMATES   QF    THE    HOUSE.— DOMESTIC. 

v.— THE  PAGE,  OR  OCCASIONAL  BOY. 

The  duties  of  the  page  vary  in  their  nature  according  to 
the  class  of  estabhshment  in  which  such  servants  arc 
kept.  In  households  consisting  of  many  domestics  the 
page,  as  a  juvenile  servant,  executes  most  of  the  light 
miscellaneous  tasks  which  the 
upper  men-servants  are  unable  to 
discharge  without  hindrance  to 
more  important  work.  Going  of 
errands  constitutes  a  very  im- 
portant portion  of  a  young  page's 
work  in  large  families  ;  and  in 
order  to  fulfil  this  requirement 
efficiently,  promptness  and  an  in- 
telligent mind  are  first  essentials. 
Aptness  in  reading  and  writing  is 
a  great  recommendation,  added  to 
which,  if  a  lad  has  a  good  address, 
a  well-formed  figure,  and  a  correct 
manner  of  speaking,  he  cannot 
fail  to  rise  in  his  calling,  and  may 
ultimately  hold  the  highest  position 
of  confidence  a  servant  can  attain 
in  domestic  service. 

As  the  duties  of  a  page  are 
multifarious,  many  have  already 
been  treated  of  in  the  preceding 
articles  on  housemaids'  and  par- 
lourmaids' work.  We  shall  there- 
fore only  speak  in  this  place  of 
those  branches  of  work  which 
constitute  the  basis  of  general 
knowledge  indispensable  to  indoor 
men-servants  generally. 

Beginning  with  early  morning 
work,  whatever  labour  is  dirty  in  its  nature  should  be 
done  early,  i.e,.  before  breakfast.  A  suit  of  old  clothes 
should  then  be  worn,  and  changed  for  better  by  the 
time  the  family  comes  down.  Cinder-sifting  may  be 
cited  as  an  instance  of  the  work  which  should  be  done 
early  and  in  old  clothes.  There- 
fore, the  master  of  the  house 
should  impress  on  the  various 
servants  the  necessity  of  their 
letting  the  page  have  all  the 
cinders  from  the  respective  rooms 
throughout  the  house  as  soon  as 
possible.  Whatever  cinders  may 
be  left  unsifted  by  a  given  time 
on  one  day  should  be  collected 
for  the  following  morning's  sifting. 
Knife  and  boot-cleaning,  being  , 
also  dirty  work,  should,  as  far  as  / 
possible,  be  prepared  for  quick  ^ 
despatch  by  the  articles  being 
locked  up  over  night,  and  brought 
to  one  place  in  readiness  for  the 
morning.  Wherever  these  orderly 
arrangements  are  despised  the 
page's  life  is  one  of  incessant  worry,  and  his  untidy  ap- 
pearance is  an  indication  of  the  disorder  which  prevails 
in  the  household. 

The  inevitable  dust  and  dirt  attending  cinder-sifting  is 
much  obviated  by  the  use  of  improved  sifters.  These  are 
of  various  kinds  and  excellence.  Perhaps  the  "  Phoenix" 
sifter  for  ordinary  household  use  is  the  best  ;  its  trifling 
cost  is  soon  defrayed  by  the  undoubted  saving  of  coals  its 
use  effects.  The  cost  is  about  fifteen  shu'-ngs  ;  and  as  by 
its  use  the  time  required  to  sift  a  coal-scuttle  of  cinders 
is  less  than  half  a  minute,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  economy 
of  time  is  considerable. 
VOL,  I. 


A  larger  patent  cinder-sifter,  or  revolving  machine,  is 
equally  well  adapted  to  the  wants  of  large  establishments, 
especially  if  a  garden  be  attached  to  the  house  ;  used  also 
in  connection  with  Moule's  earth  closets,  the  well-sifted 
cinders  become  an  article  of  high  economy  and  value. 

Even  in  town  residences  preference  should  be  given  to 
some  improved  sifter  over  the  untidy  and  wasteful  habit 
of  riddling  the  cinders  over  a  dust- 
hole.  The  only  means  by  which 
the  latter  mode  can  be  made 
effectual  is  by  placing  bars  across 
the  top  of  the  dust-bin,  on  which 
the  sifter  may  be  rested,  and 
shaken  to  and  fro. 

Most  "  housemaids'  boxes'*  are 
filled  with  a  small  grating  for  par- 
lour cinders.  A  cinder-pail,  also 
fitted  with  a  movable  wire  sieve 
over  the  top,  is  a  very  useful  con- 
trivance for  sifting  small  quantities 
of  cinders,  especially  if  the  cinders 
be  thrown  on  a  newly-laid  fire  for 
immediate  use. 

Boot-cleaning  almost  invariably 
falls  to  a  page's  share  of  work. 
At  present  the  numberless  in- 
ventions which  have  successfully 
assisted  the  despatch  of  household 
work  seem  to  have  fallen  short  of 
perfection  in  this  branch  of  labour. 
The  latest  and  best  improvement 
is  described  in  the  accompanying 
illustration  (Fig.  i).  Its  obvious 
benefit  consists  in  preserving  the 
inside  of  the  boots  from  being 
soiled  by  dirty  hands,  which  are 
.almost  inseparable  from  the  em- 
plo>TTient,  and  setting  both  hands  free  for  polishing.  The 
machine  is  inexpensive,  costing  about  ten  shillings,  and, 
as  far  as  its  design  extends,  answers  welL  Lasts  for  any 
size  of  boot  may  be  fitted  to  order. 

In  the  absence  of  a  patent  boot-holder,  tbj  first  care  of 
the'  page  should  be  to  pass  a  soft 
clean  duster  over  the  left  hand 
before  he  puts  the  boot  on  it. 
If  the  boots  are  not  verf  dirty, 
rubbing  them  over  with  a  hard 
brush  will  be  sufficient,  but  if  they 
are  very  muddy,  a  piece  of  ordinary 
fire-wood,  shaped  at  the  end  in 
the  form  of  a  chisel,  should  be 
passed  round  the  welt  and  be- 
tween the  upper  leather.  Knives 
are  often  employed  for  this  pro- 
cess, but  the  practice  cannot  be 
too  strictly  forbidden,  the  liability 
of  cutting  the  leather  being  very 
great.  If  boots  be  exceedingly 
wet  and  soiled,  a  coarse  piece  of 
»•  wetted    sponge     (stable     sponge', 

should  be  passed  over  them  to  re- 
move the  first  dirt.  Boots  should  never  be  put  near  a  fire 
to  dry.  A  moderately  warm  room,  at  a  distance  from  the 
fire,  generally  suffices,  if  the  soles  be  turned  upwards  for  a 
night. 

In  laying  on  the  blacking,  very  little  should  be  used,  and 
whilst  damp  the  first  polishing-brush  should  be  briskly 
passed  over,  finishing  with  the  finest  brush.  The  stroke 
to  secure  a  polish  should  be  light  and  spring}',  not  hard 
and  with  force.  Three  brushes  are  required  for  success- 
ful boot-cleaning. 

Patent  leather  boots  simply  require  washing  in  the 
soiled  places,  and  afterwards  pohshing  with  a  piece  of  old 


3o6 


INMATES  OF  THEl^OUSE.— DOMESTIC. 


cloth.  The  black  kid  tops  may  be  preserved  for  a  long 
time  in  a  good  state  by  occasionally  using  a  mixture  com- 
posed of  the  sediment  of  ink  and  a  few  drops  of  olive  oil. 
This  should  be  laid  on  sparingly,  and  whilst  still  damp  the 
kid  should  be  lightly  rubbed  with  an  old  silk  handkerchief, 
or  a  piece  of  worn-out  table-linen. 

Blacking  sold  in  cakes  is  now  generally  used  for  ordi- 
nary leather  boots.  Instead  of  mixing  the  cake  with 
water,  a  little  sour  beer,  or  a  few  drops  of  vinegar,  will  be 
found  a  great  improvement. 

In  very  wet  weather,  boots  may  be  rendered  temporarily 
v/aterproof  by  being  rubbed  over  with  finely-shredded  suet, 
especially  in  the  welting. 

Knife-cleaning  is  a  simple  process,  but  apt  to  be  de- 
structive if  care  be  not  taken  to  prevent  undue  wear.  In 
the  first  place,  knives  should  not  be  laid  in  hot  water  when 
washing  them.  They  should  be  whisked  round  in  a  jug 
of  spda  and  lukewarm  water,  barely  deep  enough  to  cover 
the  blade.  If  the  handles  are  suffered  to  touch  the  hot 
water,  they  are  liable  to  become  loose.  Having  washed 
and  wiped  the  knives,  the  usual  process  is  to  polish  them 
on  a  board  over  which  a  Bath  brick  has  been  passed  a  few 
times,  and  afterwards  to  rub  the  knife  to  and  fro  till  a 
polish  is  obtained.  The  knife-handle  ^  is  then  dusted. 
Unless  very  carefully  done,  this  plan  is  seldom  so  success-^ 
fill  as  using  a  "  buff-board  "  is.  The  latter,  if  somewhat 
less  lasting  than  the  plain  deal  board,  preserves  the  knives 
for  a  longer  time  in  good  condition.  The  emery-powder, 
also,  used  on  the  buff-board,  is  not  equally  destructive  with 
brickdust,  and  the  former  gives  a  higher  polish. 

Davis's  excelsior  knife- 
cleaner  is  admirably  a.dap- 
ted  to  its  purpose,  and  is 
spoken  highly  of  by  such 
of  our  friends  as  have 
used  it. 

Kent's  improved  ma- 
chine, patented  injanuar)-, 
1870,  is  described  as  an 
advance  upon  most  other 
machines,  and  it  is  stated 
to  be  so  contrived  as  to 
prevent  all  possibility  of 
""^  the  knives  being  injured, 

" '"''  ■^'  or  careless  treatment  put- 

ting the  machine  out  of  order.  Some  people  are  under 
the  impression  that  knife-machines  must  be  destruc- 
tive, but  the  experience  of  many  years  convinces  us 
that  such  is  not  the  case.  Knives  cleaned  with  good 
machines  wear  evenly  and  keep  a  fine  edge — qualities 
which  the  old-fashioned  knife-boards,  unless  in  very  ex- 
perienced hands,  seldom  secure.  The  saving  of  time  by 
the  use  of  these  machines  is  very  considerable. 

Plate-cleaning  requires  time  and  patience  to  perform 
nicely  ;  a  portion  of  a  leisure  day  in  each  vvcek  should  be 
devoted  to  it.  Oakcy's  non-mercurial  silversmiths'  soap 
is  cheap  and  effective  for  this  purpose,  for  which  it  is 
extensively  used. 

The  plate  should  be  first  washed  in  warm  soap  and 
water.  If  very  greasy,  or  used  in  eating  fish,  a  little  soda 
will  be  necessary.  When  wiped  dry,  a  mixture  composed 
of  fine  whitening-water  (gilders'  whitening,  sold  in  balls, 
is  best)  and  a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  wine  or  gin  should 
be  laid  on  the  plate  with  a  piece  of  flannel  or  rag.  The 
mixture  should  be  of  the  consistency  of  good  batter,  and 
when  dry  on  the  plate  should  be  rubbed  off  with  a  plate- 
brush.  Instead  of  the  ordinary  plate-brush  sold  at  oil- 
shops,  use  those  termed  jewellers'  brushes  for  the  finer 
kinds  of  plate,  they  do  not  cost  any  more.  A  brush  should 
only  be  used  for  the  embossed  work  of  plate.  Simply 
rubbing  with  wash  leather  is  sufficient  to  ensure  the 
brightness  of  plain  plate. 

Plated  articles  are  liable  to  injury  if  left  for  any  length 


of  time  damp.     After  forks,  spoons,  &c.,  have  been  used 

for  eating  vinegar  salads  and  the  like,  they  should  be  im- 
mediately cleansed. 

Although  cleaning  with  whitening,  or  plate-powder  com- 
posed  of  rouge,  is,  as  a  general  rule,  only  necessary  once 
a  week,  plate  looks  better  for  being  daily  rubbed  over 
after  washing  with  a  leather  that  may  be  kept  in  the  plate- 
basket  for  the  purpose.  Towels  boiled  in  a  mixture  of 
hartshorn  powder  and  water  are  an  excellent  rubber  for 
plate  in  daily  use.  Rags — old  chamber-towels  of  hucka- 
back are  best — boiled  in  a  solution  of  a  quart  of  water  to  six 
ounces  of  hartshorn  powder,  are  excellent  for  the  purpose. 

Wind»w-clea7nng  is  essentially  the  work  of  a  page  or 
footboy.  Having  taken  due  precaution  against  the  chance 
of  accident  by  falling,  the  first  part  of  the  process  con- 
sists in  dusting  the  window-sashes  with  a  round  brush, 
called  a  painter's  brush.  One  pane  at  a  time  should  then 
be  wetted  with  a  wash-leather  dipped  in  soda  and  cold 
water.  When  the  leather  has  been  wrung  out  and  passed 
over  again,  the  polishing  should  be  done  with  a  piece  of 
dry  wash-leather.  Many  other  plans  are  recommended 
for  window-cleaning,  but  the  above  answers  every  purpose^ 
and  is  infinitely  preferable  to  the  use  of  any  description  of 
"  window-rags,"  all  linen  and  cotton  fabrics  being  more  or 
less  fleecy  in  their  nature. 

Powdering  a  window  with  whitening  tied  in  a  piece  of 
cotton  cloth  is  sometimes  necessary,  if  the  windows  are 
unusually  greasy  or  soiled  ;  but  for  ordinary  occasions  cold 
water  and  soda  will  be  found  sufficient,  if  a  wash-leather 
be  used  for  drying. 

Trifmning  lamps  is  part  of  the  morning  work  of  a 
page.  Once  a  week  every  lamp  in  use  should  be  taken  to 
pieces  and  thoroughly  cleansed.  The  works  of  oil  lamps 
of  every  description  should  be  soaked  in  hot  water  and 
soda,  and  rubbed  perfectly  diy  whilst  hot  with  a  soft  rag, 
and  afterwards  polished  with  a  plate-leather.  In  trimming 
the  cotton  wicks  of  moderator  lamps  the  greatest  evenness 
is  requisite.  The  wicks  of  paraffin  lamps  should  only  be 
dusted  until  the  charred  portions  are  removed.  By  this 
means  a  wick  one-third  of  a  yard  in  length  lasts  several 
months.  All  rags  in  use  for  lamp-cleaning  should  be 
washed  at  least  once  a  week  in  strong  soda  and  soapsuds. 

Washing  glass,  and  sending  it  to  table  in  the  highest 
state  of  brilliancy,  is  an  act  worth  striving  to  accomplish, 
from  the  great  pleasure  the  sight  of  bright  glass  affords. 
Two  Avooden  bowls  are  required  to  secure  this  end— one 
containing  warm  water  and  a  little  soda,  and  the  other 
plain  cold  water  for  rinsing.  Bowls  used  for  washing 
glass  should  be  used  for  no  other  purpose.  After  the  glass 
has  been  washed,  it  should  be  laid  on  a  coarse  cloth  tc> 
drain,  and  afterwards  polished  with  a  glass-cloth,  i.e.,  a 
soft  linen  cloth. 

Soiled  decanters  may  be  easily  cleaned  either  by  rinsing 
them  out  with  tea-leaves,  or,  if  very  dirty,  finely-shred 
brown  paper,  soaked  in  soap  and  water.  They  will  require 
good  rinsing  afterwards. 

Stoppers  may  be  removed  in  various  ways,  if  unfortu- 
nately they  have  become  fixed.  The  most  successful  plan 
is  generally  to  steam  them  over  boiling  water.  A  better 
endeavour  is  to  prevent  their  becoming  fixed.  This  may 
be  done  by  twisting  the  stopper  slightly  between  the  fore- 
finger and  thumb  as  it  is  put  into  the  decanter. 

Brushing  the  master's  clothes  is  the  page's  business 
where  no  other  man-servant  is  kept.  In  doing  so,  the 
greatest  care  should  be  taken  not  to  soil  the  garments  by 
brushing  on  a  place  of  doubtful  cleanliness.  All  cloth 
should  be  brushed  the  way  of  the  pile,  i.e.,  from  the  neck 
to  the  skirts  downwards.  Having  brushed  the  clothes, 
they  should  be  neatly  folded  according  to  the  size  of  the 
drawer  or  wardrobe  in  which  they  are  to  be  laid.  The 
fewer  folds  the  better.  A  small  bottle  of  water,  contain- 
ing a  few  drops  of  ammonia  spirit,  is  useful  to  remove 
any  grease  spots  that  may  be  seen  in  brushing. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


307 


CHOOSING  A  TRADE. 

When  a  boy  is  about  thirteen  years  old  he  is  generally 
asked  what  trade  he  would  like  to  follow;  and  as  the 
time  approaches  when  he  is  to  leave  school  he  is  seri- 
ously admonished  to  make  up  his  mind  whether  he  will 
be  this,  that,  or  the  other.  Nothing  can  be  more  unreason- 
able than  to  expect  a  lad  to  be  able  to  answer  at  once  a 
question  on  which  it  requires  a  great  deal  of  experience  to 
form  a-n  opinion ;  and  yet  it  is  too  frequently  the  case  that 
such  an  answer  is  demanded  within  a  certain  time,  even 
though  no  opportunities  are  given  for  seeing  the  opera- 
tions in  different  manufactures,  or  for  learning  under 
what  conditions  those  who  work  at  them  are  placed, 
what  will  be  the  length  of  time  required  for  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  business,  and  how  much  may  after- 
wards be  earned  by  the  skilled  workman.  We  also  mean 
to  give  instructions  as  to  how  the  most  important  callings 
and  professions  are  to  be  entered. 

Of  course,  all  these  things  should  be  known  to  parents 
and  guardians  in  recommending  any  particular  business  ; 
and  any  particular  talent  and  inclination  displayed  by  the 
boy  should  also  have  due  consideration.  It  is  certainly  of 
the  utmost  importance  that  an  intelligent  lad  should  be 
placed  in  some  calling  in  the  operations  of  which  he  is 
likely  to  feel  an  interest ;  and  care  should  be  taken  that 
it  is  also  one  suited  to  his  health,  his  bodily  strength,  and 
even  to  his  temper  and  disposition.  In  order  to  help  not  only 
those  who  have  the  direction  of.  boys,  and  can  in  some 
measure  influence  their  choice,  but  also  to  give  boys  them- 
selves an  opportunity  of  learning  something  of  the  vari- 
ous processes  of  ordinary  manufactures,  we  intend  to  give 
a  few  papers  descril^ing  the  tools,  materials,  and  opera- 
tions employed  in  some  of  the  most  general  handicrafts, 
as  well  as  in  a  few  of  those  that  are  less  common,  and  it 
may  be  hoped  that  our  descriptions  will  be  interesting  to 
the  general  reader. 

WATCHMAKING. 

One  of  the  first  things  in  which  a  child  takes  an 
interest,  because  of  its  wonderful  mechanism,  is  a  watch. 
It  is  almost  like  a  live  creature  ;  and  for  a  long  time  the 
marvel  of  how  its  wheels  and  pinions  keep  moving,  and 
what  strange  power  causes  the  hands  to  move,  and  the 
seconds  to  be  marked  by  "  ticks,"  is  a  puzzle  to  a  little 
boy.  When  he  grows  older  he  wishes  he  had  a  watch  of 
his  own,  that  he  might  take  it  to  pieces,  and  so  find  out  the 
mystery,  and  if  there  happens  to  be  an  old  brass  Dutch 
clock  in  the  house,  he  keeps  his  eye  on  it,  in  the  hope 
that  some  day  he  may  be  permitted  to  take  out  the  toothed 
wheels,  and  the  rest  of  the  apparatus,  and  then  put  it 
together  again,  so  that  he  may  learn  how  it  is  made. 
Watchmaking,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  first 
trades  to  which  a  boy's  attention  is  directed,  and  with 
that  we  will  begin  our  short  series. 

A  watch  consists  of  seventy-five  parts.  This  is  rather  a 
startling  beginning,  but  it  may  be  explained  by  remember- 
ing that  in  such  a  delicate  machine  every  portion  of  each 
wheel  and  spring,  pin  and  axle^  must  have  its  distinct 
name,  in  order  to  prevent  confusion  when  the  parts  are 
spoken  of  separately,  and  to  enable  the  workman  to 
understand  the  relation  of  every  minute  piece  to  the 
whole  mechanism  when  it  is  put  together.  The  principal 
parts  of  the  works  of  a  watch,  however,  are  the  pillar  and 
upper  plates,  the  barrel,  the  barrel-cover,  and  arbor, 
the  fusee,  with  its  cap,  ratchet,  and  clicks,  the  going- 
spring  and  wheel,  the  main-spring  and  wheel ;  the  centre, 
third,  fourth,  and  escape-wheels  ;  the  chain,  the  lever,  the 
balance,  the  pendulum  spring,  the  index,  and  index  scale, 
the  minute  and  hour-wheels,  the  cap,  the  dial,  and  the 
hands.  Then  there  is  the  case  of  the  watch,  which  also 
consists  of  several  parts.  The  chain  is  composed  of  800  '• 
pieces,  and  the  springs  are  formed  of  steel  of  such  exqui-  ] 


site  fineness  that  4,000  of  them  weigh  only  an  ounce,  and 
are  worth  about  ;i/^  1,000.  Of  course,  if  the  watchmaker 
were  required  to  form  each  portion  of  the  watch  from  the 
metal,  and  himself  manufacture  the  wheels,  springs, 
pinions,  and  so  on,  the  business  would  be  one  requiring 
the  skill  of  the  metal  turner,  the  whitesmith,  the  brass- 
founder,  and  some  others  ;  but  although  in  chronometers 
and  watches  of  the  very  best  description,  the  makers 
fashion  a  large  portion  of  the  works  at  the  forge  and 
anvil,  and  finish  them  with  the  file  and  other  tools  in  their 
own  workshop,  the  separate  pieces  of  the  works  of 
ordinary  watches  arc  supplied  ready  made  to  the  watch- 
maker, whose  only  business  is  to  adjust  them  to  each 
other,  and  form  them  into  a  timepiece.  This  is  a  busi- 
ness requiring  great  skill,  patience,  and  delicacy  of  touch, 
and  the  least  inaccuracy,  either  in  any  portion  of  the 
works  or  in  fitting  them  together,  deteriorates  the  watch, 
-and  prevents  its  keeping  time,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to 
work  with  a  strong  magnifying  glass  when  the  finer  por- 
tions are  being  adjusted.  An  immense  number  of  the  ordi- 
nary watches  sold  m  London,  as  well  as  some  of  superior 
quality,  are  sent  from  Geneva  and  other  places  in  Switzer- 
land, where  whole  colonies  of  men,  women,  and  even  chil- 
dren, are  employed  in  the  trade.  Many  of  these  watches  are 
examined  and  regulated  by  English  watchmalcers,  and 
even  then  can  be  sold  at  a  price  which  is  much  lower  than 
must  be  charged  fur  a  thoroughly  good  watch  made  in  this 
country,  although  many  of  the  diflbrent  portions  of  the 
works  of  which  most  English  watches  are  made  are  also 
sent  from  Switzerland  and  put  together  here.  The  reason 
of  this  is  that  common  "  Geneva  watches,"  as  they  are 
called,  are  passed  from  hand  to  hand,  one  person  doing 
one  part  and  another  another,  and  the  want  of  unity  in 
the  workmanship  often  renders  them  defective  ;  whereas, 
in  England,  a  first-rate  watch  is  begun  and  fisished 
frequently  by  one  person,  and  generally  by  not  more  than 
two,  so  ^lat  it  is,  as  it  were,  all  of  a  piece,  and  is  so 
adapted  as  to  go  without  deviation.  A  good  workman  will 
take  a  watch  to  pieces  and  re-make  it  twenty  times,  in 
order  to  discover  in  what  part  of  it  is  the  slight  imperfec- 
tion that  causes  it  to  gain  or  lose  two  or  three  seconds  in 
a  day  ;  but  it  is  only  reasgnable  to  suppose  that  he  must 
be  paid  for  this  patient  labour,  as  indeed  he  is,  by  the  best 
kinds  of  watches  still  fetching  a  very  high  price,  since  no 
machinery  can  ensure  the  complete  accuracy  to  be  obtained 
by  a  keen  eye,  a  skilful  hand,  and  a  thoughtful  observation 
of  causes  and  effects  in  so  delicate  a  construction. 

The  trade  of  the  watchmaker  is,  in  this  respect,  a 
laborious  one,  because  of  the  intense  application  it  re- 
quires in  order  to  attain  the  requisite  skill,  and  though, 
when  the  various  parts  are  made  in  the  workshop,  there 
is  a  change  of  occupation,  the  actual  business  of  fitting 
the  parts  together  often  requires  long  sitting  in  a  fatigu- 
ing position,  and  very  close  attention,  both  of  which  may 
he  borne,  however,  by  those  who  are  interested  in  fine 
mechanical  operations. 

Of  course  the  wages  of  the  journe\Tnan  watchmaker 
vary  according  to  his  ability.  When  employed  in  some  of 
the  workshops  where  an  inferior  watch  is  made,  or  Geneva 
watches  re-adjusted,  the  earnings  are  often  not  more  than 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  shillings  a  week ;  but  in  other 
descriptions  of  work,  thirty  to  forty-five  shillings  may  be 
earned ;  and  there  are  so  few  who  can  undertake  the  really 
fine  work,  that  good  wages  maybe  obtained  by  a  first-rate 
hand,  most  of  them,  however,  preferring  to  go  into  business 
for  themselves,  and  to  depend  on  private  trade,  which  they 
unite  with  piece-work  obtained  from  larger  manufacturers. 
To  give  any  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the  works  of 
a  watch  are  set  in  motion,  in  order  to  mark  the  divisions 
of  time  and  record  the  hour,  we  must  imitate  the  boy  of 
whom  we  spoke,  and  go  back  to  the  clock — in  fact,  a 
watch  is  only  a  small  clock  put  in  a  case,  and  having  a. 
wheel  for  a  pendulum,  and  a  spring  for  a  weight.     Of 


3o8 


ANIMALS   KEPT  FOR  PLEASURE. 


course  there  are  contrivances  for  obtaining  greater  ac- 
curacy and  regularity  of  motion,  by  removing  friction 
from  the  pivots,  and  causing  one  wheel  to  relieve  another ; 
but  the  principle  is  the  same,  as  we  will  endeavour  to  show 
in  our  next  paper. 

Before  quitting  the  subject,  moreover,  we  shall  also 
briefly  pass  in  review  the  gradual  improvements  made  in 
the  manufacture  of  clocks,  so  as  to  give  a  clearer  insight 
into  the  nature  of  the  principles  on  which  they  work,  and 
enable  our  readers  to  fully  appreciate  those  characteristic 
qualities  which  are  essential  to  the  successful  following  of 
watchmaking  as  a  trade. 


ANIMALS  KEPT  FOR  PLEASURE. 

V. — THE    DOG  :    DISEASES    OF    DOGS    {contimced). 

Affectio7i5  of  the  eyes  are  best  let  alone,  however  severe, 
even  if  deep-seated  ulcers.  They  should,  however,  be 
occasionally  cleansed  with  a  sponge  and  warm  water. 

If  severe  diarrhoea  sets  in,  add  two  ounces  of  ether  and 
eighty  grains  of  tincture  of  opium  to  a  pint  of  gruel,  and 
administer  very  gently  an  enema,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  dog,  giving  every  hour  from  one  to  four  tablespoonfuls 
of  the  same  as  a  dose.  Should  it  still  continue,  add  five 
to  twenty  drops  of  liquor  potassas  to  each  dose,  with  a 
little  powdered  chalk.  During  the  whole,  however,  con- 
tinue the  tonics.  If  the  severity  of  this  symptom,  how- 
ever, continues  unabated,  and  especially  if  fits  supervene, 
there  is  very  little  hope  of  recovery,  and  none  whatever 
except  in  the  care  of  a  really  skilled  practitioner.  Mere 
fainting  fits  at  the  close,  however,  are  of  little  conse- 
quence, if  treated  with  the  ethereal  injection  and  tonic 
mixture  already  given. 

During  convalescence  let  the  diet  be  rather  spare  and 
almost  entirely  vegetable,  in  two  or  three  meals  a  day,  or 
even  more,  till  the  recovery  be  advanced.  Let  exercise 
be  regular  and  moderate.  The  skin  often  peels  off ;  and 
sometimes  mange  will  break  out,  but  is  easily  mastered 
by  the  treatment  which  will  be  described  in  our  next 
paper. 

Fits  in  the  dog  often  cause  much  alarm,  as  they  are 
not  unfrequently  mistaken  for  rabies  or  madness,  respect- 
ing the  real  symptoms  of  which  latter  most  people  are 
profoundly  ignorant.  The  most  marked  difference  be- 
tween the  two  is,  that  whilst  hydrophobia  is  always 
preceded  by  symptoms  of  disorder,  fits  commonly  occur 
with  little  or  no  previous  warning.  The  animal  suddenly 
stands  still  and  seems  stupid,  then,  with  a  guttural  cry 
in  the  throat,  falls  over  and  probably  emits  involuntarily 
its  f^ces  or  urine,  or  both,  while  the  limbs  become  rigid, 
the  eyes  seem  starting  from  the  head,  and  the  dog  foams 
at  the  mouth,  while  it  will  probably  bite  any  one  who 
attempts  to  touch  it.  Nothing  could  be  nearer  the 
popular  idea  of  "  a  mad  dog,"  and  nothing  further  from 
the  reality.  When  the  fit  is  over,  the  dog,  if  left  alone, 
will  run  off  with  all  its  might,  and  may  then  be  hounded 
to  certain  death  by  a  terror-stricken  rabble. 

The  treatment  of  fits  is  simple.  While  the  dog  is 
insensible  he  must  be  secured  by  the  neck  or  collar,  and 
when  recovered  caressed  till  quiet  again,  then  got  home 
as  quickly  as  possible  in  the  first  vehicle  that  can  be 
procured,  as  walking  would  probably  bring  on  another 
attack.  Put  the  animal  into  a  quiet,  darkish,  and  if 
possible,  empty  room,  and  make  an  enema  as  follows  :  — 

Sulph.  ether  3  drachms. 

Laudanum 2  drachms. 

Cold  water   ...         ...         ...         ...     5  ounces. 

For  a  small  dog  inject  two  ounces  or  less  of  this  mixture, 
but  a  large  one  may  have  the  whole.  Then  leave  the 
animal  entirely  alone,  whatever  be  the  symptoms,  for  an 
hour,  when  the  injection  is  to  be  repeated,  and  so  on,  till 


the  dog  gives  evideace  of  final  recovery  by  coiling  itself  up 
for  sleep.  It  will  do  no  harm  to  administer  one  more  in- 
jection, even  then,  when  the  animal  should  be  left.  This 
treatment  is  simple,  safe,  and  rarely  fails. 

Fits  are  caused,  as  a  rule,  by  too  high  a  flesh  feeding ; 
and  after  recovery  the  diet  and  stomach  generally  should 
be  attended  to.  The  dog  for  some  time  should  only  be 
allowed  out  for  short  distances,  and  be  always  held  in 
hand  by  a  chain  till  there  seems  no  chance  of  a  relapse  ; 
but  exercise,  though  moderate,  must  be  regular,  in  order 
to  insure  a  good  recovery. 

Rabies  or  Hydrophobia  commences  very  differently. 
For  some  days  the  dog  appears  moody  and  irritable,  or 
even  snappish,  and  seeks  solitude  and  darkness,  often 
drinking  eagerly,  but  not  seeming  to  care  much  for  food. 
Indeed,  his  appetite  is  usually  altogether  depraved,  and 
straws,  stones,  and  filth  of  all  kinds  are  devoured.  The 
light  seems  to  give  him  actual  pain.  By  degrees  his 
restlessness  increases,  and  he  starts  off,  neither  walking 
nor  galloping,  but  in  a  drooping,  miserable  trot,  his 
tongue  hanging  out,  but  dry.  The  mad  dog  does  not  foam. 
If  no  one  comes  in  his  way,  he  will  pass'  on  ;  if  any  one 
does,  he  will  give  an  impatient  snap — the  deadly  bite  of  a 
mad  dog— and  then  pass  on.  But  it  is  blind  agony,  not 
malice  ;  he  does  not  mangle,  he  never  tears  ;  but  snap — 
snap — snap — he  does  his  fearful  work,  impelled  by  an 
inward  agony,  which  is  evidently  insupportable,  if,  indeed, 
he  knows  what  he  does,  for  many  people  think  he  is 
utterly  insensible  to  all  but  his  misery  :  he  will  bite  the 
live  coals  from  a  grate  without  appearing  to  feel  the 
heat. 

Again,  he  seeks  darkness.  The  thirst  increases  upon  him, 
but  at  length  comes  that  dreadful  swelling  of  the  throat 
which  prevents  his  swallowing  ;  though  still,  so  far  from 
dreading  water,  he  will  bury  his  miserable  head  in  it,  as  if 
to  cool  his  raging  fever.  And  then,  at  last,  the  end 
comes  ;  he  gets  furious,  flies  in  blind  fury  at  everything, 
in  reach,  utters  the  most  hideous  and  appalling  cries, 
till  strength  fails,  and  death  ends  the  misery  and  danger. 

No  treatment  is  of  the  slightest  use — let  the  poor 
creature  be  mercifully  destroyed  when  the  case  is  be- 
yond reasonable  doubt.  So  far  from  the  popular  idea 
being  correct,  let  it  be  always  remembered  that  the 
leading  and  characteristic  symptoms  of  rabies  are  not 
foaming  at  the  mouth  or  dread  of  water,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  snappishness  for  some  longer  or  shorter  time 
previous,  dislike  to  llgJit  and  company,  depraved  appetite, 
and  intolerable  thirst.  Very  often  the  animal  is  perfectly 
under  control  all  through  ;  but  of  course  this  ought  never 
to  be  risked,  and  a  doubtful  case  should  always  be  con- 
fined in  an  empty  room  till  its  real  character  be  known, 
when  execution  should  be  immediate. 

Fortunately,  rabies  is  very  rare  ;  there  are  seldom  more 
than  three  or  four  cases  in  a  year,  and  these  are  not 
caused  by  heat,  for  they  occur  oftener  in  winter  than  in 
summer.  Hence  there  is  very  little  to  be  dreaded  from 
hydrophobia ;  but,  when  bitten  by  a  supposed  mad  dog, 
the  only  certain  remedy  is  cauterisation,  which  never 
fails.  It  may  be  applied  hours,  or  even  days,  after  the 
wound  ;  indeed,  many  think  that  any  time  previous  to  the 
development  of  the  secondary  symptoms  is  efficacious ; 
for  as  these  always  begin  again  at  the  wound,  whether 
healed  or  not,  before  the  general  system  seems  affected, 
it  is  thought  that  till  then  the  virus  remains  local  and 
can  be  destroyed.  The  cautery  may  be  either  actual,  as 
applied  by  hot  iron  (the  hotter  it  is,  the  less  pain,  though 
of  course  the  best  is  bad)  or  the  galvanic  battery,  or  when 
the  patient's  courage  is  not  equal  to  either,  by  cutting  a 
stick  of  lunar  caustic  to  a  pencil  point,  and  thoroughly 
working  it  about  in  the  wound  till  every  point  has  been 
well  treated.  Excision  is  effectual  if  done  immediately, 
but  requires  more  nerve  than  most  people  possess,  as  it 
must  usually  be  done  by  the  sufferer  himself. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


309 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR   PROFIT.— CATTLE. 

II.— THE     HOtrSING,    FEEDING,    AND    MANAGEMENT     OF 
DAIRY  COWS. 

Nothing  differs  more  than  the  average  produce  of  each 
cow  in  the  various  dairy  districts  of  the  United  Kingdoni ; 
and  between  different  individual  dairies  the  variation  is 
still  more  striking.  Much  of  this  may  be  accounted  for 
on  the  ground  of  good  or  bad  judgment  in  the  selection 
of  the  stock,  as  pointed  out  in  our  last  paper  ;  but  still 
more  depends  upon  the  system  of  management,  which  in 
all  old  districts  is  still  opposed  to  every  conclusion  of 
reason  and  science,  and  diminishes  the  profit  accordingly. 
In  fact,  there  is,  in  most  quarters,  an  actual  jealousy 
against  any  improved  system  which  is  very  difficult  to 
overcome,  and  which  at  first  is  puzzling  to  account  for. 
But  we  think  the  reason  is  not  far  to  seek.  More  im- 
proved systems  have  usually  been  seen  or  worked  out  on 
what  are  known  as  "  model " 
farms,  in  many  cases  by  costly, 
and  sometimes  disastrous,  expe- 
riments, and  nearly  always  undei 
expensive  buildings,  and  with 
appliances  beyond  the  means  of 
the  plain  man  who  has  to  "make 
his  living"  out  of  his  dairy  or 
farm ;  and  hence  the  whole  be- 
comes jumbled  up  in  his  mind 
as  a  "  new-fangled  theory,"  to 
which  he  prefers  his  own  plain 
though  faulty  practice.  Still, 
by  degrees,  certain  undesirable 
principles  and  facts  get  indispu- 
tably established  and  adopted 
one  after  another  by  the  most 
successful  agriculturists ;  and  at 
length  the  plainest  and  most 
plodding  practical  man  finds 
that  he  must  adopt  them  also, 
or  be  left  behind.  This  has,  of 
late  years,  been  eminently  the 
case  in  regard  to  the  economy 
and  management  of  all  kinds 
of  live  stock ;  and  we  are  endea- 
vouring to  give,  in  these  papers, 
such  practical  rules  as  have  been, 
after  trial,  conclusively  estab- 
lished as  the  soundest  and  best, 
at  the  same  time  bearing  in  mind  the  ease  and  economy 
of  their  practical  application. 

With  regard  to  the  management  of  all  cattle,  three 
grand  principles  have  now  been  thoroughly  established 
by  the  conclusive  test  oi  facts,  i.  That  any  given  area  of 
green  crops,  be  it  grass,  clover,  or  roots,  will  support 
nearly  double  the  number  of  animals  if  cut  and  carried  to 
them  elsewhere  than  if  grazed.  2.  That  within  reason- 
able limits  warmth  is  equivalent  to  so  much  food,  which 
would  otherwise  be  required  to  keep  up  the  natural  heat 
of  the  animal.  3.  That  manure  made  under  cover  is  better 
than  manure  made  in  the  open  yard,  whilst  if  dropped 
upon  the  land  itself  it  is  most  wasteful  of  all.  It  is 
obvious  that  each  of  these  principles  condemns  at  once 
the  old  system  of  managing  dairy  farms,  whj^h  consisted 
in  keeping  the  cows  in  the  open  fields,  killing  a  number 
at  the  approach  of  winter,  and  getting  along  in  any 
possible  way  with  the  rest.  By  this  system  the  animals 
injured  the  crops  as  much  by  the  poaching  of  their  feet 
as  by  what  they  actually  ate  ;  they  never  yielded  much  in 
severe  weather,  and  Ijy  spring  were  nearly  starving  ;  while 
the  manurd  was  nearly  wasted,  and  three  or  four  acres 
were  required  for  every  cow.  On  the  modern  system, 
at  least  double  the  animals  can  be  kept  on  the  same 
quantity   of   land,  while    the    milk    per   head   is  much 


increased   in  quantity,  and   the  return  is  increased  pro- 
portionately. 

Still  there  are  circumstances  which  may  make  a  system 
composed  chiefly  of  grazing  the  cheapest  and  most  ad- 
visable. If  the  pasture  land  be  very  rich,  producing,  say, 
12  tons  to  the  acre  yearly,  with  no  further  expense  or 
labour  than  weeding,  keeping  up  fences,  and  supplying 
manure  ;  if  these  advantages  be  combined  with  a  mode- 
rate rental,  and  if,  finally,  the  dairy  is  the  main  object  of 
all  the  operations  of  the  year,  it  may  answer  better  to 
depend  almost  altogether  on  the  natural  produce  of  the 
land,  which  will  thus  probably  produce  as  much.,  for  the 
money  spent  on  it,  as  it  can  do  in  any  other  way.  Even 
in  such  a  case,  however,  the  cows  should  be  housed  in  all 
severe  weather,  and  some  addition  to  the  food  will  be 
required  at  night  if  the  supply  of  milk  is  to  be  kept  up 
during  the  winter.  But  if  the  dairy  be  part  of  the  regular 
economy  of  the  farm,  the  advantages  are  all  in  favour  of 
of  stall-feeding,  more  or  less 
thoroughly  carried  out,  as  the 
greater  number  of  animals  kept 
under  cover,  with  the  consequent 
increase  in  quantity  and  im- 
provement in  the  quality  of  their 
manure,  will  have  a  great  influ- 
ence upon  the  other  crops.  For 
it  is  obvious  that,  supposing  by 
spending  on  this  system  twenty 
shillings  per  season  extra  in 
wages  and  food  the  produce 
be  only  increased  by  the  same 
amount,  the  additional  manure 
will  be  a  very  great  gain  to  the 
farmer.  In  fact,  in  many  dis- 
tricts, bullocks  are  fattened  for 
this  purpose  alone,  the  profit  on 
the  sale  only  paying  for  the 
bought  food  consumed,  and  all 
the  farm  produce  given  them 
being  considered  to  be  repaid  by 
the  manure  thus  manufactured. 

The  first  great  point  to  attend 
to'  is  to  provide  sheds  or  cow- 
houses which  are  at  once  suffi- 
ciently light  and  well  ventilated, 
but  free  from  any  direct  draught, 
which  is  apt  to  cause  many 
diseases.  Very  few,  compara- 
tively, of  the  covered  yards  or  sheds  hitherto  erected  are 
quite  satisfactory  in  this  respect,  the  most  usual  fault 
being  draught,  arising  from  the  admission  of  air  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  building.  Indeed,  no  entirely  satis- 
factory place,  that  we  are  aware  of,  was  ever  proposed 
to  avoid  this  defect,  and  at  the  same  time  give  thorough 
ventilation,  until  that  invented  by  Mr.  H.  S.Thompson,  of 
Kirkley  Hall,  Yorkshire,  for  his  own  farm  buildings,  and 
recently  described  by  Mr.  Morcross  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society.  By  this  plan,  the  whole  of  the 
ventilation  is  carried  on  through  the  roof;  the  provision 
for  that  purpose  is  ample,  and  the  animals  are  kept  in  a 
temperature  equable  and  healthy ;  whilst,  at  the  same 
time,  the  plan  of  construction  is  the  simplest  possible,  and 
adapted  to  any  scale.  In  a  future  paper,  on  fattening 
stock,  we  shall  give  an  illustration  of  Mr.  Thompson's 
principle  as  adapted  to  the  general  covering-in  of  the 
homestead  in  order  to  shelter  the  cattle,  but  we  have  here 
only  to  consider  it  as  applied  to  a  single  building  or  range 
as  a  cow-shed  or  stall,  which  may  be  built  on  Mr. 
Thompson's  plan  without  one  farthing's  additional  ex- 
pense. Instead  of  the  rat"tcrs  reaching,  as  usual,  from 
the  eaves  to  the  ridge,  they  are  divided  in  two.  The  lower 
length  is  spiked,  as  usual,  on  to  the  eaves  and  middle 
rafter  or  porlin,  but  the  upper  ones,  instead  of  being  with 


3IO 


COOKING. 


them,  as  usual,  are  spiked  at  the  lower  end  over  the  lower 
rafters.  The  laths  and  tiles  are  then  laid  as  usual,  and 
the  effect,  as  seen  in  the  section,  is  an  opening  for  ven- 
tilation half-way  up  the  roof,  along  its  whole  length,  equal 
to  the  depth  of  the  rafters.  The  upper  set  of  tiles  should 
overlap  about  twelve  inches,  which  will  quite  prevent  the 
driving  in  of  rain,  and  any  necessity  for  louvre  boards, 
&c.,  is  avoided.  To  prevent  the  air  from  stagnating  in 
a  crowded  shed,  openings  may  be  made  in  the  walls 
nearer  the  ground,  as  far  as  possible  from  the  animals,  and 
covered  with  perforated  zinc.  Plenty  of  light  is  easily  given 
by  the  use  of  a  glass  tile  at  intervals,  and  the  whole  of  the 
work  is  therefore  of  the  cheapest  description  possible. 

The  most  convenient  arrangement  for  the  interior  of 
the  sheds  is  also  shown  in  the  section.  It  is  best  divided 
by  wooden  partitions  into  stalls  about  eight  feet  wide, 
which  will  contain  two  cows ;  but  they  may  be  kept  with- 
out any  partitions  at  all  with  no  difficulty.  Along  the 
lightest  side  of  the  shed  should  run  a  clear  passage  four 
or  five  feet  wide,  for  the  passage  of  the  attendant  with  the 
food  and  water;  andff  the  number  of  cows  be  more  than 
half  a  dozen,  it  will  be  a  great  saving  of  labour  to  lay 
down  a  line  of  rails,  as  shown,  when  the  food  can  be  all 
carried  at  once  in  a  large  truck  (b)  ;  and  by  having  a  tank 
mounted  with  a  small  pump,  water  can  be  supplied  in  the 
same  way,  but  a  long  pipe  running  along  all  the  troughs 
with  a  tap  over  each,  is  preferable.  If  only  a  few  cows 
are  kept  the  railway  is  not  needed.  At  the  end  of  the 
passage  should  be  the  room  or  house  where  the  food  is 
prepared. 

The  animals  are  most  conveniently  fastened  to  posts 
(c),  over  which  is  slipped  a  ring  sliding  up  and  down,  hav- 
ing attached  to  it  a  chain  long  enough  to  allow  the  cow 
sufficient  liberty.  If  other  modes  of  fastening  are  adopted, 
the  cow  cannot  turn  round  to  lick  herself  when  irritated. 
The  floor  should  be  very  slightly  inclined  towards  the 
back,  that  the  liquid  portion  of  the  manure  may  run  into 
the  drain  (d),  and  may  be  pitched,  all  but  the  upper 
portion,  which  should  be  of  hard  trodden  earth  or  con- 
crete (h),  lest  the  cows  should  injure  their  knees.  If  the 
posts  are  placed  about  a  foot  from  the  rail  (f)  which 
parts  off  the  passages,  the  space  between  is  convenient 
for  fixing  the  food  and  water  troughs  (g),  as  shown  in  the 
section.  These  should  be  raised  about  18  inches  from 
the  ground. 

In  large  dairies  the  cows  are  often  placed  in  double 
rows  with  a  passage  between.  This  has  been  thought 
injurious,  from  the  animals  breathing  on  each  other ;  but 
we  think  if  the  passage  be  wide  enough  the  evil  must  be 
small,  unless  in  the  case  of  pleuro-pneumonia,  or  other 
infectious  disease. 

Small  sheds  are  easily  arranged  on  a  similar  system  ; 
and  where  a  ready-made  building  has  to  be  made  avail- 
able, it  is  only  needful  to  see  that  the  ventilation  be 
perfectly  provided  somewhere  above  the  level  of  the 
animals,  which  should  be  screened  from  draughts,  and  the 
floor  be  arranged  in  some  such  way  as  can  be  easily 
cleansed. 

In  such  sheds — ^be  they  large  or  small — the  cows  may' 
be  housed  at  night  all  through  the  year  with  great  advan- 
tage. The  free  use  of  the  curry  comb  is  needful,  of 
course,  and  when  followed  by  a  good  brushing,  especially 
down  the  legs,  will  keep  the  skin  in  beautiful  condition, 
and  the  animal  will  be  contented  and  happy. 

Cows  require,  in  an  ordinary  way,  decidedly  gentle 
treatment ;  and  the  importance  of  keeping  them  clean 
and  their  house  well  ventilated,  cannot  very  easily  be 
over-estimated.  A  good  cow  well  treated  is  often  a 
fortune  to  a  poor  man,  and  to  the  rich  man  its  possession 
is  as  often  a  source  of  special  satisfaction,  from  the 
various  ways  in  which  it  may  be  made  to  minister  to  the 
family  wants.  Some  of  these  we  shall  point  out  in  a 
future  number,  and  in  another  section  of  our  work. 


COOKING. 
SOUPS  {continued). 

Mulligatawny  Soup  is  a  name  that  may  be  applied  to 
any  brown  thickened  soup  highly  seasoned  with  curry 
powder.  It  probably  originated  in  the  demand  for  soup 
at  short  notice  and  the  necessity  of  cooking  vs\Q:^t  fresh  in 
a  hot  climate.  Kill,  singe,  and  empty,  a  chicken,  which 
should  be  young  and  tender.  While  it  is  still  warm  cut 
it  up  into  small  joints,  and  fry  them  immediately  in  plenty 
of  butter.  When  nearly  done  enough,  take  them  out 
and  set  aside.  In  the  same  butter  fry  six  or  more  large 
onions  sliced.  When  done,  put  them  with  the  bits  of 
chicken.  If  there  is  not  butter  enough,  add  more,  and  in 
it  brown  flour  for  thickening.  Stir  in  a  httle  good  veal 
stock,  or  chicken,  or  other  broth,  if  convenient,  if  not,  you 
must  be  content  with  water.  Then  stir  in  a  dessert- 
spoonful of  curry  powder  or  more,  according  to  the  degree 
of  heat  approved  of.  Then  add  the  rest  of  your  broth 
to  make  up  the  required  quantity  of  soup.  Put  in  your 
onions  and  bits  of  chicken,  and  stew  up  till  the  latter  are 
quite  tender.  Season  with  salt  and  a  little  lemon-juice. 
Other  spices  are  sometimes  added,  but  they  are  over- 
powered by  the  flavour  of  the  curry  powder.  Garlic  (to 
be  fried  with  the  onions)  is  admissible.  You  may  send  up 
boiled  rice  in  a  vegetable-dish  as  an  accompaniment  to 
mulligatawny  soup. — N.B.  A  chicken  killed  yesterday,  or 
even  the  day  before,  will  do.  A  rabbit  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  chicken,  and  even  veal  or  mutton  chops. 

All  the  Year  Round's  Mnlligataivny.  —  Take  two 
quarts  of  water,  and  iDoil  a  fowl  ;  then  add  to  it  a  white 
onion,  a  chili,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  pounded  ginger,  two  of 
curry  powder,  one  teaspoonful  of  turmeric,  and  half  a 
spoonful  of  black  pepper.  Boil  these  for  half  an  hour. 
Then  fry  some  small  onions  and  add  to  the  soup.  Season 
with  salt,  and  serve  up. 

Giblet  Sotip. — Procure  two  sets  of  goose  giblets,  scald  the 
feet  and  legs  to  remove  the  outer  skin,  cut  off  the  claws. 
Cut  off  the  head,  remove  the  bill  and  eyes,  split  it.  Cut 
the  neck  into  three,  the  pinion-bones  into  two,  the  liver 
into  two,  the  heart  into  two,  and  the  gizzard  into  four 
pieces.  Set  them  on  the  fire  in  cold  water  to  stew,  re- 
membering that  the  liver  takes  less  time,  the  gizzard 
longer,  to  cook  thoroughly,  than  the  other  portions.  Then 
proceed  exactly  as  directed  for  ox-tail  soup.  In  some 
markets  goose  and  duck  giblets  are  sold  ready  for  use, 
except  the  division  above  directed.  Turkey  giblets  might 
be  used,  but  it  is  not  customary  to  truss  the  bird  without 
them.  The  best  giblet  soup  is  from  those  of  the  cygnet, 
which  is  not  often  to  be  had. 

Cabbage  Soup. — Put  into  your  soup-kettle  (three  parts 
full  of  cold  water)  a  couple  of  pounds  of  sweet  bacon  or 
pork  that  has  not  been  too  long  in  salt.  This  is  indispen- 
sable. You  may  add  a  bit  of  knuckle  of  veal,  of  mutton, 
of  gravy  beef,  or  all  three.  Skim  well  as  they  come  to  a 
boil.  Shred  into  a  pail  of  cold  water  the  hearts  of  one  or 
two  cabbages,  some  carrots,  turnips,  celery,  and  leeks. 
When  the  soup  boils,  throw  all  these  in,  and  skim  again 
if  necessary.  When  the  vegetables  are  tender-  without 
falling  to  pieces  the  soup  is  cooked.  You  may  thicken 
with  a  few  crushed  boiled  potatoes. 

For  a  true  Puree  of  Greeti  Peas. —  If  the  season  is 
advanced,  take  a  quart  or  more  of  old  (not  dry)  peas; 
boil  them  quite  tender,  or  to  a  mash,  in  no  more  water 
than  will  cover  them,  with  care  not  to  burn.  Squeeze 
them  through  a  cullender,  keeping  back  the  skins.  If  old 
peas  are  not  be  had,  you  must  use  young  ones.  Boil 
down  a  quantity  of  the  juiciest  pea  shells,  squeeze  their 
liquor  through  a  cullender,  and  add  it  to  the  pur^e  of  old 
peas ;  stir  in  the  required  quantity  of  good  veal  stock. 
Season  with  salt  and  pepper.  Throw  in  a  pint  of  young 
green  peas  boiled  tender,  a  few  fried  or  toasted  bread 
dice,  and  serve. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


3" 


Hare  Soup, — Take  a  fine  hare,  skin  and  empty  it, 
saving  the  blood,  the  liver,  and  the  heart.  Cut  it  up  into 
joints,  take  the  eyes  from  the  head,  and  split  it.  Cut  two 
pounds  of  shin  of  beef  into  pieces  ;  put  these  with  the 
marrow-bone,  the  jointed  hare,  its  blood,  &-c.,  into  a  boiler 
containing  a  gallon  of  cold  water.  Set  it  on  the  fire,  and 
skim.  When  it  boils  throw  in  three  or  four  onions  halved 
across,  two  or  three  carrots  sliced,  a  few  peppercorns  and 
cloves.  As  soon  as  the  hare  is  tender,  take  out  all  the 
best  joints,  remove  the  meat  from  the  bones,  cut  them 
into  shapely  mouthfid-pieccs,  return  the  bones  to  the  soup, 
and  let  it  boil  till  all  the  goodness  is  got  out  of  them  and 
the  beef.  Half  an  hour  before  that  time,  throw  in  a  bunch 
of  sweet  herbs  and  a  small  stick  of  celery.  By  putting  in 
aromatic  seasonings  too  soon,  they  are  driven  off  with  the 
vapour  and  are  lost  to  the  soup.  While  the  sweet  herbs 
are  communicating  their  flavour,  fry  chopped  onions  in 
butter,  brown  and  thicken  with  a  little  flour,  moisten  with 
a  ladleful  of  soup,  and  add  it  to  the  rest.  Then  ladle  the 
whole  through  a  large-holed  cullender,  so  as  to  remove 
bones,  remains  of  meat  and  vegetables,  &c.  Add  the  bits 
of  hare-meat,  and  let  them  simmer  in  the  soup  till  heated 
through.  Season  with  salt,  and  serve.  A  little  red 
wine  may  be  added  ;  if  so,  it  should  be  mixed  in  at  the 
last  moment.  If  soup  is  salted  at  an  early  period,  it  is 
apt  to  become  too  salt  by  boiling  down,  by  which  it  is 
spoiled  and  made  uneatable.  Hare  soup  may  be  height- 
ened either  with  a  little  anchovy  sauce  mixed  in  a  basin 
with  a  ladleful  of  soup,  or  with  a  couple  of  tablespoonfuls 
of  mushroom  catchup.  People  who  object  to  the  "blood" 
mentioned  in  this  receipt,  will  not  know  it  is  there  unless 
you  tell  them.  In  Northern  Italy,  when  poultry  are  killed 
the  blood  that  comes  from  them  is  caught  in  cups,  and 
sold  for  making  soups  and  ragouts. 

Pea  Soupj  Puree  of  Dried  Peas. — Steep  the  peas 
(whether  whole  or  split)  overnight  in  soft  water  (rain 
water  if  you  can  get  it) ;  set  them  on  to  boil  in  the  soft 
water,  cold.  When  tender,  crush  them  with  a  wooden 
spoon  through  a  cullender. 

For  broth  you  may  take  almost  any — ^beef,  veal,  or  fowl. 
The  boilings  from  salt  meats  arc  often  employed,  but  we 
do  not  recommend  them.  Take  rather  a  couple  of  hocks 
of  pork  that  have  been  salted  not  more  than  three  or  four 
days.  Use  their  boilings  with  the  addition  of  other  stock. 
To  this  put  the  purine  of  peas,  with  a  turnip  chopped  small 
and  plenty  of  shredded  celery.  Boil  till  these  are  nearly 
tender.  Then  put  in  a  good  bunch  of  sweet  herbs,  and 
season  with  pepper.  Before  serving,  remove  the  sweet 
herbs  only.  Send  up  accompanied  by  toasted  bread- 
dice.  Dry  sage  leaves  in  a  very  slow  oven ;  rub  them 
to  a  powder  between  your  hands.  Send  up  this  powder 
in  a  small  dish,  for  each  guest  to  dust  into  his  soup. 
It  will  keep  for  some  time  in  a  well-corked  bottle.  You 
rrvay  cut  spoon-meat  pieces  of  the  hocks  of  pork,  and 
throw  them  into  the  soup,  like  the  calf's  head  in  mock  j 
turtle. 

There  are  prepared  pea-flours  for  making  Hasty  Pea 
Soup.  They  are  convenient,  and  save  considerable 
trouble,  but  the  soup  is  smoother  if  the  pea-flour  is  steeped 
overnight. 

Green  Pea  Soup. — Green  pea  soup  may  be  only  a  sim- 
plification of  Julienne,  ?>.,  green  peas  cooked  in  a  good 
stock  or  consomme. 

Cabbage  Soup  {Ma\^rc). — Put  your  shredded  cabbage 
and  other  vegetables  into  a  soup-kettle  of  boiling  water, 
with  a  few  peppercorns  and  cloves  ;  add  a  couple  of 
handfuls  of  chopped  sorrel.  Fry  onions  light  brown  in 
butter,  and  mix  them  with  the  soup.  When  all  is  quite 
tender,  season  with  salt.  You  may  make  it  milk  cabbage 
soup,  by  adding  one-half,  one- third,  or  less  than  that 
quantity  of  milk.  Put  a  large  teacupful  of  bread-crumbs 
at  the  bottom  of  your  tureen.  After  the  last  boil  up, 
ladle  the  soup  over  it,  and  serve. 


Small  Onion  Soup. — Take  a  large  soup-plateful  of  small  - 
onions,  such  as  you  would  use  for  piclcling ;  peel  them 
carefully,  then  toss  them  in  a  stewpan  in  butter,  with 
a  dust  of  sugar.  When  they  are  nicely  browned,  gra- 
dually stir  in  over  them  the  necessary  quantity  of  stock- 
broth.  Give  them  a  boil,  season  with  pepper  and  salt, 
put  fried  bread  into  your  tureen,  and  pour  the  soup  over 
them.  This  is  one  of  the  soups  which  has  the  advantage 
of  not  taking  a  long  time  to  make  when  once  the  onions 
are  peeled. 

Broth  from  Essences  and  Extracts  of  Meat. — As  prepa- 
rations of  meat  called  essences  or  extracts  are  now  largely 
introduced,  and  are  attracting  considerable  public  atten- 
tion, we  should  be  wrong  in  omitting  to  mention  them 
here.  Their  great  merit  is  their  convenience,  and  the 
almost  instantaneous  promptness  with  which  a  basin  of 
soup  can  be  served.  The  essence  must  be  selected  and 
prepared  with  some  care  and  judgment.  If  the  dose  is 
too  large,  the  broth  becomes  unpalatable.  This  subject 
has  recently  received  much  attention  from  members  of 
the  medical  profession  and  others,  various  opinions  having 
been  expressed,  but  we  nevertheless  think  our  readers,  like 
ourselves,  will  prefer  relying  on  an  able  medical  opinion  like 
that  of  Dr.  Edward  Smith  than  on  their  own  unsupported. 
These  essences  are  prepared  from  fresh  meat  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  fibre  and  fat  are  left  behind,  only  the 
ozmazome  (or  flavouring  property),  certain  salts,  and  a 
very  small  quantity  of  albumen,  remain.  The  quality  of 
this  food  is  determined  by  the  first-mentioned  substance, 
and  with  a  teaspoonful  of  the  essence  about  a  pint  of 
broth  may  be  made,  which,  although  thin  to  the  palate,  is 
as  full  of  the  flavour  of  meat  as  when  beef-tea  is  prepared 
at  home.  The  salts  are  not  perceptible  to  the  senses,  but 
they  consist,  in  part,  of  phosphates,  and  are  very  valuable. 
The  albumen  is  necessarily  in  very  small  quantity,  from 
the  small  amount  of  the  extract  of  meat  which  is  used. 
I  iebig's  essence  of  meat,  however,  is  a  valuable  addition 
to  a  traveller's  stores,  since  it  occupies  a  very  small  space, 
and  with  hot  water  he  may  at  any  time  prepare  a  basin  of 
soup  in  two  minutes  which  would  be  more  useful  to  him 
than  any  other  flsid.  It  is  particularly  suited  to  those 
who  abstain  from  intoxicating  drinks.  But  when  it  is 
affirmed  that  one  ounce  of  the  essence,  although  derived 
from  thirty  ounces  of  beef,  contains,  nevertheless,  the 
nutritive  parts  of  the  larger  quantity,  we  hesitate  to  endorse 
the  statement.  A  considerable  amount  of  fibre,  with 
fibrin,  gelatine,  fat,  and  some  albumen,  is  left  behind. 
That  fibre  is  digestible  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  in 
fresh  meat  it  is  nearly  all  digested ;  that  it  is  highly 
nutritious  is  proved  by  its  chemical  composition.  Hence, 
where  health  exists  it  is  best  not  to  throw  away  this 
material.  That  it  will  not  alo7ie  support  life  is  true  ;  the 
salts  necessary  to  life,  and  fat  highly  important  to  life,  are 
absent  from  it ;  but  that  does  not  in  the  least  prove  that 
it  is  not  of  great  value  as  pari  of  a  dietar)'.  When  one 
teaspoonful  of  the  essence  has  been  dissolved  in  about  a 
pint  of  hot  water,  and  seasoned  with  pepper  and  salt,  it 
forms  an  agreeable  and  stimulating  beverage,  but  should 
not  be  regarded  as  food  for  cvery-day  use.  In  this  respect 
it  must  be  ranked  with  tea  and  coffee.  It  may  be  advan- 
tageously thickened  by  adding  a  little  sago ;  and  vermicelli, 
macaroni,  and  various  Italian  pastes,  are  agreeable  and 
proper  additions.  Its  proper  place  is  that  of  a  luxur)', 
and  in  some  states  of  disease  it  is  also  a  valuable  food ; 
but  in  health,  the  quantity  of  nutriment  is  too  small  to 
be  computed,  and  its  action  upon  nutrition  is  rather  in- 
direct, by  stimulating  the  vital  actions,  than  direct,  by 
supplying  food.  For  ordinary  use  it  is  better  for  the  house- 
wife to  make  beef-tea  from  shins  of  beef,  so  as  to  obtain 
much  gelatine,  or  from  gravy  beef,  and  to  serve  up  the 
solid  part  as  food  at  the  same  meal.  Our  continental 
neighbours  eat  their  bouilli ZtsA potage  at  the  same  meal; 
and  so  should  we. 


312 


ODDS   AND   ENDS. 


Fig.  I. 


SOME  CHEAP   HOME   COMFORTS. 

Stopping  Draughts. — There  are  many  little  things  that 
can  be  done  at  a  small  cost  to  render  home  comfortable 
and  home-like ;  little  things  that  only  want  a  small 
amount  of  patience,  goodwill,  and  energy  to  execute,  and 
which  amply  repay  the  trouble  they  give — not  merely  in 
the  imperceptible  but  palpable  comfort  bestowed  by 
them,  but  by  the  occupation  they  give  to  the  mind,  filling 
up  those  odd  moments  of  time  that  are  too  often  listlessly 
dawdled  or  idly  gossipped  away,  and  affording  that  con- 
stant round  of  useful  employment  that  keeps  the  mind 
cheerful,  and  tlius  helps  materially  the  health  of  the  body. 
It  is  remarkable  how  handy  a  lady  can  be  with  a 
hammer  and  nails,  as  well  as  with  a  thread  and  needle,  if 
she  will  but  try.  For  carpentering  she 
should  use  a  good  firm  hammer,  not  too 
slight,  and  yet  not  too  heavy  for  her 
strength,  and  not  hold  it  near  the  head, 
but  from  the  end,  when  she  strikes. 
Such  a  tool  will  cost  about  ninepence. 

The  small  houses  in  the  suburbs  of 
London,  and  also  in  the  country,  are 
generally  very  slightly  built,  and  abound 
m  crevices  and  draughts.  One  of  the 
fi-rst  things  to  be  done  on  entering  a 
new  house  is  to  remedy  this  in  the  best  way  we  can. 
To  remedy  draughts,  first  fortify  the  spaces  round  the 
usually  ill-fitting  doors  of  a  new  house.  This  is  once  for 
all.  If  you  have  felt  carpets,  there  is  usually  a  quantity  of 
ivhite  margin  cut  off  sufficient  for  part  of  the  process.  If 
,lot,  buy  about  three  yards  of  felt  carpet.  One  shilling 
and  ninepence  a  yard  is  enough 
to  give  for  a  wide  width.  Cut 
inch  wide  strips — indeed,  they 
may  be  a  little  narrower.  With 
tin  tacks  place  these  strips  all 
round  the  part  of  the  door  that 
closes  into  the  doorway.  If  it 
IS  possible  to  get  the  door 
taken  off  the  hinges,  place  it 
underneath  too  ;  it  will  be  a 
great  comfort  there.  After- 
wards nail  a  protection  all 
round  the  door  where  it  opens, 
and  over  the  hinges.  For  this 
purpose  black  oil-cloth — about 
one  shilling  and  tenpencc  a 
yard — cut  in  inch  and  a  half 
wide  strips,  may  be  used;  or,  ""-^^ 
what  looks  still  better,  scarlet 
twilled  binding,  inch  wide. 
Fasten  this  with  tacks  also  round  the  windows 
so  as  to  interfere  with  their  free  opening, 
area  doors  must  not  be  forgotten. 

Mats. — Mats  should  be  laid  outside  all  doors  to  stop 
draughts.      These  mats  ought   to    fit  the  doors   exactly 
and  completely.      If  they  do  not  they  are    ornamental 
and   not   useful.      The   old   square  mat   is   now  seldom 
in  requisition   in   any   save  large   houses  with  spacious 
landings.     The  narrow  mat,  twelve  inches  wide,  not  only 
serves  all  purposes  of  use,  but  looks  best  in  limited  space,  i 
Those   of    sheepskin   are  handsome   and   efficient ;    but  | 
for  upper  bed-room  doors  excellent  mats  may  be  made  . 
of  cloth  cuttings,  sewn  on  to  canvas  in  innumerable  loops  ; 
as  closely  as  possible.    List,  cuttings  of  felt  carpet,  or  even  , 
old  stuff  dresses,  can  be  utihsed.     If  old  material  is  used,  \ 
wash  it  quite  clean  first,  then  cut  it  in  inch-wide  strips  six  j 
inches  long,  and   sew  them  to  the   foundation  as  close  j 
together  as  possible.     Fig.  i  shows  the  loop,  and  where  | 
the  stitches  are  made  1  o  sew  it  on ;  Fig.  2,  how  the  rows  of  | 
loops  are  sewn  close,  one  over  the  other.     The  next  row 


Fig.  2. 


$s; 


but  not 
The  street  and 


ODDS    AND    ENDS. 

To  make  a  Wheel  of  Fortu7ie  for  a  Raffle. — For 
small  children's  parties  and  for  fancy  bazaars  wheels 
of  fortune  are  often  in  request.  A  small  old  muff-box  is 
a  very  good  thing  to  use  for  making  a  wheel  of  fortune. 
Sew  it  together  if  torn.  Take  the  lid  off  and  the  top  out 
of  the  lid.  Sew  this  on  to  the  box.  Cut  a  small  square 
out  of  the  box  on  one  side,  just  large  enough  to  admit  the 
hand.  Entirely  cover  the  box  and  the  square  cut  out 
with  coloured  paper.  The  square  must  be  covered  both 
sides.  The  box  must  have  a  straight  piece  pasted  round 
it,  and  turned  down  at  the  ends,  and  over  this,  at  the  ends, 
two  rounds  of  paper  pasted  on.  Scarlet  morocco  paper 
is  the  best  to  use,  or  yellow  morocco  paper.  Cut  out 
the  paper  covering  the  hole  when  the 
paste  is  dry.  Bind  the  hole  and  the 
square  of  card  both  round  with  ribbon 
of  one  colour.  Fix  the  square  to  the 
top  of  the  hole  with  a  ribbon  bow.  At 
the  opposite  side  sev/  a  loop  of  elastic 
under  a  bow  of  ribbon  to  the  square 
and  a  nook  on  the  box,  over  which  the 
loop  can  be  fastened  to  shut  the  door 
over  the  hole.  For  the  stand  a  square 
of  wood  larger  than  the  round  is  needed. 
Get  two  bill-files — those  without  wooden  ends,  but  only 
wire  rings,  are  best — nail  these  down  to  the  two  ends  of 
the  piece  of  wood  with  tin  tacks,  so  that  they  can  have 
the  hooks  thrust  through  the  sides  of  the  barrel,  and 
that  it  can  turn  on  them.  Before  adding  the  barrel, 
however,  cut  strips  of  tlie  paper  and  cover  the  wires  of 
the  bill-files  spirally,  and  run 
gold  paper  at  distances  over 
this  ;  then  cover  the  stand 
with  the  morocco  paper,  and 
put  handsome  bows  of  ribbon 
on  each  of  the  hooks  of  the 
files,  just  to  hide  the  hole  in 
the  barrel.  Both  barrel  and 
stand  may  be  ornamented  with 
gold.  Strips  of  embossed  gold 
paper  laid  on  both  a  little  way 
in  from  the  edges,  and  stars  or 
other  objects  stamped  in  gold 
tinsel,  may  be  used  according 
to  fancy.  When  a  muff-box 
cannot  be  had,  make  the  barrel 
of  bonnet-board,  cutting  the 
round  ends  by  a  bow  pencil 
or  a  cheese-plate.  To  use  the 
wheel,  fill  it  inside  with  square 
inches  of  card,  blank  and  figured.  Hold  the  stand  with 
the  hands  on  the  table.  Whilst  the  company  gently  turn 
the  barrel  by  a  playful  stroke,  open  the  door  and  draw. 
It  must  not  be  used  roughly,  of  course.  We  fix  it  on 
the  table  by  the  help  of  a  screw  pin-cushion. 

Hiring  Furniture. — Sometimes,  where  people  cannot 
be  sure  of  permanent  employment  in  the  same  place,  it 
may  be  advisable  to  hire,  not  purchase,  furniture.  This 
can  always  be  done  by  applying  to  a  broker,  who,  for  new 
articles,  will  charge  20  per  cent,  on  the  value,  for  second- 
hand about  10  ;  the  repairs  come  out  of  his  pocket,  but 
the  owner  bears  the  loss  of  the  ordinary  wear  and  tear. 
This  plan  of  hiring  is  more  economical  than  purchasing 
furniture  for  an  uncertain  or  limited  residence — it  being 
a  well-known  fact  that  sales  never  realise  half  the  original 
outlay.  Again,  it  is  better  to  hire  than  run  in  debt — 
to  hire,  however,  with  the  intention  of  furnishing  by 
degrees,  laying  by  a  settled  sum  for  the  purpose,  and 
buying  for  ready  money,  always  the  cheapest  and  best 
In  this  way,  setting  their  wits  together  to  econo- 


is,  of  course,  placed  as  close  upon  the  last  as  possible.        i  mise   from    the    first,   and   taking  every   opportunity  of 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


313 


learning  the  art  of  home  manufacture,  many  a  young 
couple  might  start  in  hfe  with  Hghter  hearts,  and  free 
from  the  anxiety  of  a  first  debt.  The  very  necessity  for 
economy,  and  for  setting  aside  a  portion  of  the  weekly 
wages,  would  conduce  to  habits  of  regularity  and  self- 
sacrifice.  As  each  article  was  bought,  its 
fellow  amongst  the  hired  furniture  could  be 
returned  to  the  broker  ;  and  thus,  bit  by  bit, 
the  expense  be  lessened. 

To  remove  Grease  from  Carpets. — Scrape 
and  pound  together  equal  quantities  of  mag- 
nesia and  fullers-earth,  and  mix  them  into 
a  paste  with  boiling  water.  Lay  this  as  hot 
as  possible  on  the  grease  spots,  and  leave  it 
to  dry.  When  it  is  quite  dry  brush  it  off,  and 
the  grease  will  be  found  to  have  disappeared. 

Hot  Buttered  Toast. — The  art  of  making 
really  good    toast   is  little  understood,  and 
this  is  largely  the  reason  why  it  is  so  often 
denounced    as    unwholesome.      A    slice   of 
bread  burnt  on  the  two  outer  surfaces,  with 
its  interior  in  a  moist, 
waxy  condition,   has 
no  right  to  be  called 
toast,  but  is  rather  a 
compound    of    char- 
coal and  tough,  heavy, 
sodden     dough,     in 
which  condition  it  is 
certainly     and     seri- 
ously   unwholesome. 
But  a  slice  of  bread, 
not    too    thick,    just 
browned  on  the  out- 
side, but  thoroughly 
baked      through,     is 
wholesome  and  plea- 
sant food,  which  may 
be  fearlessly  eaten. 
The  way  to  toast 
bread   thus   is  to 
keep  it  at  the  right 
distance  from  the 
fire,    so    that    it 
may    be    toasted 

throughout  before  the  outer  surface  is  over- 
done— in  other  words,  not  to  toast  it  too 
fast.  Concerning  the  buttering  of  hot  toast 
we  may  add  another  hint  or  two.  An  ill- 
toasted  slice  of  bread  does  not  absorb  the 
butter,  but  allows  it  to  remain  in  a  mass  on 
the  surface.  A  slice  of  properly -toasted 
bread,  on  the  contrary,  allows  the  butter 
to  permeate  every  part  of  it,  and  to  all 
parts  equally.  Butter  in  the  one  case  is 
too  heavy  for  the  stomach ;  but  when  thus 
intimately  associated  with  the  whole  mass 
of  the  food,  in  finely  divided  and  proper 
proportions,  its  character  is  entirely  changed, 
and  it  becomes  wholesomely  nutritious. 

Superfluous  Boxes  might  always  be  con- 
verted into  settees  in  the  bed-rooms,  on  the 
landings,  or  even  in  sitting-rooms  ;  what  are 
otherwise  nuisances,  in  this  way  becoming 
ornaments  and  of  great  use.  Covers  may  be 
made  of  chintz  or  damask.  Make  a  piece  the  shape  of  the 
top,  and  add  a  box-pleated  flounce  round  it.  The  top, 
if  stuffed  as  a  cushion  with  a  little  flock,  is  improved. 

Blacking. — Take  of  ivory  black  and  treacle  of  each 
three  ounces,  of  spermaceti  oil  one  ounce,  and  of  vinegar 
one  pint.  Mix  all  well  together,  and  let  it  stand  for  some 
time  before  using.  This  has  been  recommended  to  us  as 
an  excellent  blacking. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  6. 


H01U  to  make  some  very  pretty  and  cheap  Table  and 
other  Ornaments. — To  complete  our  present  instalment  of 
"  Odds  and  Ends,"  we  add  some  instructions  suggested 
whilst  writing  our  recent  articles  on  paper  flower-making. 
It  struck  us  that  the  alabaster  vases  and  other  ornaments 
generally  purchased  to  show  such  bouquets 
were  very  costly,  and  beyond  the  reach  of 
many  of  our  readers.  Not  long  ago  we 
saw  a  beautiful  and  choice  group  of  wax 
flowers,  mounted  under  a  glass  shade,  in 
a  vase  apparently  of  white  coral,  which 
had  been  made  for  a  very  trifling  sum  and 
without  much  trouble,  as  follows  : — Take  a 
long-necked  wine-bottle,  with  a  rounded  bowl, 
and  with  a  coil  of  flexible  white  cap-wire 
twine  it  all  over  to  resemble  coral,  like  Fig. 
2,  interlacing  it  in  every  way.  The  spikes 
on  the  coral  are  merely  loops  twisted  toge- 
ther. Fig.  3  shows  the  effect  round  the 
bottle.  It  must  not  be  joined  below  the  line 
indicated  by  A  and  B,  but  the  coral  work 
continued,  only  not 
fastened  on  one  side, 
so  that  the  bottle  can 
be  slipped  out.  After- 
wards link  this  part 
together.  Cover  it 
all  over  closely  with 
white  Berlin  wool, 
twisted  round  and 
round.  Melt  enough 
white  virgin  wax  in  a 
pipkin  to  dip  the 
vase  in,  holding  it 
by  a  wool  thread ;  or 
pour  the  wax  over 
and  over  it,  melting 
it  afresh  as  it  con- 
geals, till  you  have 
a  good  imitation 
_  of  branch  coral. 
When  quite  hard, 
fill  the  inside  en- 
tirely with  dried 
moss.  The  flowers 
are  placed  in  the  usual  way  in  it.  A  basket 
constructed  on  the  same  principle  is  also 
very  pretty.  Baskets  arc  now  generally 
adopted  for  flowers  without  handles  ;  but,  if 
the  coral  is  skilfully  made,  the  handle  will 
prove  a  charming  addition. 

The  work  may  be  varied  by  covering  the 
wire  with  scarlet  Berlin  wool  instead  of  white, 
and  mixing  some  powdered  vermilion  with 
the  wax,  stirring  it  up  just  before  pouring 
on  the  basket. 

An  ornament  for  the  dinner-table  is  not 
difficult  to  contrive  in  the  same  way.  Make 
three  plates  of  different  sizes  in  the  coral  ;  half 
a  garden  stick  is  to  be  used  for  the  stem, 
coated  with  wax.  Get  a  round  of  wood,  half 
an  inch  thick,  an  inch  wider  than  the  coral 
stand  at  the  base  ;  cover  it  with  crimson 
velvet,  and  put  a  wreath  of  ivy-leaves  round 
it ;  arrange  a  wreath  round  the  stem. 
Put  a  little  dried  moss  very  lightly  in  each  coral-plate 
at  the  centre,  leaving  the  edges  free,  and  arrange  flowers 
on  them.  The  coral  cup  at  jhe  top  can  be  made  separate 
from  the  stand,  and  added  last.  Fill  these  well  with 
moss  and  flowers.  Fig.  5  shows  the  stand  ;  Fig.  6  one  of 
the  plates.  The  cup  at  the  top  can  be  made  over  a  jelly- 
glass.  F'g.  7  shows  the  stand  dressed.  White  coral  is 
the  best  for  this  purpose. 


Fig.  S- 


314 


THE    REARING    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    CHILDREN. 


THE   REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF 
CHILDREN. 

X. — DIETARY  IN  EARLY  CHILDHOOD. 
As  a  general  rule  the  appearance  of  th.e  different  kinds  of 
teeth  may  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  the  description  of 
nourishment  most  suitable  to  the  growing  frame.  Thus, 
till  about  the  age  of  from  five  to  eight  months — i.e.,  while 
the  gums  are  in  a  toothless  state — milk  should  constitute 
the  food  of  a  healthy  babe.  Between  the  tenth  and  six- 
teenth month  the  teeth  next  the  front,  and  also  the  first 
double  teeth,  are  generally  cut.  About  that  time  the  food 
may  be  made  to  assume  a  more  substantial  nature,  gradu- 
ally increasing  in  quality  and  quantity  until  about  the 
twentieth  month,  when  the  canine  teeth  may  be  expected 
to  appear.  At  this  period,  if  the  child  be  healthy,  an 
evident  want  of  some  sort  of  animal  food  will  generally  be 
apparent.  Weak  beef-tea,  mutton,  veal,  or  chicken-broth 
thickened  with  rusks,  will  then  be  found  excellent  nourish- 
ment. Not,  however,  until  between  the  twentieth  and 
thirty-sixth  month,  when  the  second  molar  teeth  are 
generally  cut,  is  it  advisable  to  give  solid  meat  in  the 
form  consumed  by  adults. 

The  above  is  the  order  of  diet  suggested  by  the  struc- 
ture of  the  teeth  and  the  time  of  their  appearance.  De- 
viations must,  of  course,  occur  in  the  varied  circumstances 
of  life  under  which  children  are  liable  to  be  brought  up ; 
but  the  nearer  we  can  follow  Nature's  dictates  in  the 
rearing  of  the  young  the  greater  are  the  chances  of  secur- 
ing the  inestimable  boon  of  a  sound  mind  in  a  healthy 
body.  Later  in  life,  when  the  pressure  of  necessity 
compels  young  men  and  women  to  live  under  condi- 
tions adverse  to  the  true  principles  of  health,  little 
choice  may  be  left  as  to  the  mode  of  living  to  observe. 
Throughout  childhood,  however,  the  first  care  of  the 
guardians  of  the  young  should  be  to  approach  as  nearly 
as  possible  to  the  highest  standards  of  dietary. 

The  circumstance  which  is  most  liable  to  frustrate  true 
nourishment  in  food  is  the  habit  of  pampering  the  appetite 
of  children  by  the  giving  of  sweetmeats.  Plain  sugar  is 
not  an  unhealthy  article  of  food.  On  the  contrary,  sugar 
is  with  many  children  an  indispensable  item  in  their  diet. 
The  natural  food  of  infants  is  very  sweet,  and  many 
substitutes  would  probably  be  rejected  if  it  were  not  for 
the  appetising  presence  of  sugar.  The  notion  that  sugar 
has  the  effect  of  decaying  teeth  is  not  well  founded.  In 
order  to  be  a  healthful  addition  to  a  meal,  however,  sugar 
should  be  taken  in  its  simple  form.,  and  should  not  be 
eaten  at  intervals  between  meals.  The  inevitable  result 
of  giving  sweetmeats,  chocolate,  bon-bons,  &c.,  is  to  dis- 
incline the  appetite  for  plain  wholesome  food.  If  such 
treats  must  be  given,  a  lump  of  plain  loaf-sugar  answers 
the  purpose  of  a  gift  or  reward,  and  can  do  no  injury. 

Salt  is  a  necessary  as  well  as  a  welcome  seasoning  in 
infants'  food.  A  few  grains  should  be  in  every  kind  of 
food — always  intermixed. 

Farinaceous  articles  being  especially  adapted  to  the 
digestive  powers  of  young  children,  may  constitute  a 
large  proportion  of  their  dietary.  The  variety  is  almost 
endless,  but  only  those  should  be  selected  as  staple 
articles  of  food  which  contain  the  principal  elements  of 
nourishment.  Of  these  the  chief  is  plain  wheaten  flour. 
It  is  worth  taking  some  pains  to  procure  unadulterated 
flour  for  nursery  use.  Having  done  so,  a  good  mode  of 
preparing  the  meal  is  to  boil  a  handful  of  flour,  tied  up  in 
a  cloth,  till  perfectly  cooked,  which  may  be  known  by  the 
flour  appearing  like  a  hard  ball.  Turn  the  flour  out  of 
the  cloth,  and,  whenever  wanted,  add  about  a  dessert- 
spoonful of  flour  to  half  a  pint  of  milk,  mixed  together 
gradually,  and  afterwards  boiled  for  a  few  minutes.  Some 
persons  recommend  baked  flour.  The  only  objection 
against  the  latter  is  that  baked  flour  is  liable  to  get 
burnt  in  the  oven,  and  becomes,  consequently,  much  less 


digestible.  Baked  flour  used  in  the  manner  above  de- 
scribed is  very  useful  to  arrest  excessive  relaxation  of  the 
bowels,  to  which  many  children  are  subject. 

Oatmeal  porridge  is  excellent  food  for  children  of 
advanced  growth.  Owing,  however,  to  the  flinty  par- 
ticles of  the  husk  of  the  grain,  which  have  an  irritating 
effect  on  the  bowels  of  most  young  children,  oatmeal  is 
less  generally  used  than  wheaten  flour.  Oatmeal,  to  be 
easily  digested,  requires  to  be  well  boiled.  If  made  with 
milk,  oatmeal  porridge  is  a  highly  nutritious  meal,  and  is 
well  adapted  for  a  school-boy's  breakfast. 

Properly  prepared  barley  is  a  favourite  and  excellent 
food  for  infants.  By  the  process  of  preparation  much  of 
the  indigestible  portion  of  the  husk  should  be  removed. 
Barley  in  the  above  form  is  often  successfully  used 
whenever  a  laxative  effect  is  desired  to  be  produced. 

Rice  is  not  extensively  used  in  English  dietary,  except 
as  a  thickening  for  soups  or  for  making  puddings.  As  an 
addition  to  a  substantial  meal,  plain  boiled  rice,  eaten 
with  jam  or  treacle,  is  much  in  favour,  and  is  a  good 
substitute  for  a  pudding  composed  of  flour,  suet,  &c., 
without  the  indigestible  properties  of  the  latter,  if  eaten 
after  a  full  meal.  An  excellent  and  most  nourishing  rice 
pudding  may  be  made  in  the  following  manner  : — Take 
six  ounces  of  rice.  Wash  and  pick  it  clean.  Cover  it 
with  cold  water  till  the  gi'ain  looks  swollen.  Pour  off  the 
water,  and  add  one  pint  and  a  half  of  milk,  two  ounces  of 
finely-chopped  beef  suet,  a  tablespoonful  of  moist  sugar, 
a  little  nutmeg,  and  a  pinch  of  salt.  Work  the  suet  well 
into  the  rice  before  setting  the  dish  in  the  oven.  This 
pudding  should  be  baked  slowly.  The  above  rice  pudding 
is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most  nourishing  that  can  be 
compounded.  If  eaten  cold,  with  the  addition  of  a  little 
jam,  it  may  constitute  a  pleasant  and  healthy  meal  in 
summer  time,  when  the  appetite  sickens  at  anything  like 
animal  food. 

Arrowroot  is  the  least  nutritious  of  the  farinaceous 
articles  in  general  use,  and  should  not  be  relied  on  for 
nourishing  properties.  Arrowroot  is  soothing  to  an  in-itated 
state  of  digestion,  but  is  no  "stay  by"  when  lengthy 
intervals  in  taking  food  are  observed.  Arrowroot  made 
with  milk  is  nourishing,  inasmuch  as  the  milk  itself  con- 
stitutes the  nutriment ;  but  water  arrowroot  possesses 
scarcely  any  nourishing  property. 

Fresh  eggs  are  an  invaluable  article  of  food.  Stale 
eggs  are  most  pernicious.  The  best  mode  of  cooking  eggs 
for  young  children  is  to  coddle  them.  This  may  be  easily 
done  by  filling  a  basin,  containing  a  pint  and'  a  half,  with 
boiling  water,  and  setting  the  basin  aside  by  the  fire, 
closely  covered,  for  seven  or  eight  minutes.  The  basin 
and  its  cover  should  be  previously  heated.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  the  time  stated  the  egg  will  be  found  thoroughly 
set  and  entirely  eatable.  The  white  of  boiled  eggs  is  not 
wholesome  for  young  children,  and  seldom  even  agrees 
with  adults.  Eggs  used  in  puddings  composed  of  farina- 
ceous substances  should  be  well  beaten,  and  added  just 
before  the  pudding  is  sent  to  table.  Any  browning  of  the 
eggs  takes  from  their  nutritious  properties. 

Fish  is  an  agreeable  change  of  food,  but  is  very  inferior 
in  value  to  beef  and  mutton.  The  best  kinds  for  young 
children  are  whiting,  smelts,  and  soles.  As  family  fare 
fish  is  to  be  regarded  rather  as  an  expensive  luxury  than 
profitable  food,  therefore  it  is  not  necessary  to  dilate  in 
this  place  on  its  use.  If  fish  be  given  to  children  it 
requires  the  greatest  nicety  in  cooking  to  be  wholesome. 
Melted  butter  and  highly-seasoned  sauces  should  be 
avoided. 

Cooked  vegetables  of  most  kinds  are  a  very  usem» 
vehicle  for  conveying  animal  food  in  its  lightest  fonxi  to 
young  children.  A  well-steamed  potato,  or  head  of  cauli- 
flower, over  which  gravy  from  a  joint  has  been  poured,  is 
as  fine  a  repast  as  can  be  prepared  for  a  child.  In  the 
absence  of  pure  meat  gravy  a  well-made  cup  of  beef-tea 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


3^5 


may  be  added,  a  receipt  for  making  which  will  be  found 
on  another  page.  The  beef  need  not  be  wasted ;  covered 
afresh  with  cold  water,  and  left  to  simmer  for  a  time,  it 
makes  an  excellent  stock  for  use  instead  of  cold  water. 
One  pound  of  meat  to  a  pint  of  water  is  about  the  propor- 
tion generally  prescribed  for  young  children  and  invalids. 

The  best  slices  of  meat  at  the  family  table  should  be 
reserved  for  the  little  ones.  Joint-s  dressed  for  the  chil- 
dren's dinner  should  be  sent  up  without  any  made  gravy 
in  the  dish.  The  surplus  gravy  which  Hows  from  the 
joint  should  be  saved  for  the  following  day's  dinner,  when 
a  slice  of  tender  meat  put  into  pure  gravy  at  boiling  heat 
is  nearly  equal  in  nourishment  to  a  cut  from  a  freshly 
cooked  joint. 

Little  folks  should  be  encouraged  to  feed  slowly,  and 
therefore,  if  possible,  a  hot-water  plate  should  be  supplied 
to  each  child.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  supplying  this 
luxury  if  ordinary  soup  plates  are  to  be  had.  A  plate  of 
the  latter  kind  filled  with  boiling  water,  over  which  the 
dinner  plate  is  placed,  forms  a  very  good  substitute. 

The  most  suitable  joints  for  children  are  those  in 
which  there  is  little  fat.  Neither  should  burnt  skin  be 
given  them.  It''is  easy  to  produce  a  distaste  for  animal 
food  by  acts  of  oversight,  and  such  acts  should  be  guarded 
aga-inst.  Very  young  children,  if  once  disgusted  with  fat, 
seldom  recover  the  habit  of  eating  any,  and  thereby  lose 
much  nourishment.  Mild  fat  of  beef  or  mutton,  if  very 
finely  minced  and  mixed  with  lean  meat,  is  seldom  de- 
tected, but  lumps  of  fat  are  almost  ifivariably  refused. 

In  early  childhood  meat  daily  is  not  always  considered 
necessary.  In  the  interval  the  principal  meals  should  be 
of  a  higher  class  of  nourishment  than  the  minor  meals 
consist  of.  As  growth  increases,  with  children  reared  in 
towns  meat  is  very  desirable  for  the  principal  daily  meal. 

Fats  of  most  kinds  are  valuable,  and  children  should 
be  accustomed  early  to  partake  of  such  food.  Bacon  is 
excellent  nourishment,  and  may  be  eaten  when  fresh  meat 
is  not  served. 

The  habit  of  giving  children  much  bread  and  butter,  to 
the  exclusion  of  other  substances,  is  an  error  liable  to  be 
contracted  from  the  facility  of  providing  the  meal.  The 
practice  is  to  be  condemned,  not  only  on  the  score  of 
deficiency  of  nourishment,  but  on  that  of  economic  value. 
The  butter  sold  in  towns  is  seldom  what  it  professes  to  be, 
and  is  liable  to  be  composed  of  inferior  fats  artfully  dis- 
guised. Instead  of  paying  a  high  price  for  an  article  of 
fictitious  value,  it  is  far  better  to  make  use  of  substances 
that  are  known  to  be  of  genuine  quality — of  such  are  lard 
and  dripping.  The  latter  is  generally  plentiful  in  families, 
and  is  far  preferable  as  nourishment  to  the  so-called  butter 
generally  sold.  As  for  lard,  nothing  is  easier  than  for  a 
good  housewife  to  prepare  the  lard  used  in  her  household. 
In  point  of  price  and  quality  the  provisions  thus  used  will 
be  found  doubly  profitable. 

Bakers'  bread,  which  forms  a  staple  article  of  food  with 
children  living  in  towns,  is  in  experience,  and  generally 
speaking,  a  most  unprofitable  form  of  nourishment.  If 
bread  cannot  be  made  at  home,  it  is  advisable  to  sub- 
stitute some  article  of  food  which  shall  prevent  craving 
for  a  baker's  loaf. 

A  more  general  use  of  soup,  thickened  with  any  of  the 
farinaceous  articles  described,  would  lessen  the  appetite 
for  bakers'  bread.  No  more  nourishing  meal,  for  instance, 
than  a  weU-compounded  basin  of  pea  soup  can  be 
imagined.  If  to  the  soup  be  added  stock  liquor  and  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  clarified  beef  dripping,  most  of  the  consti- 
tuents of  first-class  food  are  present  in  this  simple  dish. 

Vegetable  soups  in  which  slices  of  bread  are  put  care- 
fully fried  in  dripping  or  lard  and  cut  into  dice,  are  very 
good  food,  infinitely  superior  to  the  meals  of  bread  and 
butter  accompanied  by  tea  or  coffee,  which  too  often 
constitute  the  nursery  breakfast  and  tea  from  one  year's 
end  to  the  other. 


HOUSEHOLD    DECORATIVE  ART. 

VIII.— MODELLING  IN  CLAY  FOR  AMATEURS. 
In  the  art  of  sculpture,  modelling  in  clay  forms  the  most 
important  part  of  the  work  of  the  artist.  In  the  forma- 
tion of  a  marble  statue,  the  first  process  consists  in 
making  a  clay  model  ;  from  this  a  cast  is  taken  in  plaster 
of  Paris,  and  an  exact  copy  in  marble  is  carved  from  the 
plaster  cast.  The  after  labours  of  casting  and  carving 
may  be,  and  are  indeed  generally,  left  almost  entirely 
to  workmen  ;  but  the  model,  in  which  the  design  is 
shown,  and  in  which  all  the  artistic  qualities  of  the 
work,  such  as  composition,  form,  and  expression,  are 
evinced,  must  be  the  work  of  the  artist  himself.  Model- 
ling is  thus,  in  the  hands  of  the  professed  sculptor, 
considered,  and  not  without  sufficient  reason,  as  the 
highest  and  most  difficult  of  the  arts.  All  modelling, 
however,  is  not  necessarily  high  art,  does  not  necessarily 
demand  great  artistic  pbwers,  and  is  not  necessarily 
difficult.  It  is  an  art  of  wide  application  to  merely 
decorative  purposes.  In  the  common  articles  of  use  in 
our  houses,  almost  all  the  cast  ornamental  portions  are 
produced  by  modelling  in  clay.  The  scroll-work  and 
foliage  on  our  fenders  and  fire-grates,  the  brass  orna- 
ments on  our  lamps  and  gas-fittings,  even  the  figures 
and  flowers  on  our  earthenware,  when  they  are  raised 
above  the  surface,  are  all  reproductions  from  designs 
originally  made  by  this  process  ;  and  these  things  are 
the  work  of  persons  whom  no  one  would  think  of  calling 
artists.  In  fact,  the  difficulty  of  modeUing,  when  con- 
sidered as  a  part  of  sculpture,  consists  in  the  difficulty  of 
attaining  a  just  knowledge  of  composition,  of  the  forms 
and  proportions  of  the  human  figure,  and  not  in  the 
management  of  the  material.  The  material  itself  and 
the  means  of  manipulating  it  are  of  extreme  simplicity ; 
and,  with  a  little  attention  and  perseverance,  far  less 
than  would  be  necessary  to  produce  anything  in  the 
remotest  degree  satisfactory  in  drawing  or  painting, 
the  amateur  may  arrive  at  such  rcsuks  in  modelling  as 
will  afford  considerable  pleasure. 

Apart  from  the  gratification  to  be  derived  from  the 
art  as  an  occupation  for^  leisure  time — and  this  is  no 
slight  one,  for  few  things  are  more  delightful  than  to 
see  actual  forms  growing  under  our  hands — modelling 
may,  in  various  ways,  be  made  to  conduce  to  the  beauty 
of  a  home.  Vases,  brackets,  pedestals,  and  other  deco- 
rative articles,  may  be  produced  and  ornamented  with 
original  designs,  or  with  animals  or  foliage  copied  from 
nature,  as  fancy  or  taste  may  dictate.  Afterwards,  as 
the  beginner  grows  more  accustomed  to  the  work,  and 
becomes  desirous  of  higher  efforts,  he  may  attempt  a 
medallion  or  bust  of  a  friend.  His  work,  in  the  latter 
case,  will  probably  not  be  qtiite  equal  to  Chantrey's  ;  but 
if  he  copies  faithfully  the  features  of  his  sitter,  he  wiU 
have  the  satisfaction  of  preserving  in  an  imperishable 
manner  the  actual  form  of  his  friend's  face,  and  of 
giving  a  likeness  which  will  show  him  from  all  points  of 
view,  and  one  which  will  therefore  have  a  value  no 
photograph  can  possess.  We  have  already  spoken  of 
the  simplicity  of  the  means  and  materials  employed ; 
they  have  another  quality  which  will  equally  recommend 
them  for  amateur  use,  that  is,  their  extreme  cheapness. 
For  a  few  shillings  the  beginner  may  furnish  himself 
with  everything  requisite.  Ladies  need  not  fear  to 
handle  the  clay  on  the  ground  of  its  being  dirty  ;  the 
clay  used  for  modelling  is  in  its  nature  clean,  and  is, 
indeed,  used  in  domestic  life  for  cleaning  purposes,  under 
the  name  of  pipe-clay.  It  is  by  no  means  disagreeable 
to  the  touch,  and  wipes  or  washes  from  the  hands  with 
the  greatest  ease,  cleansing  them  as  soap  does  ;  and  in 
modelling  on  a  small  scale  there  is  nothing  that  may 
not,  by  exercising  a  little  care,  be  done  without  incon- 
venience in  a  drawing-room. 


3i6 


HOUSEHOLD    DECORATIVE   ART. 


Material. — Various  kinds  of  clay  are  occasionally  used, 
but  for  general  purposes,  and  certainly  for  amateurs,  the 
best  is  Devonshire  pipe-clay.  This  may  be  obtained  in 
a  state  fit  for  use  at  any  pipe-maker's,  at  potteries,  or  at 
the  shops  of  most  plaster-figure  moulders.  The  cost, 
when  bought  in  small  quantities,  will  not  exceed  one 
penny  per  pound,  and  in  large  quantities  will  be  much 
less  ;  a  quarter  of  a  ton  may  be  had  at  from  ten  to 
fifteen  shillings.  A  single  shilling^'s  worth  will  suffice  for 
a  beginner.  For  works  on  a  large  scale,  sand  is  some- 
times mixed  with  the  clay  to  make  it  handle  more  freely  ; 
and  where  very  delicate  finish  is  required,  as  in  the 
minute  figures  in  silversmiths'  work,  a  certain  proportion 
of  grease  is  occasionally  added  ;  but,  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses, the  clay  may  be  taken  as  the  pipe-maker  prepares 
it  for  his  own  use.  In  consistency  it  should  be  rather 
softer  than  putty,  and  more  nearly  resembling  that  of 
butter.  It  will  generally  be  about  right  in  this  respect 
when  procured  ;  should  it,  however,  be  too  stiff,  it  may 
be  softened  by  the  addition  of  a  little  water — wrapping 
it  in  a  wet  cloth  will  do  it  most  effectually  ;  if  too  soft, 
exposure  to  the  air  will  soon 
harden  it  sufficiently.  It  is  most 
desirable  that  it  should  always 
be  kept  at  the  degree  of  moisture 
proper  for  work.  Let  the  ama- 
teur, then,  procure  a  glazed 
earthen  pan  with  a  well-fitting 
lid,  such  as  he  can  buy  at  any 
earthenware  shop  for  about  two 
shillings.  In  it  the  clay  should 
be  placed  with  so  much  water 
as  will  barely  cover  the  bottom. 
From  this  there  will  be  no  sen- 
sible escape  of  moisture,  and  the 
clay  will  remain  in  the  same  state 
for  months.  After  the  clay  has 
been  used,  it  will  be  necessary, 
in  order  to  prepare  it  for  employ- 
ment a  second  time,  to  break  it 
into  pieces  of  about  the  size  of 
walnuts,  and  then  place  in  a  pan 
with  so  much  water  as  may  be 
needed  to  bring  it  to  its  original 
state  as  regards  moisture.  When 
soaked,  it  must   be  thoroughly 

beaten  up  with  an  iron  bar,  and  whilst  that  operation 
is  being  performed,  all  fragments  of  plaster  of  Paris, 
and  other  foreign  substances,  which  may  happen  to 
have  become  mixed  with  it,  must  be  carefully  picked 
out.  If  the  beating  is  not  done  thoroughly,  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  reduce  the  whole  to  one  uniform  con- 
sistency, some  difficulty  will  be  found,  when  the  clay  is 
used,  in  obtaining  an  even  surface,  and  the  work  will 
have  the  appearance  technically  known  as  "lumpy;" 
but  if  the  beating  up  is  done  properly,  the  clay  will 
become  of  better  quality  with  each  successive  using. 
The  writer  remembers  some  clay  being  given  to  him,  as 
of  superlative  excellence,  by  a  well-known  old  sculptor, 
which  had  been  constantly  manipulated  for  more  than 
thirty  years. 

Tools.— T\vQ.  necessary  tools  are  few  and  simple.  The 
more  important,  which  are  used  for  pushing,  smoothing, 
and  scraping,  are  generally  made  of  box-wood,  but  some- 
times of  bone  or  ivory,  and  are  usually  about  six  or  seven 
inches  long.  Half  a  dozen  of  these,  of  useful  shapes, 
will  be  sufficient.  One  or  two  "  wire  tools  "  should  also 
be  bought.  The  wire  tool  consists  of  a  little  piece  of 
round  wood  to  serve  as  a  handle,  into  both  ends  of  which 
pieces  of  bent  brass  wire,  flattened  and  serrated,  are  in- 
serted. This  instrument  will  be  found  of  value  when  it 
is  necessary  to  scrape  away  the  clay  more  deeply  than 
can   conveniently  be  done   with   one  of  wood  or  bone. 


Modelling  tools  may  be  bought  of  any  large  artists' 
colourman,  and  will  cost  from  sixpence  to  eightpence 
each  ;  but  any  person  can  make  the  wooden  ones  for 
himself  with  a  knife,  a  file,  and  a  piece  of  sand-paper. 
In  the  cut  below  are  given  several  of  the  most  useful 
shapes.  The  illustration  will  furnish  patterns  to  the 
maker,  and  guide  the  purchaser  ;  for  nothing  is  more 
common  than  for  the  beginner  to  select  tools  from  the 
great  variety  shown  to  him  which,  in  his  after  practice, 
he  will  find  of  no  service  whatever.  It  will  also  be  well 
to  have  two  or  three  small  hog-hair  and  camel-hair 
pencils,  a  pair  of  compasses,  and  a  piece  of  sponge  of 
close  and  regular  texture.  If  he  is  ambitious  of  modelling 
life-size  busts,  the  amateur  will  also  require  callipers, 
for  taking  exact  measurements  of  the  head,  and  a 
"banker"  or  modelling  stool.  This  is  simply  a  strongly- 
made  stool  of  about  three  feet  six  inches  high  and 
eighteen  inches  diameter  at  the  top.  The  top  must  be 
made  of  double  thicknesses  of  board,  and  the  upper 
portion  so  contrived  as  to  turn,  by  means  of  a  pivot, 
upon  the  lower,  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the  bust  to 
be  freely  moved  in  any  direction. 
Sometimes  a  screw  is  also  intro- 
duced which  allows  the  modeller 
to  raise  or  lower  his  work  at 
pleasure  ;  but  this  latter  con- 
trivance is  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary, and  tends  to  make  the  stool 
unsteady.  Any  carpenter  will 
construct  the  "banker"  for  a 
few  shillings  ;  but  neither  this 
nor  the  callipers  will  be  needed 
by  the  majority  of  amateur  mo- 
dellers, and  none  will  require 
them  at  the  outset.  , 

The  First  Lesson. —  Let  us 
now  suppose  that  our  intending 
amateur  has  furnished  himself 
with  all  necessary  appliances, 
and  is  ready  for  his  initiatory 
lesson.  For  his  first  attempt  he 
will  do  well  not  to  choose  a  sub- 
ject demanding  great  delicacy 
of  execution  or  minute  finish. 
I.  In  whatever  style  he  may  after- 

wards propose  to  work,  he 
cannot  do  better  than  begin  by  making  a  copy  from  a 
plaster  cast  of  a  portion  of  one  of  the  antique  statues. 
Let  him  take  a  mask  (that  is  the  face  only)  of,  say,  the 
Apollo  Belvedere,  which  will  be  admirable  for  the  pur- 
pose. He  can  buy  it  of  any  plaster-figure  moulder  for  a 
shilling.  It  may  be  well,  briefly,  to  give  reasons  for 
selecting  this.  It  is,  in  the  first  place,  large  (somewhat 
larger  than  life — what  is  called  "  heroic  "  size),  and  thus 
almost  every  part  can  be  modelled  with  the  thumbs  and 
fingers,  without  much  recourse  being  had  to  tools — for 
learning  how  to  master  the  clay  with  the  tools  of 
Nature's  providing  is  a  great  point  in  the  art ;  the 
modeller  will  soon  see  that  wherever  they  can  be  brought 
to  bear  they  are  infinitely  preferable  to  any  other,  and 
the  earlier  lie  learns  to  use  them  in  his  course  of  study 
the  better.  In  the  second  place,  in  this  mask  all  the 
surfaces  are  broad,  and  the  forms  clearly  defined— there 
is  nothing  to  perplex  or  distract  the  novice.  Thirdly, 
it  is  a  face  full  of  beauty,  and  the  task  of  copying  it, 
whatever  difficulties  may  arise,  cannot  be  otherwise  than 
a  delightful  one.  Before  beginning,  a  piece  of  board 
must  be  procured  some  two  feet  long  by  eighteen  inches 
broad,  and  this  must  be  propped  on  the  table  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  form  an  inclined  plane,  sloped  at  such  an 
angle  as  is  most  convenient  to  the  student.  Towards  one 
end  the  plaster  cast  must  be  fixed  ;  then,  with  the  sponge, 
the  other  half  of  the  board  must  be  slightly  wetted  for 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


317 


the  purpose   of  making  the  clay  adhere.      This   being  I  THE      HOUSE. 

done,  bciiin  roucrhly  to  build  ut>  the  clay  upon  it,  till  the  /        .        „ 

general  forms  of  the  model  correspond  with  those  of  the  \  ^vater   supply  (confznue^f) 

cast.     And   here  it  will  be  well   to  define  the  essential  |  The  materials  from  which  water-cisterns  are  made  vary 


differences  of  procedure  in  the  arts  of  carving  and 
modelling.  The  carver  cuts  c^^ozvu  through  his  material 
till  he  reaches  the  required  form  ;  the  modeller,  on  the 
contrary,  builds  tip  to  it.  This  the  beginner  will  do  well 
to  bear  in  mind  ;  he  must  not  place  a  great  mass  of  clay 
on  his  model  and  then  cut  it  into  shape — that  would  be 
carving  ;  but,  in  roughing  out,  keep  his  work  somewhat 
smaller  and  thinner  than  he  intends  it  eventually  to  be, 
and  reach  the  final  form  by  laying  on  small  portions  of 
clay  wherever  they  are  required,  and  then  smoothing 
them  down  ;  continuing  the  process  till  the  model  in 
every  part  becomes  an  exact  copy  of  the  plaster  cast. 
This  should  be  done,  as  far  as  is  practicable,  with  the 
thumb  and  finger,  and  by  preference  with  the  thumb. 
On  the  smaller  parts,  such  as  the  mouth,  nostrils,  and 
eyes,  he  will  be  obliged  to  use  his  tools  ;  but  where  he 
can  he  should  use  those  which  most  nearly  resemble 
thumbs  in  shape,  and  should  proceed  with  them  in  the 
manner  before 
recommended, 
that  is  by  laying 
on  and  smooth- 
ing down. 

Scraping  and 
pushing  in  the 
clay  will  some 
times  be  neces- 
sary ;  but  they 
should  always  be 
avoided  if  possi- 
ble. The  form 
having  been  at- 
tained, it  will  be 
necessaryto  give 
a  good  surface  to 
the  whole.  After 
long  practice 
this  can  be  done 
almost  entirely 
by  the  thumb ; 
but  the  beginner 
will  require  some 
mechanical  aid. 

Let    him   take 


accordmg  to  the  means,  requirements,  and  fancy  of  those 
who  employ  them — from  the  humble  and  unpretending 
barrel  of  the  cottager  to  the  costly  iron  tank  of  the  manu- 
facturer or  theatrical  lessee — and  there  are  ample  reasons 
why  different  materials  and  forms  of  construction  should 
be  had  recourse  to.  Cisterns  may  be  placed  at  the  top 
of  a  building,  and  so  arranged  that  a  large  body  of  water 
may,  in  case  of  accident  from  fire,  be  poured  rapidly  and 
forcibly  downward.  In  such  a  case  as  this  it  is  highly 
necessary  that  great  strength,  combined  with  comparative 
lightness  and  facility  of  attachment,  should  be  possessed 
by  the  arrangement.  Galvanised  sheet-iron,  angled  and 
girdered,  is  perhaps  the  best  material  that  could  be  em- 
ployed. It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  a  cavity 
excavated  in  the  earth  beneath  some  back-kitchen  floor 
is  made  use  of  as  a  chamber  for  the  spring-up  of  water. 
In  such  a  situation  as  this,  iron  would  be  inapplicable, 
and  it  is  therefore  usual  to  employ  brickwork  evenlycovered 

with  Roman  ce- 
ment.  It  is  a 
very  common 
custom  to  place 
cisterns  of  mo- 
derate capacity 
on  the  outside 
of  dwelling- 
houses,  where 
they  are  mount- 
ed on  brickwork 
supports,  and 
protected  from 
the  intrusion 
of  foreign  sub- 
stances by  a 
small  roof.  This 
is  probably  the 
most  common 
form  of  cistern 
used  in  this  coun- 
try;  and,  without 
question,  the 
best  material  for 
its    construction 


small  piece  of  a  coarse  cotton  j  is  cut  ana  planed  slate,  as  produced  at  the  Delabole  and 
stocking  (which  will  have  a  kind  of  ribbed  texture),  some  other  of  our  great  slate  quarries.  So  admirably  is  this 
wet  it  slightly,  wrap  it  round  his  thumb,  and  pass  it  I  stone  adapted  for  use  in  the  arts,  that  it  is  worked  with  the 
firmly  over  the  clay  ;  the  result  will  be  a  generally  !  greatest  ease  with  the  saw,  plane,  chisel,  and  drill.  Huge 
smooth  surface,  but  marked  with  ribs  from  the  texture  ;  planks — as  they  may  be  called — of  clean  blue  slate  are  first 
of  the  stocking.  To  remove  these  marks  the  sponge  reduced  to  the  required  size  and  thickness  by  saws  and 
must  be  made  damp  but  not  wet,  and  dabbed  gently  '  planes  driven  by  engine-power.  They  are  then  measured, 
and  regularly  over  the  model.  The  smaller  parts,  which  I  ruled,  grooved  at  the  edges,  fitted  together  with  rods, 
cannot  well  be  got  at  in  these  processes,  will  only  remain  !  which  are  nutted  and  screwed  at  their  ends.  These  bars 
to  be  finished.  They  will  look  hard  and  crude  from  the  pass  through  holes,  drilled  for  their  reception,  outside  the 
tools,  and  must  be  softened  down  with  the  hog-hair  and  joining  groove  or  rabbet,  thus  admitting  of  the  five 
camel-hair  brushes  ;  the  mask  will  then  be  completed,  pieces  constituting  the  cistern  (viz.,  the  two  sides,  two 
In  the  earlier  operations  it  will  be  well  to  keep  the  ends,  and  bottom)  being  either  put  together  or  taken 
model  almost  as  moist  as  the  clay  before  use  ;  later,  as    apart   by  the  use   of  a   common    nut-spanner.      Every 


the  work  is  nearly  finished,  it  should  be  allowed  to 
become  a  h'ii/e  harder,  but  it  should  never  become  very 
hard.  Whenever  necessary,  water  may  be  sprinkled  on 
with  the  sponge  ;  and  between  the  intervals  of  work  the 
model  should  be  covered  with  a  wet  cloth  ;  if  it  is  left 


cistern  of  this  kind  has  a  match-mark  cut  on  each  of  its 
pieces,  and  the  contents  in  gallons  painted  on  the  outside. 
Lead  cisterns  we  have  already  referred  to  as  being  highly 
oljjectionable  as  reservoirs  for  the  reception  of  water  in- 
tended for  either  drinking  or  culinary  purposes.     As  a 


for  many  successive  days,  it  should  also  be  wrapped  in    lining  for  a  closet-cistern,  or  in  situations  where  rain-water 
a  piece  of  oil-cloth.  j  is  stored  up  for  washing,  gardening,  or  general  cleaning-up 

Some  may  imagine  that,  for  a  first  attempt,  the  subject  purposes,  lead  answers  well  enough.  Do  not,  however, 
we  have  suggested  is  too  difficult ;  but  years  of  experi-  ;  allow  water  so  collected  on  any  pretence  to  be  either  made 
ence  in  the  practical  teaching  of  modelling  have  con-  |  use  of  in  the  kitchen,  or  given  to  horses,  cattle,  poultry,  or 
vinced  us  that  this  is  not  the  case,  the  forms,  although  '  dogs.  When  barrels  are  used  to  contain  water  intended 
refined  and  beautiful,  being  simple  and  readily  understood.  ,  for  general  household  use,  they  should  be  first  well  scraped 


3i8 


DOMESTIC    MEDICINE. 


on  the  inside,  and  then  be  carefully  lined  with  a  thick 
coating  of  clean,  well-melted  pitch.  An  unpleasant  taste 
will  be  communicated  to  the  w^ter  for  a  short  time,  but 
this  is  greatly  decreased  by  the  use  of  a  good-sized 
cabbage-net  full  of  charcoal.  This  should  have  a  stone 
placed  in  it,  in  order  to  make  it  sink.  Fasten  a 
string  to  its  top  ;  let  it  hang  at  about  the  centre  of 
the  cask  ;  lay  a  stick  across  the  top  of  the  barrel,  and 
fasten  your  string  to  its  middle  ;  your  charcoal-net  will 
thus  be  suspended  just  at  mid-water,  where  it  should 
remain  until  all  taste  and  smell  of  pitch  has  passed 
away.  No  portion  of  tlve  water-supply  arrangements  of 
our  cities  and  towns  is  so  generally — we  might  even  say, 
almost  universally — defective  and  wasteful  as  that  con- 
structed to  regulate  the  flow  of  water  through  closets  ; 
and  it  is  because  the  majority  of  mechanical  arrange- 
ments made  use  of  for  this  purpose  are  more  or  less 
inefficient  that  householders  are  compelled,  in  self- 
defence,  to  fasten  up  the  flush-plug,  and  allow  a  large 
quantity  of  water  to  be  expended,  when,  by  proper  me- 
chanical adjustment,  enough  water  to  meet  sanitary  re- 
quirements is  suffered  to  run,  whilst  wasteful  expenditure 
is  entirely  prevented. 

A  modification  of  the  improved  water- valve  and  cup- 
float,  described  in  our  last  paper,  has  been  lately  ap- 
plied to  this  purpose  by  a  very  well-known  provincial 
tirm.  This  plan  is  as  follows  : — A  reference  to  the 
annexed  illustration  will  show  at  a  glance  the  manner  in 
which  the  whole  arrangement  is  carried  out.  Unlike  the 
majority  of  contrivances  constructed  for  flushing  pur- 
poses, the  new  "  Economiser,"  as  it  is  called,  governs 
expenditure  and  influx  at  the  same  time,  by  a  system  of 
both  floating  and  sinking  power.  The  cistern  to  which  it 
is  attached  is  constructed  in  compartments,  so  that  the 
time  (a  minute  or  thereabouts)  which  is  occupied  in  re- 
storing the  balance  of  the  contrivance,  after  pull  on  the 
lever-chain,  M,  is  made,  must  pass  before  the  flushing 
ceases.  The  bulk  of  the  stream  thus  poured  down  being 
regulated  by  the  size  of  the  orifice  X  is  amply  sufficient 
to  clear  all  the  pipes  and  tubes  thoroughly  without 
allowing  the  least  waste  to  take  place. 

A  reference  to  the  annexed  illustjration  and  the  letters 
used  to  indicate  the  particular  parts  of  the  arrangement, 
will  at  once  serve  to  explain  the  mode  of  construction  and 
operation  of  tliis  simple  and  useful  arrangement  : — A  is  a 
cast-iron  cistern,  divided  into  two  compartments  ;  B  the 
flushing  compartment ;  C  the  supply :  the  whole  being 
about  i6  inches  long,  lo  inches  wide,  and  12  inches 
deep.  In  compartment  C  the  "Economiser"  valve  D 
and  cylinder  E  are  fixed  ;  while  in  compartment  B  a 
flushing-valve,  F,  through  which  an  air-tube,  G,  passes,  is 
fixed.  From  this  joint  a  connection  is  made  with  the 
closet.  H  is  a  valve  fixed  to  the  partition,  and  com- 
municates with  the  flushing  compartment  B.  Each  valve 
is  acted  upon  by  means  of  the  weighted  lever  K  K.  By 
drawing  down  this  lever  at  M,  the  valve  F  is  raised  and 
the  valve  H  closed.  The  water  in  compartment  B,  passing 
through  the  aperture  X,  flushes  the  closet.  On  releasing 
the  lever,  the  opposite  action  takes  place — the  valve  F 
closes  and  the  valve  H  opens,  admitting  the  reserve 
supply  contained  in  compartment  C  into  the  flushing 
compartment  B,  while  the  "  Economiser,"  left  to  its  own 
free  and  certain  action,  supplies  the  deficiency  to  the 
reserve.  By  this  arrangement  it  is  evident  that  the  lever 
cannot  be  fixed  in  such  a  position  as  to  cause  a  constant 
Bow  of  water  down  the  flush-pipe  into  the  closet ;  before 
the  flush-valve  is  opened,  the  valve  H  is  closed,  and  the 
supply  from  the  reserve  cut  off.  To  obtain  a  second 
flushing,  the  cistern  must  be  allowed  to  fill  in  the  ordinary 
manner.  Our  next  paper  will  treat  of  the  supply  of 
cisterns,  &c.,  so  situated  as  not  to  be  replenished  from 
accumulations  of  water  stored  up  by  public  companies 
and  carried  through  underground  tubes  and  pipes. 


DOMESTIC  MEDICINE. 

APOPLEXY. 

The  word  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words — Airb,  by 
means  of;  irArjo-o-co,  to  strike — because  those  attacked 
often  fall  down  as  if  from  a  blow. 

Symptoms. — The  ordinary  features  of  the  disease  are  a 
sudden  loss  of  consciousness,  unattended  with  any  con- 
vulsion ;  the  breathing  is  laboured  and  heavy,  and  the 
face  generally  flushed.  The  patient  falls  suddenly  down. 
The  loss  of  consciousness  may  not  be  quite  complete  ; 
and  in  this  case  speech  may  be  lost  or  only  impaired. 
One  side  will  be  more  or  less  paralysed. 

There  are  many  variations  in  the  way  in  which  the 
attack  comes  on.  For  example,  the  patient  piay  at 
first  look  pale,  and  the  loss  of  consciousness  may  be 
gradual,  and  not  sudden.  In  this  case  there  is  apt 
to  be  vomiting.  Again,  there  may  be  some  amount  of 
convulsion,  or  working  of  the  arm  or  leg  of  one  side. 
The  important  thing  for  people  to  know  is  the  differ- 
ence between  apoplexy  and  drunkenness,  and  between 
apoplexy  and  faintness.  It  is  common  in  the  streets 
and  in  police-stations  to  treat  a  man  with  apoplexy 
as  if  he  were  "  only  drunk."  And  in  a  country  where, 
alas !  men  are  too  often  seen  deeply  drunk  in  the  streets, 
it  is  not  so  remarkable  that  this  mistake  should  be  made. 
It  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  between  drunkenness 
and  apoplexy.  Drinking  tends  to  produce  apoplexy,  and 
then  a  man  may  be  both  drunk  and  the  subject  of 
apoplexy.  The  guiding  points  are  the  smell  of  drink  and 
the  account  of  persons  who  know  the  patient,  and  the 
fact  that  drunken  persons  are  not  generally  so  profoundly 
asleep  as  not  to  allow  of  being  roused.  Between  apoplexy 
and  faintness  the  points  of  distinction  are  principally 
these.  A  faint  person  is  pale  ;  the  breathing  is  quiet, 
not  noisy,  as  in  apoplexy;  the  pulse  can  scarcely  be  felt 
at  the  wrist,  whereas  in  apoplexy  it  is  apt  to  be  full. 
Apoplexy  occurs  for  the  most  part  in  elderly  persons, 
and  in  men  ;  faintness  in  younger  persons,  especially 
women,  and  when  in  close  places. 

Causes  of  Apoplexy. — The  occurrence  of  apoplexy  in  a 
person  generally  shows  that  there  is  something  wrong  in 
the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  head.  They  have  lost 
their  healthy  elasticity — become  too  soft  or  too  hard — and 
given  way  instead  of  expanding  when  a  little  extra  pres- 
sure was  put  upon  them.  It  is  not  so  much  that  people 
have  short  necks  or  long  ones  as  that  they  have  unsound 
blood-vessels.  This  is  worth  everybody's  knowing  ;  for 
while  people  cannot  alter  the  length  of  their  necks,  they 
can — so  great  is  the  control  of  people  over  their  health — 
do  a  good  deal  to  keep  their  blood-vessels  sound  or  to 
spoil  their  blood-vessels.  Let  us  give,  then,  a  few  hints 
to  people  who  fear  apoplexy ;  whose  father  or  mother  per- 
haps have  had  it ;  or  who  have  lived  hard,  and  have  some 
warnings  of  it,  such  as  dizziness,  slight  loss  of  memory, 
slight  paralytic  attacks,  and  the  like.  Let  nobody  think 
that  there  is  any  reason  why  he  should  die  of  apople.xy 
because  his  father  did.  Doubtless  it  is  sometimes  here- 
ditary; but  a  great  deal  can  be  done  to  prevent  the 
development  of  hereditary  diseases.  The  points  to  be 
aimed  at  to  prevent  apoplexy  are  a  regular  life,  free  from 
all  excess  or  intemperance.  Excess  in  eating  or  drink- 
ing is  very  bad  for  persons  with  any  tendency  to  apo- 
plexy. Anything  which  loads  the  blood  with  alcohol  or 
strong  animal  food  tends  to  produce  that  condition  of 
the  blood-vessels  which  leads  to  apoplexy.  So,  persons 
with  this  tendency  should  drink  very  little,  and  claret, 
or,  at  most,  very  weak  sherry  and  water  should  be  their 
stimulant ;  and  teetotalism,  if  they  are  not  weak  or  very 
much  jaded,  should  be  tried.  An  occasional  dinner  of 
fish  or  fowl  will  be  beneficial.  Suppers  should  be  light. 
Sleep  should  be  regularly  taken,  and  neither  too  much 
nor  too  little.      Probably  of  the  two  extremes  the  more 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


319 


common  no\v-a-days  is  too  little.  Exercise  in  the  open 
air,  and  healthy,  well-ventilated  rooms,  especially  sleep- 
ing-rooms, is  also  important.  Care  and  worry — things 
very  difficult  to  avoid  in  this  world — should  be  avoided 
as  much  as  possible.  Attention  to  these  points  will 
greatly  tend  to  preserve  the  healthy  condition  of  the 
blood-vessels  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  on  the  in- 
tegrity of  which  safety  from  apoplexy  depends.  We 
need  not  add  tiiat  nothing  tight  about  the  neck  should 
be  worn.  If  what  we  have  said  be  true,  we  need  not 
say  that  much  drinking,  much  eating,  indolence,  and  in- 
activity, horror  of  the  fresh  air,  and  love  of  close,  warm 
rooms,  are  the  ways  by  which  apoplexy  is  to  be  produced. 

Treatment. — This,  of  course,  is  a  matter  for  a  medical 
man.  But  supposing  a  person  to  be  attacked  with  apoplexy, 
his  head  and  shoulders  should  be  raised,  his  necktie, 
and  any  other  ti^t  garment,  should  be  unloosed.  And 
nothing  more  should  be  done  till  a  doctor  arrives. 

Prospects  of  the  Case. — Recovery  may  be  quick  from 
this  condition,  or  it  may  be  gradual,  or  death  may  result 
in  a  few  minutes,  or  hours,  or  days.  Let  the  nature  of 
the  disease  be  considered,  and  all  this  variety  of  result 
will  be  understood.  The  disease  consists  in  the  breaking 
of  a  blood-vessel,  and  the  escape  from  it  of  blood.  If  the 
blood  is  in  great  quantity,  and  in  the  central  parts  of  the 
brain,  death  will  probably  result ;  if  it  is  in  small  quantity, 
and  the  escape  of  more  is  prevented  by  quietness,  this 
blood  will  be  absorbed  and  consciousness  will  return, 
and  any  want  of  power  in  the  side  will  gradually  be 
supplied.  It  will  easily  be  understood  that  when  blood 
escapes  into  the  brain  it  tears  it  up.  If  there  is  much 
of  this,  even  if  the  blood  itself  be  absorbed,  some 
paralysis  is  likely  to  remain.  Of  course,  when  an  attack 
has  once  happened  it  is  not  less  apt  to  happen  again. 
In  order  to  prevent  this,  the  same  precautions  should  be 
taken  as  we  have  described  for  preventing  a  first  attack. 

ASTHMA. 

Asthma  is  a  disease  in  which  bad  breathing  comes 
on  in  somewhat  severe  sudden  attacks,  characterised 
by  a  loud  wheezing  noise.  It  is  a  spasmodic  disease, 
that  is  to  say,  the  muscular  fibres  surrounding  the  small 
bronchial  tubes,  through  which  the  air  passes  to  the  lungs, 
contract,  and  so  diminish  the  calibre  of  the  bronchial  tubes, 
often  to  an  excessive  fineness,  which  makes  breathing  pain- 
ful, difficult,  and  very  noisy.  These  attacks  of  spasmodic 
breathing  are  sometimes  occasioned  by  something  in  the 
air  that  irritates  the  passages.  Some  substances  in  the 
air  will  excite  a  fit  of  asthma  in  some  people — such  as 
ipecacuanha.  The  writer  knows  a  patient  in  whom  the 
odour  of  a  linseed  poultice  often  excites  asthma.  It  is  not 
always  the  clearest  air  that  suits  the  patient  best,  for  people 
troubled  with  asthma  have  been  known  to  breathe  better 
in  the  atmosphere  of  St.  Giles's  than  at  Hampstead.  On  the 
other  hand,  people  that  have  scarcely  been  able  to  breathe 
in  the  more  crowded  parts  of  London  have  got  well  on 
Hampstead  Heath.  Sometimes  asthma  is  brought  on  by 
excitement,  or  emotion  of  any  kind,  as  fear,  love,  &c. 
Sometimes  it  is  brought  on  by  heavy  suppers,  by  indigestible 
or  irritating  food.  The  writer  knows  a  medical  man  who  has 
cured  himself  of  a  liability  to  asthma  in  the  night  by  either 
not  taking  any  supper,  or  only  a  very  light  one.  The  disease 
is  more  common  in  men  than  women ;  it  is  often  hereditar)\ 

Symptoms. — The  sight  of  a  person  with  asthma  is  very 
characteristic.  There  is  quite  a  gasping  for  breath,  the 
eyes  staring,  the  breathing  accompanied  by  a  loud  or  a  fine 
wheezing  noise,  and  the  patient  assuming  a  peculiar  posi- 
tion— if  standing,  probably  having  his  hands  resting  on  the 
back  of  a  chair  ;  if  sitting,  leaning  slightly  forward,  with  the 
hands  on  the  knees,  the  mouth  open  and  greedy  of  air. 
The  lips  will  become  livid  or  blue  if  the  breathing  is  not 
soon  relieved.     Attacks  often  come  on  in  the  night. 

Treatment. — A  medical  man  should  be  sent  for,  but 
before  he  arrives  a  few  things  may  be  done  calculated  to 


relieve  the  patient.  Plenty  of  air  should  be  admitted  to 
the  room.  If  indigestible  food  has  been  taken,  a  stimulat- 
ing emetic  may  be  given,  as  half  an  ounce  of  mustard  in  hot 
water.  After  the  operation  of  this,  or  at  once,  if  an  emetic 
is  not  judged  necessary,  a  cup  of  strong  coffee  may  be 
administered.  A  strong  mustard  plaster  may  be  applied 
to  the  chest.  Various  substances,  smoked  or  inhaled,  have 
the  power  frequently  of  relieving  the  fit  of  asthma.  Among 
the  most  homely  of  these  is  the  smoke  of  burnt  nitre  paper, 
that  is  of  brown  paper  dipped  in  a  strong  solution  of  salt- 
petre (nitrate  of  potash)  and  dried.  The  smoke  of  this 
burnt  paper  often  relieves  the  asthmatic  attack.  So  docs 
a  pipe  of  tobacco,  especially  in  those  not  accustomed  to 
take  it.  Medicated  cigars,  too,  are  prepared  for  these 
attacks,  especially  cigars  of  Stramonium  and  of  Datura 
Tatula.  These  should  only  be  taken  under  medical  advice, 
but  they  are  often  singularly  useful. 

All  these  failing,  the  asthmatic  patient  should  try  change  of 
air.  Nobody  can  tell  him  what  air  will  suit  him  best,  for  the 
disease  is  so  capricious,  that  sometimes  it  is  benefited  by 
an  air  that  one  would  expect  to  be  injurious.  But  the  effect 
of  change  of  air  is  often  magical,  and  this  remedy  often 
succeeds  when  all  others  fail.  As  a  general  rule  the  patient 
in  taking  a  change  of  air  should  go  to  an  atmosphere 
entirely  different  from  that  in  which  he  is  living.  Anything 
wrong  in  the  general  health  should  be  put  right.  The 
asthmatic  should  live  regularly  and  simply,  and,  as  far  as 
possible,  he  should  live  in  the  atmosphere  that  suits  him 
the  best.     {Sqq  Bronchitis.) 


HOUSEHOLD    AMUSEMENTS.— X. 
THE  GAME  OF  WHIST  {continued). 

Playing  out  of  Turn. — If  the  third  player  play  before 
the  second,  the  fourth  is  entitled  also  to  play  before  his 
partner.  If  the  fourth  play  before  the  second,  the  latter 
may  be  called  on  by  his  adversaries  either  to  win  or  to  lose 
the  trick,  as  they  may  deem  advisable. 

Revoking. — A  revoke  is  committed  whenever  a  player 
does  not  follow  a  suit,  although  he  holds  a  card  of  it  in 
his  hand.  The  penalty  for  every  revoke  is  the  loss  of 
three  tricks,  which  the  opponents  may  take  either — i,  by 
adding  three  to  their  own  score ;  2,  by  deducting  three 
from  the  score  of  the  revoking  side  ;  or  3,  by  taking  three 
tricks  from  the  revoking  player  and  adding  them  to  their 
own.  In  the  latter  case,  the  penalty  may  sometimes 
amount  to  even  more  than  the  loss  of  three.  For 
instance,  if  the  revoking  party  have  made  the  odd  trick, 
their  opponents,  by  taking  three  tricks  and  adding  thera  to 
their  own  six,  count  three  themselves  towardsgame,  and  make 
the  others  lose  one,  thus  making  a  difference  to  the  score  of 
four  in  all.  This  is  a  point  on  which  misunderstanding  pre- 
vails, even  among  practised  players  ;  but  the  law  is  as  we 
havehcre  stated  it.  Thepenaltyforarevokeis  counted  before 
either  tricks  or  honours.  A  revoke  may  be  recalled  before 
the  revoking  player  has  played  to  the  following  trick,  but 
not  after  ;  and  a  player  is  allowed  to  ask  his  partner  if  he 
is  sure  he  has  not  a  card  of  that  suit.  The  tricks  played 
during  a  hand  may  be  searched,  on  its  completion,  to 
establish  evidence  of  the  revoke  ;  but  the  penalty  cannot 
be  claimed  after  the  cards  are  cut  for  the  ne.xt  deal. 

Here  we  must  end  our  abstract  of  the  laws,  which  we 
believe  will  be  found  sufficient  for  the  family  circle ;  but 
persons  requiring  further  information  as  to  nice  points 
which  occasionally  arise,  and  the  code  by  which  they  are 
to  be  met,  will  find  it  in  the  authorities  before  alluded  to. 

SINGLE  AND  DOUBLE  DUMBV. 
The  game  of"  dumby"  is  an  invention  for  the  benefit  of 
persons  who  desire  to  play  whist,  but  cannot  make  up  the 
requisite  party  of  four  persons.  Single  dumby  is  played 
by  three,  and  double  dumby  by  two.  The  cards  in  each 
case  are  dealt  out  as  in  the  regular  game,  and  the  same 


320 


HOUSEHOLD   AMUSEMENTS. 


rules  are  observed  ;  but  in  single  dumby  one  hand  is 
usually  exposed  upon  the  table,  the  players  cutting  to 
decide  who  shall  first  take  "  dumby "  as  his  partner  and 
play  his  cards  ;  and  in  double  dumby,  each  of  the  two 
players  has  thus  to  conduct  the  game  of  a  supposititious 
partner  as  wel'  as  his  own.  The  game  of  "dumby,"  in 
either  case,  is  inferior  to  that  of  whist  in  its  usual  fonn  ; 
but  it  is  considered  useful  practice,  and  single  dumby 
especially  afifords  much  interest  and  amusement. 

COMICAL   COMBINATIONS. 

This  is  a  game  which  can  be  made  a  source  of  con- 
siderable merriment  and  amusement  by  a  party  of  young 
people  who  have  some  skill,  however  slight,  in  drawing. 
It  is  not  known  under  any  especial  name,  and  it  is  played 
in  the  following  way : — Those  engaged  in  it  sit  round  the 
table,  and  each  is  supplied  with  a  piece  of  writing-paper 
folded  into  three  parts,  and  a  lead  pencil.  In  the  first 
place  each  sketches  a  head  and  neck — that  of  a  man  or 
woman,  or  that  of  some  inferior 
animal,  taking  care  that  his  neigh- 
bour does  not  see  what  he  has 
done.  Then  each  re-folds  the  paper, 
so  as  to  hide  his  or  her  sketch  ; 
but  leaves  indications  of  where  the 
neck  is  on  the  blank  part  of  the 
paper  which  is  folded  over  it.  The 
papers  then  change  hands  all  round, 
and  each  proceeds  to  sketch  a  body 
for  the  head  he  has  not  seen.  When 
this  has  been  accomplished,  the 
papers  are  again  re-folded  as  be- 
fore; another  change  takes  place; 
and  all  proceed  to  supply  legs  for 
the  bodies  they  have  not  seen,  just 
as  before  they  supplied  bodies  for 
the  heads  they  had  not  seen.  When 
all  this  has  been  done,  another 
change  of  papers  takes  place,  and 
then  each  writes  the  name  sup- 
posed to  belong  to  the  figure  thus 
curiously  compounded,  after  which 
the  papers  are  unfolded,  and  the 
result  is  usually  successive  bursts 
of  laughter  at  the  oddness  or  ab- 
surdity of  the  combinations.  For 
instance,  A  draws  the  head  (i), 
B  the  body  (2),  C  the  legs 
(3)  ;     the    result    of    which,  when 

unfolded,  may    be    some   such    absurdity  as   is   shown 
in  Fig.  I. 

ACTED   CHARADES. 

Acted  charades,  in  which  syllables  and  words  are  re- 
presented by  short  dramatic  scenes  or  tableaux,  are  a 
modern  invention,  and  rank  among  the  most  attractive 
of  in-door  amusements.  They  require  no  great  art 
in  the  performance,  and  a  little  practice  will  enable 
any  family  circle  to  get  them  up,  when  they  know  how 
to  set  about  it.  A  word  is  chosen,  of  two  or  more 
syllables,  each  of  which  has  a  distinct  meaning  ?  these 
syllables  are  then  represented,  in  their  order,  by 
action,  either  with  or  without  dialogue,  and  afterwards 
the  entire  word  is  expressed  in  the  same  way,  the 
spectators  being  expected  to  guess  what  each  scene  has 
represented. 

The  company  should  properly  be  divided  into  two 
parties,  each  side  in  turn  performing  a  charade,  or 
tasking  its  penetration  to  detect  the  word  on  which  the 
jjerformance  of  the  other  side  was  founded.  But  if  there 
be  many  persons  present,  the  better  plan  is  to  select  a 
few  from  the  company  to  form  sides,  and  each  will  thus 
relieve  the  other  in  contributing  actively  to  the  general 


amusement.  All  persons,  old  or  young,  may  be  brought 
into  the  performance  of  particular  scenes,  if  they  are 
disposed  to  enter  into  the  pastime. 

The  first  thing  necessary  is  the  apartment  in  which  the 
charades  are  to  be  enacted.  The  ordinary  pair  of  rooms 
with  folding  doors,  or  a  pair  which  may  be  separated  by 
a  screen  or  curtain,  is  well  adapted  to  the  purpose.  The 
larger  should  be  devoted  to  the  general  company  or 
audience  ;  the  smaller  being  the  arena  in  which  the  per- 
formances take  place.  During  the  preparation  of  the 
charade,  and  between  its  different  scenes,  the  doors  are 
closed  ;  and,  in  order  to  prevent  the  spectators  feeling 
the  intervals  irksome,  it  is  well  for  some  one  to 
volunteer  a  little  performance  on  the  piano,  or  for 
ordinary  conversation  to  go  on  as  if  nothing  were 
expected. 

The  performers,  retiring,  agree  among  themselves  as 
to  the  word  which  shall  be  the  subject  of  the  charade. 
As  a  rule,  words  of  two  syllables  are  best ;  for  these, 
requiring  three  scenes  in  all 
for  their  expression,  are  found 
quite  long  enough  both  by  the 
performers  and  by  the  spectators 
who  have  to  guess  their  meaning. 
As  we  have  intimated,  each  syllable 
of  the  word  chosen  should  be 
complete  in  itself,  and  capable 
of  complete  expression  in  the 
little  drama  or  pantomime  which 
has  to  be  represented.  Far-fetched 
puns  and  distortions  of  language 
are  generally  inadmissible,  as 
not  affording  a  fair  chance  to  the 
opposite  side,  or  to  the  company 
who  comprise  the  audience,  to 
guess  the  word  which  the  scenes 
are  designed  to  convey ;  but  the 
simple  doubling  of  a  consonant, 
as  where  "  in  "  is  expressed  by  the 
representation  of  an  "  inn,"  or  the 
occasional  addition  of  a  vowe^ 
which  does  not  affect  the  sound, 
as  in  "  pi(e)lots,"  is  perfectly 
allowable  ;  and  this  hint  will  fur- 
nish our  readers  with  a  key  to 
the  solution  of  many  charades 
which  at  first  may  appear  very 
.  I.  puzzling. 

As  examples  of  words,  mostly 
of  two  syllables,  from  which  a  selection  may  be  made, 
we  will  give  the  following  : — 

Muffin{n) 

Nosegay 

Outfit 

Pancake 

Patchwork 

Patriot 

Pilgrim 

Pi(e)Iot 

Postboy 

Rest-oration 

Ringlets 

Saucebox 

Shamrock 

Snuffbox 

Spinster 

Sweetheart 

Telltale 

Timepiece 

Toi(y)let 

Upshot 

Wardrobe 

Watchman 

Welcome 


Almshouse 

Bridewell 

Farewell 

Altar  (all-tar) 

Cabbage 

Fireworks 

Artful 

Cand(y)date 

Footpad 

Backgammon 

Carmine 

Gooseberry 

Bagpipe 

Carpet 

Gunpowder 

Bandage 

Catcall 

Hamlet 

Bandbox 

Caterpillar 

Hammock 

Bargain . 

Chairman 

Handcuff 

Beefeater 

Checkmate 

Helpmate 

Bellman 

Childhood 

Ploneymoon 

Birthday' 

Cornice 

Hornpipe 

Blacksmith 

Cottage 

Hostage 

Blackstone 

Counterpane 

Idol 

Blockhead 

Counterpart 

Innkeeper 

Blunderbuss 

Courtship 

Jew's-harp 

Boatswain 

Coxcomb 

Jovial 

Bondage 

Crosspatch 

Keyhole 

Bootjack 

Cutlass 

Luggage 

Bracelet 

Dewdrop 

Madcap 

Breakfast 

Donkey 

Magpie 

Brickbat 

Earwig 

Messmate 

Bridecake 

Eyeglass 

Milksop 

Bridegroom 

Falsehood 

Iilis(s)take 

CASSELL'S  HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


321 


HOUSEHOLD  DECORATIVE  ART. 

IX. — FEATHER   SCREENS   {contimied). 

In  speaking  of  the  kinds  of  birds  best  adapted  for  being 
manufactured  into  screens,  we  can  only  give  the  general 
rule  that  all  birds  which  have  naturally  a  rapid 
flight   form  good   subjects,  their  wing-feathers  | 

being  strong  and  stiff,  and  not  liable  to  get 
spoilt.  The  owl,  for  instance  (to  take  a  case 
of  an  opposite  character),  is  not  so  well 
suited  for  a  screen  as  a  pigeon  or  a  duck,  for, 
though  he  has  a  beautiful  spread  of  wing- 
feathers,  and  with  his  large  head  and  eyes  will 
form  a  noble  screen,  yet  the  softness  and 
delicacy  of  his  feathers,  so  necessary  for  his 
silent  flight,  renders  the  screen  he  may  be 
transformed  into,  verj'  easily  soiled  by  dust  (at 
least  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London),  and 
spoilt  by  handling.  All  the  hawk- tribe,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  excellent  ;  the  large  brilliant 
eye  and  short  hooked  beak  being  very  effective 
(see  Fig.  2)  ;  and  their  wing-feathers,  being 
strong,  are  of  a  tolerably  hard  material,  though 
not  nearly  so  hard  and  durable  as  those  of  the 
wild  duck,  widgeon,  or  any  of  the  numberless 
duck-tribe.  So  far,  indeed,  as  the  shape, 
strength,  and  colouring  of  the  w/w^  is  concerned, 
the  duck-tribe  are  by  far  the  best  subjects  for 
screens  that  we  know  of  ;  but  when  we  remember 
the  difficulties 


London  in  perfect  condition.  Owing,  however,  to  the 
size  of  the  bill  in  the  larger  sorts,  we  prefer  the  smaller 
for  making  screens,  and  shall  presently  give  the  result 
of  our  experience  in  dealing  with  a  teal,  as  compared 
with  the  directions  previously  given  in  the  case  of  the 
pigeon. 

In  selecting  any  bird  for  making  a  screen, 
whether  from  the  poulterer's  shop  or  from  the  dove- 
cot of  a  farm-house  or  elsewhere,  the  main  points 
are,  to  see  that  plumage  is  good,  the  quill-feathers 
of  the  wing  fully  developed  and  perfect  in  their 
graduated  lengths,  and  (if  the  bird  is  dead)  that 
the  feathers  of  the  neck  have  not  been  damaged 
by  the  dislocation  that  is  usually  resorted  tOt 
But  in  selecting  a  tame  pigeon  there  are  other 
points  to  be  attended  to  ;  this  is  caused  by  the 
variety  of  colouring,  which  (though  it  adds  to  the 
value  of  the  pigeon-race  for  making  screens)  is 
very  often  not  equally  distributed.  For  instance, 
one  wing  may  have  the  three  first  quill-feathers 
white  on  one  side,  while  on  the  other  side  four 
or  five  may  be  of  this  colour,  or,  perhaps,  a 
single  dark  one  may  form  the  first  quill-feather, 
and  then  three  white  ones.  These  irregularities 
will  much  interfere  with  the  beauty  of  your 
screen,  if  not  noticed  in  time,  and  though  they 
may  sometimes  be  counteracted  by  painting, 
this  is  not  often  successful.  Generally  speak- 
ing,  a   pigeon   with    quite   white   quill-feathers 

should   be  re- 


ef making 
their  long 
necks  and  not 
always  beau- 
tiful bills  as- 
sume a  grace- 
ful attitude,  we 
return  at  once 
to  the  opinion 
with  which  we 
started,  that 
the  race  of 
pigeons  (so  far 
as  Britishbirds 
are concerned) 
bears  off  the 
palm  of  gene- 
ral capability. 
In  London, 
however,  it  is 
very  difficult 
to  get  pigeons 
that  are  worth 
anything  ;  the 
tame  pigeons 
at  the  poul- 
terers' shops 
being  gene- 
rally (and  our 
readers  pro- 
bably 


jected,  as  it  is 
seldom  that 
they  are  so 
clean  as  not 
to  show  some 
traces  of  dirt 
at  the  points, 
and  the  slate, 
fawn,  or  grej' 
coloured 
pigeons,  are 
generally 
much  more 
beautifully 
marked  in 
other  respects. 
From  this  it 
will  be  seen 
that  it  by  no 
means  follows 
that  the  pret- 
tiest pigeon 
that  walks 
about  (and 
picks  up  the 
peas  you  have 
enticed  him 
down  with), 
will  form  the 
hand  somest 
screen.  We 
must  here  say 
a  word  or  two 
as  to  the  time 
birds  thathave  of  year  when 

only  their  first  ^''e-  ^--the  hawk.  tame    pigeons 

coat  on  (if  they  ought  to  be  in 

have  got  all  their  feathers) ;  and  even  if  an  old  bird  '  full  feather,  and  we  say  ou^aiht,  because  they  often 
should  be  found  amongst  them,  or  the  wild  pigeon  '  upset  all  one's  calculations  by  moulting  at  irregular 
should  be  selected,  the  chances  are  that  they  have  been  j  times,  the  result,  no  doubt,  of  domestication,  and  the 
so  mangled  in  the  killing  or  carriage  as  to  be  useless  for  I  numerous  families  they  rear  in  the  course  of  each  year, 
our  purpose.  Wild  ducks,  widgeon,  pintails,  teal,  and  Just  before,  and  during  the  beginning  of  the  breeding 
other  kinds  of  ducks  can,  however,  be  readily  obtained  in  *  season,  they  w;ll  generally  be  found  to  have  ao  ^'.«rt  i 
VOL.  :.  ..  2i 


%m.*^m 


^fc%K. 


that 

should 

ways) 


know 
they 
be  al- 
young 


"^ 


'^^S^ 


-'^^y 


>: 


322 


COOKING. 


feathers,  and  therefore  to  be  most  fit  for  the  purpose  we 
have  in  view  ;  but,  of  course,  breeders  db  not  hke  supply- 
ing you  at  this  season,  even  if  you  were  hard-hearted 
enough  to  kill  a  pigeon  during  his  honeymoon,  or  when  he 
had  become  the  head  of  a  young  family.  Many  birds, 
however,  of  two  years  old  (and  they  should  not  be  less) 
will  be  found  in  good  feather  till  August  or  September, 
when  family  considerations  will  not  interfere  with  your 
choice.  Wild  birds  are  usually  in  their  best  plumage 
late  in  the  shooting  season,  but  as  the  amateur  need  not  have 
any  voice  in  the  time  or  manner  of  their  death,  I  shall  say 
nothing  further  on  this  subject. 

Of  other  British  birds  suitable  for  screens,  there  are 
probably  numbers  that  we  do  not  know,  and  many  others 
that  we  might  mention,  notably,  black  game,'  woodcock, 
curlew,  gulls,  and  sea-birds  of  numerous  sorts.  Of  wild 
pigeons,  the  prettiest  screen  we  have  made  was  from  a  stock 
dove  {Columba  cenas),  the  metallic  colouring  on  the  feathers 
of  the  neck  being  particularly  effective,  and  the  wings  beau- 
tifully shaded.  A  teal  in  perfect  plumage,  Fig.  3,  is  (as  pro- 
bably our  readers  well  know)  a  most  beautiful  little  bird, 
and  in  making  a  screen  of  one,  we  recommend  the  following 
variation  from  the  plan  of  operations  already  given,  when 
deahng  with  a  pigeon.  In  skinning  the  neck  it  will  be 
found  impossible  to  stretch  it  sufficiently  to  let  the  head 
come  through,  and  it  must  therefore  be  slit  or  cut  through- 
out its  entire  length.  This  cut  is  most  conveniently  made 
in  the  course  of  skinning,  and  should  commence  from  the 
centre  of  the  back  and  run  up  the  back  of  the  neck  and 
head  sufficiently  far  to  let  the  head 
come  through  without  difficulty.  I 
prefer  the  back  of  the  neck  for  this 
cut,  because  the  feathers  naturally 
meet  and  form  a  ridge  there,  which 
hides  the  subsequent  stitches,  but, 
of  course,  the  intended  posture  of  the 
bird  may  render  it  more  desirable  to 
make  the  cut  up  one  side  or  in  front. 
When  the  skull  has  been  prepared, 
and  the  feathers  redrawn  over  it,  the 
wire  to  support  the  neck  should  be 
sharpened,  then  wrapped  round,  to  within  about  two 
inches  of  its  point,  with  wool,  to  a  size  similar  to 
the  naked  neck  of  the  bird,  and  then  be  inserted 
through  the  skull,  leaving  the  end  projecting,  as  a 
handle  to  assist  in  bringing  the  bird  to  its  proper  posture 
when  placed  on  the  board.  The  skin  of  the  neck  should 
be  very  slightly  anointed  with  the  arsenical  soap,  as  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  prevent  some  of  the  feathers  from 
getting  soiled  in  some  degree,  and  the  cut  must  then  be 
sewn  up.  This  requires  a  good  deal  of  patience,  as  the 
feathers  are  constantly  getting  caught  by  the  thread,  and 
seem  to  be  possessed  by  a  persistent  idea  that  they  are 
wanted  to  add  to  the  stuffing  in  the  neck.  The  best  stitch 
for  this  kind  of  work  is  found  to  be  that  well  known  to 
schoolboys  who  have  covered  tennis-balls,  and  which  is 
sometimes  adopted  in  lacing  up  walking-boots ;  i.e.,  passing 
in  the  needle  always  from  the  under  side  of  each  edge 
alternately  of  the  parts  to  be  brought  together  ;  by  this 
means  the  skin  is  not  so  likely  to  te^r,  and  the  feathers 
more  easily  coaxed  into  their  proper  places  as  you 
proceed. 

So  much  for  the  head,  which  in  other  respects,  with  the 
wings,  is  treated  in  the  same  way  as  before  mentioned  in 
the  case  of  a  pigeon.  But  when  the  screen  has  to  be  made 
up,  it  will  probably  be  found  that,  owing  to  the  narrow 
expanse  of  the  wings,  they  would  appear  to  be  too  small 
for  the  head,  or,  at  any  rate,  that  much  of  their  beauty 
wQuld  be  hidden  under  the  breast-feathers  and  their  effect 
lost.  Instead,  therefore,  of  gluing  them  close  up  to  the 
stick,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pigeon,  it  will  be  found  de- 
sirable to  fix  them  some  distance  apart  at  the  base,  dis- 
pensing, perhaps,  altogether  with  the  tie  A,  mentioned  in 


a  former  article  (see  Fig.  4,  page  289),  and  instead  of  the 
appearance  there  presented  when  one  wing  is  affixed,  it 
will  be  as  in  Fig.  i,  page  321.  It  will  be  seen  that  to  effect 
this,  the  millboard  must  be  made  proportionately  larger, 
and  so  long  as  it  is  covered  by  the  breast-feathers,  the  \ 
wider  it  always  is  the  better.  It  should  also  be  somewhat 
stouter  than  in  the  case  of  a  bird  whose  wings  are  brought 
close  up  to  the  stick,  or  what  is  perhaps  better,  the  addi- 
tion of  a  piece  of  millboard,  to  be  glued  and  tied  to  the 
inside  of  the  wings  after  they  are  fixed,  to  con-espond  with 
the  piece  attached  to  the  stick.  This  arrangement  w^ill 
leave  a  larger  space  to  cover  in  the  inside  of  the  wings,  and 
for  this  purpose  both  the  tail  and  the  wing  coverts  may  be 
brought  into  use.  The  under  side  of  the  tail  of  this  bird 
especially  should  be  made  use  of,  as  it  is  very  pretty. 

Should  any  light-coloured  feathers  of  a  bird  become  soiled 
with  blood,  either  from  the  effects  of  being  shot,  or  unskil- 
ful management  in  skinning,  or  be  stained  with  dirt,  they 
may  be  cleaned  in  the  following  manner : — Paint  the  parts , 
affected  with  a  soft  brush  and  warm  water,  till  they  are 
soaked  through,  without,  however,  ruffling  the  feathers,  and 
then  sprinkle  them  thickly  over  with  dry  whitening  (such 
as  is  used  for  cleaning  plate),  but  powdered  finely,  and  let 
it  thoroughly  dry  on,  then  brush  it  off  with  a  moderately 
stiff  brush,  stroking  the  feathers  the  right  way,  and  it  will 
be  found  that  most,  if  not  all,  the  stains  will  have  disap- 
peared, having  been  soaked  up  by  the  whitening  with  the 
moisture. 

These  few  hints  upon  screens  will  be  found  useful  in  deal- 
ing with  large  birds,  such  as  swans,  herons,  and  other  birds 
too  large  for  hand  screens,  but  which  may  be  set  up  in  the 
manner  described,  without  a  handle  and  affixed  to  a 
standard,  like  the  old-fashioned  banner  screen  ;  but  in 
dealing  with  such,  it  will  probably  be  advisable  to  further 
strengthen  the  wings  by  passing  a  strong  wire  up  each  of 
the  pinion  joints,  tying  it  securely  to  the  elbow  joints,  and 
to  change  the  millboard  for  a  stout  piece  of  wood. 

We  wish  it,  however,  to  be  distinctly  understood  that  the 
wanton  destruction  of  birds  for  this  purpose  is  strongly  to 
be  depreciated.  There  may  always  be  found  a  large  sup- 
ply of  dead  birds  to  select  from,  without  having  recourse 
to  unnecessary  cruelty. 


COOKING. 

RIVER    FISH. 

Boiling  Fish.  —  The  boiling  of  fish  differs  consider- 
ably, both  in  its  object  and  the  manner  of  effecting  it, 
from  the  boiling  of  meat.  In  tlie  latter  it  is  often  desired 
to  get  all  we  can  out  of  it,  and  in  cases  where  that  is  not 
the  exact  intention,  still  what  is  got  out  is  not  necessarily 
lost  to  a  family's  consumption.  In  the  former  the  object 
almost  always  is  to  keep  all  the  nutriment  we  can  inside 
the  article  which  is  boiled  ;  and  what  does  issue  from  it 
in  spite  of  our  precautions  is,  in  England  at  least,  wasted 
and  thrown  away. 

Theoretically,  therefore,  all  boiled  fish  ought  to  be 
plunged  into  boiling  water,  to  set  the  albumen  and  curd 
in  its  flesh,  and  to  fix  in  an  insoluble  form  the  particles 
which  would  have  been  dissolved  in  cold  or  tepid  water. 
Practically,  the  rule  must  be  observed  with  a  certain 
degree  of  laxity.  If  a  very  large  and  thick-set  fish,  as 
an  unusually  fine  salmon  or  cod — or  only  the  half  of  one 
— be  plunged  in  boiling  water,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
section  "  Eggs,"  the  heat  penetrates  its  substance  but 
slowly,  the  outside  and  the  thinner  portions  wiU  be 
overdone  while  the  inside  near  the  bone  will  be  stiU 
raw.  The  only  means  of  obviating  this  is  to  put  the 
fish  into  iepid  water,  and  give  it  time  to  heat  through 
gradually  before  coming  to  a  boil.  When,  however, 
a  large  fish  is  scored  or  "  crimped "  (whether  alive  or 
dead)  down  to  the  bone,  as  cod  is  often  treated,  it  may 
be  set  on  the  fire  in  boiling  water,  as  the  scoring  has 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


323 


nearly  the  same  effect  as  if  the  fish  were  boiled  in  slices 
or  moderate-sized  pieces,  which  is  often  done  now  that 
"large  joints"  are  out  of  fashion,  and  carving  at  a  side 
table  is  in.  The  difficulties  of  cooking  a  very  large  fish 
entire  well  {i.e.,  retaining  all  its  proper  qualities)  are  so 
great  that  a  little  display  may  be  wisely  sacrificed  to 
securing  a  satisfactory  amount  of  firmness  and  flavour. 
Flat  fish,  as  turbot  and  brill,  are  rarely  so  thick  that  they 
may  not  be  put  into  boiling  water  at  once.  Halibut,  if 
only  on  account  of  its  size,  is  mostly  cooked  in  slices. 
John  Dory,  which  is  not  a  flat  fish,  although  it  is  flat, 
may  be  set  on  in  cold  water,  whatever  its  size,  as  it  takes 
a  great  deal  of  boiling,  and  is  none  the  worse  for  being 
robbed  of  a  little  of  its  strong  and  peculiar  flavour. 

All  fish,  while  boiling,  should  be  skimmed  as  carefully 
IS  meat.  Take  it  out  of  the  water  when  it  is  done 
enough,  and  keep  it  hot,  if  it  has  to  wait,  by  leaving  it  on 
the  fish-bottom,  set  diagonally  across  the  fish-kettle,  so  as 
to  receive  its  steam,  and  covered  with  a  napkin  dipped  in 
the  hot  boilings. 

For  boiling  carp,  pike,  tench,  and  several  other  river 
fish  (especially  those  intended  to  be  served  whole  cold), 
as  well  as  lobsters,  crayfish,  shrimps,  prawns,  and  other 
crustaceans,  French  cooks  often  used  a  made-up  liquor, 
which  they  call  court-bouillon.  We  ourselves  do  not  like 
and  therefore  do  not  recommend  it.  Certainly  it  covers 
any  muddy  flavour  by  overpowering  all  natural  flavour, 
but  it  utterly  spoils  sweet  and  delicate  fish,  and,  in  our 
opinion,  is  ruin  for  lobsters  and  shrimps.  Neverthe- 
less, if  the  cook  is  requested  to  use  it,  she  may  thus 
make  her 

Court-bouillon. — The  quantity — which  must  be  enough 
to  cover  the  fish  well — will  consequently  depend  upon  its 
size.  Take  equal  parts  of  vinegar,  red  wine,  and  water  ; 
add  cloves,  peppercorns,  bay-leaves,  thyme,  parsley, 
marjoram,  shalots,  sliced  carrots  and  onions,  and  salt. 
You  may  also  add  lemon-juice,  and  almost  any  aromatic 
that  suits  your  fancy.  Let  these  simmer  and  stew  for  an 
hour.  The  first  time  of  using  a  court-bouillon  there  is  no 
need  to  take  out  the  flavouring  ingredients  ;  put  the  fish 
to  them  as  they  are.  If  it  is  to  be  eaten  cold,  take  the 
kettle  off  the  fire  before  it  is  quite  done,  and  let  the  fish 
cool  in  the  court-bouillon.  When  you  take  the  fish  out 
strain  the  liquor.  It  will  serve  several  times,  only  it  must 
be  diluted  with  water  every  time  of  using,  otherwise  it 
would  become  too  strong  and  concentrated.  Oil  and 
vinegar  is  the  only  sauce  that  is  customarily  eaten  with 
fish  boiled  in  court-bouillon  and  served  cold. 

The  Salmon. — Wc  call  the  salmon  a  river  fish  because 
it  is  in  rivers  that  it  is  most  generally  caught.  The  river 
also  is  its  place  of  birth.  But  the  sea  is  its  home  and 
i;s  pasture-ground,  to  which  it  must  return  to  renew 
the  strength  exhausted  in  its  fresh-water  revels,  or  die. 
In  fact,  it  inhabits  fresh  and  salt  waters  alternately. 
It  spends  its  summer  inland  and  its  winter  in  the  sea. 
Moreover,  as  the  swallow  returns  to  the  roof  or  shed  that 
gave  it  shelter,  so  docs  the  salmon  to  the  gravelly  river's 
bed  where  it  first  saw  the  light.  This  instinct  involves 
important  consequences.  If  all  the  salmon  ascending  a 
river  are  taken,  that  river  will  be  henceforth  salmonless. 
No  stranger  salmon,  cruising  along  the  coast,  will  mistake 
that  river's  mouth  for  its  own  river's  mouth.  To  re-stock 
the  river  young  salmon  must  be  reared  in  it,  thence 
to  find  their  way  to  the  sea  at  the  proper  age,  in  the 
certainty  of  their  coming,  like  curses  and  bad  shillings, 
back.  This  fact  has  been  already  taken  advantage  of 
with  promise  of  good  success.  There  were  no  salmon  in 
the  Mediterranean  ;  consequently  none  could  ascend  the 
Rhone  and  other  rivers  that  run  into  it.  But  salmon 
fry,  bred  at  the  French  piscicultural  establishment  at 
Huningue  (close  to  the  Swiss  frontier,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Bale)  have  been  turned  out  into  the  Rlione,  and 
there  is  reason  to  hope  that,  after  their  descent  to  the 


sea,  they  have  thriven  so  well  on  the  shoals  of  sardines 
as  to  found  a  colony  of  Mediterranean  salmon.  They  jnay 
find,  however,  a  formidable  opponent  in  the  powerful  and 
gigantic  tunny.  A  still  more  difficult  task  appears  to  have 
been  accomplished,  namely,  the  naturalisation  of  this 
noble  fish  in  several  Australian  rivers.  SalmoQ  is 
abundant,  and,  moreover,  cheap,  in  Norway  and  some 
parts  of  North  America.  Here  the  price  is  kept  up, 
and  made  pretty  equal  all  over  the  country,  by  the 
successive  discoveries,  first  of  packing  it  in  ice,  and 
secondly  of  railways.  The  penny-a-pound  times,  and 
the  refusals  of  proud-stomached  apprentices  and  servants 
to  eat  salmon  more  than  three  times  a  week,  are  gone 
for  ever. 

In  salmon  you  eat  concentrated  fish,  which,  indeed,  is 
true  of  all  fish  that  are  exclusively  piscivorous.  We  do 
not  think  the  pike  can  in  this  respect  be  for  one  monjent 
compared  with  the  salmon.  But  in  all  questions  of  this 
kind  tastes  vary  so  widely  and  so  frequently,  that  it  is 
almost  dangerous  to  express  an  opinion  positively. 

Salmon  is  in  season  from  the  beginning  of  February 
to  the  end  of  August  ;  cheapest  in  July  and  August.  The 
fresher  from  the  sea  the  better  it  is.  A  healthy  fish  has 
bright  silvery  scales,  small  head,  plenty  of  fat  at  the  belly 
part,  and  flesh  of  the  pleasing  hue  emphatically  called 
"  salmon  colour."  On  page  324  we  give  an  engraving  of  the 
fish  in  good  condition  for  the  table.  A  shotten  fish,  that 
has  remained  too  long  in  fresh  water  (sometimes  called  a 
"  black  fish,"  on  account  of  its  dull  dark  leaden  tint)  is 
lank  and  gaunt,  with  a  large  lantern-jawed  head,  the  gills 
infested  with  small  white  worms,  the  flesh  flabby,  pale, 
and  unwholesome.  The  whole  aspect  of  the  fish  is  re- 
pulsive, and  anything  but  tempting  to  eat.  We  have 
never  seen  such  exposed  for  sale  (illegal)  in  England ; 
but  on  the  borders  of  salmon  rivers  they  are  largely 
poached,  and  consumed  by  the  poachers,  during  the  close 
season. 

Boiled  Salmon  is  sometimes  sent  to  table  with  the  scales 
left  on  it,  for  show,  and  to  make  the  fish,  or  the  piece 
served,  look  bigger  ;  but  we  do  not  recommend  the 
custom,  which,  in  our  eyes,  l)as  an  uncleanly  appearance. 
Moreover,  when  properly  scaled  the  skin  is  not  only  eat- 
able but  nutritious.  If  the  fish  has  roe  it  may  be  either 
served  with  it,  or — which  is  the  more  artistic  practice — • 
mixed  with  lobster  or  anchovy  sauce.  If  a  middle-sized 
fish,  or  good  part  of  a  large  one  (seven  or  eight  pounds),  is 
to  be  served  entire,  the  precautions  above  indicated  must 
be  observed.  From  thirty  to  forty  minutes  will  not  be 
too  long  to  let  it  remain  in  the  water  after  boiling.  If 
its  appearing  on  the  table  whole  is  not  a  condition  that  is 
insisted  on,  it  will  be  better  cooked  by  being  cut  across 
into  handsome  pieces  of  from  two  to  three  pounds  each, 
and  so  plunged  into  boiling  water,  and  boiled  from  twenty 
to  thirty  minutes.  They  can  then  be  served  side  by  side 
in  their  natural  order  and  position  in  the  fish.  With  a 
garnishing  of  fresh  fennel  or  parsl-ey  they  will  make  quite 
as  presentable  a  dish  as  one  large  piece,  and  will  be  much 
more  equally  and  palatably  done.  In  fact  there  is  con- 
siderable economy  in  avoiding  the  dilemma  of  either  over- 
doing the  thin  parts  or  underdoing  the  thick  in  a  large 
fish  served  entire.  Cooks  are  mostly  caught  on  the  first 
horn  of  the  dilemma,  which  causes  both  waste  and  dis- 
figurement. 

Any  of  the  slices  not  used,  removed  from  table  whole, 
should  be  laid  at  once,  and  while  still  warm,  in  a  dish 
with  a  cover  (as  a  vegetable  or  a  pati5  dish),  and  covered 
with  a  mixture  ot  half  vinegar,  if  strong,  more  if  weak, 
and  half  the  boilings  of  the  salmon  skiimned.  Add 
a  few  peppercorns,  put  on  the  lid,  let  it  siaiul  in  a  cool 
place  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  you  have  capital  pickled 
salmon. 

Boiled  salmon  is  so  excellent,  and  its  natural  flavour 
requires  so  little  foreign  aid.  that  it  is  quite  able  to  hold  its 


324 


COOKING. 


own  and  maintain  its  ground  with  no  other  sauce  than  a 
boatful  of  good  plain  melted  butter,  the  unadorned  canvas 
on  which  cooks  embroider  such  a  multitude  and  variety 
of  other  sauces.  As  melted  butter — not  butter  melted — 
is  one  of  the  keystones  of  English  cookery,  we  cannot 
give  the  formula  at  a  more  appropriate  opportunity  than 
the  present. 

Melted  Butter. — Take  a  lump  of  butter  the  size  of  a 
hen's  egg,  cut  it  into  three  or  four  pieces,  and  work  them 
with  a  knife  into  as  much  as  you  can  get  them  to  take 
up  of  a  dessert-spoonful  of  flour.  Put  them  into  a  sauce- 
pan with  three-quarters  of  a  pint  of  cold  water,  keep 
stirring  in  one  direction  as  they  gradually  melt,  and  dust 
in  what  remains  of  the  flour.  When  they  are  well  mixed, 
smooth,  and  the  sauce  boils  up,  it  is  ready  for  serving. 
Or  you  may  simply  put  the  lump  of  butter  in  the  sauce- 
pan with  cold  water,  gradually  dusting  in  the  flour  as  it 
warms  and  melts.  This  rough-and-ready  way  requires 
careful  management  to  prevent  the  flour  from  gathering 
into  knots.  Good  melted  butter,  even  if  smooth,  should  not 
be  too  thick  or  pasty.  It  will  acquire  that  condition  by 
being  kept  waiting  too  long  at  the  side  of  the  stove.  In 
that  case  you  can  easily  thin  it  by  the  addition  of  more 
butler  and  a  little  warm  water.  Another  good  accom- 
paniment to  salmon  is 

Mustard  Sauce. — When  your  melted  butter  is  on  the 


it ;  let  it  boil  twenty  minutes  or  half-an-hour.  Strain  off 
the  boilings  ;  let  them  stand  awhile  to  settle  ;  and  with  the 
liquor  poured  oft"  (instead  of  with  water)  make  melted 
butter,  being  liberal  with  the  butter.  When  it  boils,  put 
in  your  prepared  and  picked  lobster-flesh,  and  let  it  stand 
on  the  side  of  the  stove  to  warm  through.  If  you  have 
any  salmon  roe,  you  may  at  the  same  time  add  it  (pre- 
viously cooked  and  separated  into  grains).  Lobster 
sauce  should  be  kept  delicate  in  flavour,  not  high  and 
pungent.  The  value  of  Ude's  advice,  "  Never  neglect 
to  season  your  sauce  ;  without  seasoning,  the  best 
cookery  is  good  for  nothing,"  entirely  depends  on  the 
meaning  of  words.  For  "  seasoning  "  read  "  flavour," 
and  he  is  right  ;  for  "  seasoning  "  read  "  spice,"  and  he  is 
wrong. 

Any  surplus  lobster  sauce,  with  the  sauce  reduced  and 
thereby  thickened,  will  make  delicious  lobster  patties  or 
bouchees  de  hotnard. 

Mock  Lobster  Sauce. — Take  cold  turbot,  not  overdone. 
If  you  have  no  turbot,  boil  a  thick  fleshy  sole.  While 
hot,  remove  the  meat  from  the  bones,  and  let  it  cool. 
Smear  the  cold  fish  on  both  sides  with  essence  of 
anchovies,  or  anchovy  paste,  or  essence  of  shrimps.  Cut 
it  up,  not  too  small,  into  dice  and  pieces  resembling 
those  which  serve  for  real  lobster  sauce.  Dust  with  a  little 
very  finely  powdered   sugar.      Make   your    sauce   itself 


Tin-;   SALMON. 


point  of  boiling,  incorporate  with  it  a  small  quantity  of 
made  mustard  (not  in  powder)  mixed  with  a  dessert  or 
tablespoonful  of  vinegar.  The  strength  of  this  sauce 
must  depend  on  the  taste  of  the  guests  ;  but  it  is  better  to 
underdo  than  to  overdo  the  dose.  It  is  best  kept  in  the 
state  of  a  delicate  sauce-piquante,  with  just  enough 
pungency  for  the  palate  to  perceive  it,  without  being  able 
to  decide  to  what  seasoning  to  attribute  it.  Mustard 
sauce  goes  exceedingly  well  with  boiled  mackerel  and 
with  boiled  or  fried  fresh  herring. 

Anchovy  Sauce  is  also  orthodox  with  salmon.  In- 
corporate with  your  boiling  melted  butter  a  couple  of 
teaspoonfuls  of  essence  of  anchovies  to  make  a  sauce- 
boatful.  You  may  make  a  similar  sauce  with  essence  of 
shrimps  ;  but  true  shrimp  sauce  (containing  the  meat  of 
the  shrimps)  is  not  usually  served  with  salmon.  The 
.sauce  for  grand  occasions  is 

Lobster  Sauce.— ^a'^  the  lobster  well  before  boiling, 
so  as  to  cleanse  it  thoroughly  from  the  sand  or  mud 
which  is  apt  to  adhere  to  it,  especially  if  it  be  a  hen- 
tobster  with  a  nest  of  eggs  under  her  tail.  When  cold, 
pick  out  the  flesh  of  your  lobster.  If  a  fine  one,  you 
will  probably  reserve  the  handsomest  pieces  for  a  lobster 
salad  or  a  Mayonnaise.  The  pickings  and  trimmings, 
the  interior  of  the  head  and  of  the  small  claws,  will  suffice 
for  your  sauce.  Separate  them  into  small  pieces  ;  dust 
them  with  a  very  little  pepper  or  cayenne  ;  add  the 
juice  of  a  lemon ;  and  set  them  aside.  Take  the 
broken  shell  of  the  lobster  ;  again  see  that  it  is  free 
from  grit ;  pound  or  break  it  up  roughly  in  a  mortar ; 
set  it  on  the  fire  in  a  little  more  cold  water  than  will  cover  ' 


exactly  as  if  there  were  no  deception  in  the  matter.  It 
will  help  you  greatly,  if  you  can  add  and  mix  with  your 
ingredients  a  little  lobster-roe  previously  bruised  in  a 
mortar.  This,  if  you  have  it,  can  be  spared  without  loss, 
or  even  suspicion  of  loss,  from  a  lobster  salad  or  a 
Mayonnaise.  Moreover,  having  a  lobster,  you  can  boil 
the  shells,  as  above  directed,  and  use  the  liquor  to  make 
your  sauce.  Finally,  throw  in  your  disguised  turbot  or 
sole  ;  heat  and  ser\'e. 

These  little  economies,  like  the  turbot  patties  just 
indicated,  cannot  be  justly  sneered  at  as  '"leavings;" 
they  are  merely  the  employment  of  extra  supplies  which, 
in  any  case,  must  have  a  previous  cooking. 

Salmon  Steaks  are  cut,  about  an  inch  thick,  out  of  the 
middle  or  tail-end  of  the  fish.  Dry  them  between  the 
folds  of  a  napkin,  dust  with  flour,  fry  with  care  that  they 
do  not  stick  to  the  pan  ;  or  broil  over  a  clear  and  gentle 
fire,  wrapped  in  oiled  or  buttered  paper.  Serve  with 
mustard  sauce,  if  any ;  or  with  a  lemon  to  squeeze  over 
them. 

Kippered  Salmoti  salted,  smoked,  and  dried,  is  cut  into 
slices,  and  little  more  than  warmed  through,  in  the  oven 
or  before  the  fire,  like  red  herring.  Use  mustard  sauce,  if 
any,  but  none  is  needed. 

The  Great  Lake  Trout  and  Salmon  Trout  are  treated 
exactly  in  the  same  way  as  salmon.  The  latter,  however, 
especially,  is  a  more  delicate  and  tender-fleshed  fish,  and 
requires  less  time  (for  equal  weights)  to  cook,  than  salmon. 

River  Trout  are  still  more  delicate.  Small  ones  may 
be  fried  or  broiled.  Boil  the  finer  specimens  in  salt  and 
water,  acidulated  while  still  cold   with  a  little   vinegar, 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


325 


thrown  in  when  it  is  on  the  point  of  boiling  ;  they  are  soon  ! 

done    (from   five   to  ten    minutes),    and  require    careful  ' 

watching  and  tender  hr.ndling.  ; 

Potted  Trout  {C/iarr)  is  often  merely  a  proof  that  the  ; 

Ereparer  has  learnt  tlie  art    of  embalming  ;  and  that  the  ' 
odies  of  trout,  like  those  of  men,  may  be  kept  for  indefinite 
periods,  and  transported  to  unlimited  distances.     What 
they  taste  of.  besides  spice,   at  their  journey's  end,  we 
should  be  sorely  puzzled  to  decide. 


ANIMALS    KEPT    FOR   PLEASURE  AND 
PROFIT.— THE  HORSE. 

ENGLISH   HORSES. 

Having  noticed,  in  our  previous  article,  those  breeds 
from  which  the  English  horse  appears  to  be  derived,  we 
come  next  to  the  consideration  of  species  into  which  the 
genus  is  divided,  and  to  show  the  great  adaptability  of 
the  English  horse  particularly,  for  the  duties  which  he 
has  to  perform.  There  are  many  kinds  of  horses  in  this 
country,  not  only  suited  to  us,  but  unsuited  to  others, 
inasmuch  as  there  is  nowhere  else  exactly  the  same  call 
for  his  services.  And  this  adaptation  of  the  animal  to 
peculiar  wants  and  neces- 
sities proves  the  capability 
of  the  horse,  his  dependence 
upon  structure  and  breeding 
for  his  powers,  and  the  care 
and  consideration  which 
have  been  given  to  the 
subject  in  England. 

The  Cart-horse. — In  tlie 
Introduction  we  hardly 
mentioned  the  agricultural 
horse  with  the  honour 
which  belongs  to  him,  for 
we  ought  to  have  informed 
the  reader,  when  speaking 
of  indigenous  breeds,  that 
one  of  the  earliest  known 
kinds — known  before  any 
proper  records  of  the  horse 

exist — is  our  English  cart-horse.  He  was  no  beauty  ; 
there  was  but  little  external  grace  to  recommend  him  ; 
but,  like  other  ill-favoured  animals,  he  had  some  sterling 
qualities  in  his  favour.  So  we  crossed  him  with  the  Flemish, 
and  even  with  something  in  Suffolk  which  produced  what 
we  call  the  Suffolk  Punch.  An  improved  sort  from  the 
original  arose  later,  and  we  believe  rather  repudiates  all 
connection  with  the  drooping  quarters  and  fiddle-case 
head  of  the  English  cart-horse. 

The  Lincolnshire  and  Clydesdale  are  also  two  kinds,  one 
of  which  is  known,  or  was  known,  to  us  as  the  London 
Dray  Horse,  and  the  other  as  the  handsome,  active,  and 
powerful  cart-horse  used  in  the  lowlands  of  Scotland. 
It  docs  not  clearly  appear  from  any  writer  what  are  the 
absolute  crosses  which  go  to  furnish  these  remarkably  fine 
specimens  of  the  agricultural  horse,  but  it  is  always  ad- 
mitted that  the  Norman  blood  is  the  great  ingredient 
which,  combining  with  the  Flemish  and  English,  pro- 
duced the  antitype  of  those  magnificent  horses  for  which 
Suffolk,  Lincolnshire,  and  Yorkshire  have  made  us  famous. 
There  is  indeed  another  class,  called  the  Cleveland,  equally 
doubtful  in  origin,  which  is  of  a  lighter  kind,  resembling  a 
powerful  coach-horse.  If  this  has  been  crossed,  as  doubt- 
less it  has,  with  the  heavier  cart-horse,  the  result  would  be 
a  combination  of  power  and  activity  of  considerable  value 
to  the  farmer. 

Lighter  Horses,  and  their  Adaptability  to  our  Pursuits. — 
Wc  have  said  that  the  adaptability  of  the  English  horse  to 
our  various  uses  was  somewhat  remarkable.  Until  lately, 
the  racehorse  has  been  wanted  nowhere  else  but  in  this 


country.  Our  taste  for  him  has  become  catching,  as  coh 
tagious  as  the  scarlet  fever,  and  perhaps  equally  dangerous. 
When  our  talents  produced  him,  it  was  because  our  neces- 
sities cailed  aloud  for  the  propagation  of  qualities  some- 
what meet  to  be  combined  with  our  own. 

The  Racehorse,  all  over  the  world,  is  an  English  horse 
now,  for  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  best  Arabs  can  compete 
with  him  ;  and  France,  Germany,  America,  and  Australia 
have  bought  and  borrowed  him  from  us. 

The  High-class  Hunter  is  bred  nowhere  but  in  this 
country,  save  by  accident,  because  his  qualities,  as  we 
shall  learn  by-and-by,  are  fitted  only  for  that  especial 
purpose ;  while 

The  Poor  Man's  Hunter  would  be  despised  anywhere 
but  in  merry  England,  where  he  provides  health  and 
cheerful  and  innocent  amusement  for  a  very  large  class 
of  people. 

These  are  mere  instances  of  that  care  and  talent  which 
produce  just  what  we  require  for  our  own  use.  The  Hack, 
the  Harness  Horse,  the  Charger,  and  the  Farmer'' s  Horse, 
be  they  of  what  class  they  may,  are  universal  necessities. 
Every  country  on  which  the  blessings  of  civilisation  or 
the  dangers  of  war  have  alighted  requires  such  horses  as 
these,  and  it  has  them  ;    and,   as   we   advance  in  th'o 

important  subject,  we  shall 
generally  see  that  the  genius 
of  the  people  has  achieved 
a  victory  over  difficulties. 

STRUCTURE     OF     THE 
HORSE. 

No  man  can  know  much 
about  the  horse,  or  how  to 
buy  him,  without  studying 
his  structure  or  external 
form,  as  distinct  from  his- 
anatomy.  Our  present  ob- 
ject is  to  give  the  reader  a 
general  knowledge  of  the 
shape  of  the  horse  in  his 
best  and  most  conspicuous 
I.  points.       In     speaking    of 

him  in  detail  we  shall  be 
able  to  state  those  which  are  the  most  essential  for  each 
particular  class,  and  which  may  be  best  dispensed  with. 
It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  find  them  all  perfect  in  one 
subject ;  and  even  then  he  might  not  come  up  to  our 
standard,  unless  his  moral  structure,  his  courage,  docility, 
and  freedom  from  disease  coincided  with  his  physical 
excellence. 

His  Head  should  be  broad  in  the  forehead,  but  not  large 
between  the  eyes  ;  the  proportion  of  one  part  to  another 
is,  however,  of  most  consequence,  and  the  expression  of 
face,  which  may  be  easily  caught  by  practice.  The  eye 
should  be  large  and  prominent,  which  is  characteristic  of 
high  breeding  and  generosity.  The  nostril  should  be 
large,  and  after  exercise  expansive,  this  is  usually  a  sign 
of  fine  wind,  though  not  necessarily  so,  as  the  internal 
structure  may  be  equal  to  the  highest  exertion  without 
this  conformation.  The  muzzle  should  be  fine,  and  the 
jaws  open,  or  wide,  as  on  this  depends  the  way  in  which 
he  may  be  taught  to  carry  his  head.  We  leave  the  teeth 
for  the  present. 

The  Neck  should  be  of  moderate  length,  and  much 
longer  over  the  crest  than  below.  At  a  cursory  glance, 
this  will  give  evidence  of  a  well-placed  shoulder.  Horses 
with  lofig  thin  necks  are  not  generally  very  good-winded, 
and  frequently  require  to  be  steadied  by  a  martingale, 
or  some  such  d-evice,  of  which  we  shall  speak  later. 
The  mane  should  be  thin  and  fine  :  curliness  and  thick- 
ness denote  want  of  breeding. 

The  Shoulders  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  judge  of 
by  sight.      High   withers — i.e.,   the   upper   point    of   the 


326 


ANIMALS    KEPT   FOR   PLEASURE   AND    PROFIT. 


shoulders  where  they  meet,  are  not  a  requisite.  They 
sometimes  are  caused  by  the  falling  away  of  the  muscles 
— a  common  fault  in  old  horses  ;  and  they  are  apt  to  be 
galled  by  the  saddle.  The  shoulders  must  be  oblique, 
running  into  the  back,  and  should  be  well  clothed  with 
muscle,  which  will  help  to  carry  the  saddle  well.  Without 
good  shoulders  no  horse  can  be  a  really  good  goer,  and 
they  are  less  able  to  recover  themselves  when  they  make 
a  mistake.  It  was  said  formerly  that  the  late  Lord  Ches- 
terfield was  almost  the  only  infallible  judge  of  good  shoul- 
ders without  mounting.  Look  well  to  this  point  ;  it  is 
most  essential,  and  requires  great  practice.  When  the 
shoulder  is  upright  instead  of  oblique,  the  horse  may 
go  high,  but  he  is  sure  to  go  short ;  and  he  usually  puts 
his  foot  down  on  his  toe  instead  of  on  his  heel. 

The  Chest  and  the  parts  behind  it  are  also  of  great 
importance,  for  they  contain  the  organs  of  respiration. 
It,  should  be  round  and  of  fair  proportions  ;  if  it  is  not 
so  the  horse  is  seldom  of  a  very  good  constitution.  A 
very  broad  chest  is,  however,  an  obstacle  to  great  pace, 
and  not  therefore  desirable  in  horses  sought  for  very 
fast  work,  as  the  racer  or  high-class  hunter.  We  shall 
'  noti-ce  the  modification  of  these  rules  elsewhere.  For 
tho  general  form  of  the  horse,  the  eye  of  the  person  who 
wishes  to  judge  should  accustom  itself  to  a  fair  capacity 
of  chest  as  conducive  to  health  and  endurance.  This 
should  be  looked  for  chiefly  in  depth  of  girth,  so  that 
standing  sidewise  the  legs  shall  appear  to  be  short,  and 
the  body  near  the  ground. 

The  Back  should  be  short ;  that  is  to  say,  there  should 
be  room  for  a  good-sized  saddle,  and  not  much  more,  from 
the  withers  to  within  a  couple  of  inches  of  the  hips. 
The  rule  which  requires  shortness  above  and  length  below 
is  here  again  the  correct  one.  It  should  flow  from  behind 
the  shoulders  with  a  graceful  curve  or  segment  of  a  circle, 
and  whatever  length  there  may  be  along  the  back  should 
be  found  in  the  obliquity  of  the  shoulder-blade  and  the 
quarters.  The  shape  of  the  back  depends  upon  the 
muscles  with  which  it  is  clothed  ;  and  later  we  shall 
endeavour  to  explain  the  difference  between  condition  and 
the  want  of  it,  in  furnishing  the  parts  of  the  horse  with 
the  roundness  the  eye  so  much  admires.  At  present  we 
only  desire  to  give  the  conformation  of  a  well-shaped 
horse  for  general  purposes.  Although  we  have  given  a 
sketch  of  the  horse  having  for  its  basis  a  perfect  square, 
it  will  be  well  to  remark  that  fast  horses  measure  usually 
a  little  more  in  length  than  they  do  in  height,  and  that 
the  perfect  square  is  only  adapted  to  the  cob-shaped 
animal. 

The  Hind-quarters,  to  look  at,  should  be  round  and 
muscular  ;  but  for  work  the  roundness  may  be  less  neces- 
sary if  the  muscularity  be  well  developed.  Broad,  and 
what  are  known  as  ragged.,  hips  denote  freedom  and 
strength^  especially  if  there  be  plenty  of  length  from 
them  to  the  outside  of  the  upper  thighs.  The  best  way 
to,  judge  of  quarters,  if  they  look  well  generally,  is  to 
stand  behind  the  horse,  and  see  that  they  come  close 
down  together  some  distance  below  the  root  of  the  tail 
on  the  inside  of  the  upper  thighs.  To  be  slack  here,  and 
devoid  of  substance  or  muscle,  is  to  be  "  split  up  behind," 
a  common  enough  expression  in  horse-dealing,  describing 
a  fault  never  to  be  overlooked.  Your  horse  should  also  look 
broad  from  this  point  of  view  on  the  outside ;  and  the 
muscles,  both  of  the  upper  and  lower  thighs,  should  stand 
out  like  the  muscles  of  a  blacksmith's  arm  when  in  motion. 
The  tail  should  be  set  on  high,  and  should  be  carried 
handsomely,  though  we  shall  show  by-and-by  that  a 
drooping  quarter  is  frequently  characteristic  of  weight- 
carrying  and  jumping,  the  hocks  being  then  usually  well 
under  the  horse. 

_  Fore  Legs. — The  value  must  be  known  to  be  appre- 
ciated. Beginning  from  the  chest  they  should  appear  to 
■be  placed  forward  enough  to  give  substantial  firmness  to  | 


the  body  when  mounted.  If  they  spring  from  the  back 
part  of  the  shoulder,  the  horse  is  liable  to  fall.  The  part 
of  the  leg  called  the  "elbow"  is  that  which  is  nearest  to 
the  girth  ;  and  if  that  bone  be  turned  inwards  so  as  to 
leave  little  or  no  room  between  it  and  the  fore-ribs,  it  will 
interfere  with  the  action.  This  may  be  discovered  at  first 
sight  by  the  toes  turning  out.  The  opposite  conformation 
of  course  turns  them  in.  The  fore-arm  (/>.,  from  the  elbow 
to  the  knee)  should  be  long  and  muscular ;  the  knee  large 
and  flat,  but  not  receding — a  form  which  has  received 
the  name  of"  calf-kneed,"  from  its  similarity  to  that  of  the 
calf.  The  bone  which  descends  from  the  knee  to  the 
fetlock,  is  called  the  cannon-bone  ;  it  should  be  flat,  free 
from  wounds  and  lumps,  and  the  sinews,  the  largest  of 
which  is  called  the  "  suspensory  ligament,"  must  be  clean 
and  separately  sensible  to  the  touch,  like  strong  cat-gut  or 
wire.  The  fetlock  itself  should  be  clean  and  of  moderate 
size,  and  the  pastern,  which  extend  to  the  foot,  should 
not  be  upright,  as  the  action  will  then  want  elasticity ; 
whereas,  on  the  other  hand,  should  it  be  too  slanting  or 
oblique,  there  will  be  a  corresponding  liability  to  weakness. 
This  is  rarely  the  case  with  half-bred  horses. 

The  Foot  is  of  so  much  importance,  that  when  we  come 
to  speak  of  shoeing  we  shall  have  occasion  to  go  further 
into  this  than  would  be  consonant  with  our  present  cursory 
view  of  external  form.  Almost  every  writer  of  note  has 
his  views  on  the  subject ;  and  the  best  authorities  are 
Mr.  Mills  and  Professor  Spooner.  No  amateur  can 
detect  disease  at  sight,  unless  the  case  be  a  very  glaring 
one.  When  any  suspicion  exists,  we  recommend  pro- 
fessional assistance  for  that  member  (as  well  as  for  the 
eye)  ;  it  should  stand  out  from  the  pastern  straight,  and 
both  feet  should  appear  to  the  eye  equal ;  in  measurement 
they  should  be  so  ;  it  is  said  the  foot  should  stand  at 
half  a  right  angle  with  the  base,  in  this  case,  the  sole. 
The  sole  of  the  foot  should  be  slightly  concave.  The 
names  of  the  parts  most  commonly  alluded  to  are  the  toes  ; 
the  heels ;  the  quarters,  which  are  the  parts  between  the 
toe  and  the  heel ;  the  bars,  which  meet  in  an  angle  on  the 
sole,  having  the  heel  for  their  base  ;  and  the  frog,  a  ragged 
and  elastic  substance  between  the  heels.  These  have  all 
their  Hses,  which  will  be  explained  at  the  proper  place. 
At  present,  sufficient  has  been  said  for  an  unprofes- 
sional inspection;  "No  foot,  no  horse,"  is  the  horseman's 
proverb. 

Hind  Legs. — What  we  have  to  say  here  is  soon  said. 
We  have  already  mentioned  the  necessity  of  muscular 
power  in  the  thighs.  They  should  also  have  considerable 
length,  which  is  described  in  horse-dealer's  language  as 
"  hocks  down  to  the  ground."  The  hocks  themselves  are 
most  important,  as  the  propellers  of  the  body.  They 
should  be  broad  to  look  at  sidewise,  but  narrow  and  clean 
to  stand  behind,  like  a  couple  of  boards.  They  are  the 
seat  of  disease  and  infirmity  which  will  be  explained  here- 
after. The  hind  cannon-bone  is  subject  to  the  same 
remarks  as  the  fore  ;  and  is  more  frequently  passed  by 
with  less  examination,  because  it  is  presumed  to  be  less 
liable  to  damage.  The  belly  meets  the  stifle  at  the 
bottom  of  the  back  ribs,  which  should  be  long,  and  tolerably 
close  up  to  the  hips  and  quarters,  especially  in  horses 
required  to  carry  weight. 

Height,  Colour,  and  Age. — We  are  now  to  give  you  the 
average  height  of  the  horse,  which  we  may  put  ior general 
utihty  at  fifteen  hands  two  inches,  equalling  sixty-two 
inches,  or  five  feet  two  inches.  The  ordinary  height  of 
horses  is  below  this  ;  but  they  are  called  small  by  the 
dealers,  and  would  not  meet  the  demand  for  saddle,  har- 
ness, or  hunting,  so  generally.  Most  racehorses,  as  well 
as  hunters,  are  above  it  ;  carriage-horses  nmch  in  excess 
of  it ;  and  hacks  considerably  below  it.  For  comfort  in 
the  latter  capacity  commend  us  to  fourteen  hands  two 
inches;  while  for  a  hunter  in  such  a  county  as  Northamp- 
tonshire, where  the  fences  want  looking  over,  we  prefer,  at 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


327 


least,  an  inch  or  two  more.  But  we  like  the  height  to  be 
in  the  body  and  not  in  the  legs. 

"  A  good  horse,"  says  somebody,  "  can  never  be  of  bad 
colour."  We  differ  from  this  gentleman,  whoever  he  may 
be,  and  so  does  our  groom.  Some  colours  are  proverbially 
hardy,  others  soft  ;  and  unless  a  white  or  light  grey  be 
very  cleanly  in  his  person  he  gives  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
in  the  stable. 

Bay  horses  with  black  legs  or  points — as  they  are 
sometimes  called — are  generally  good,  and  when  bright, 
very  handsome. 

A  good  brown  with  a  tan  muzzle  is  regarded  as  cha- 
racteristic of  constitution  ;  and  a  dark  rich  chestnut  is  the 
handsomest  of  all.  A  golden  chestnut  is  a  good  colour, 
indicative,  some  say,  of  pace  ;  but  they  are  frequently  hot 
and  skittish  ;  and  a  pale,  washy  chestnut  is  said  to  show 
want  of  stamina.  Of  greys,  \.\\&Jlea-bitten  and  the  mottled 
are  the  handsomest,  and  usually  considered  the  best ;  as 
they  approach  white  they  are  apt  to  stain  in  the  dirt  of 
the  stable,  and  require  much  soft'  soap  and  water  and 
what  is  commonly  known  as  "elbow  grease"  to  keep  them 
clean.  Iron-grey  is  less  common,  and  we  have  known  one 
or  two  hardy  horses  of  that  colour ;  and  blacks,  excepting 
as  chargers,  cavalry  horses,  or  in  mourning  coaches,  are 
not  popular. 

Roans  are  considered  to  be  as  a  rule  very  hardy ;  we 
have  seldom  seen  a  bad  one,  but  they  are  not  usually 
remarkable  for  breeding  or  quality.  The  texture  of  the 
skin  is  a  more  valuable  test  than  colour  ;  it  should  be 
soft,  smooth,  silky,  and  is  indicative  of  health  and  condi- 
tion. The  swelling  of  the  veins  in  exercise  is  another 
sign  of  the  same  thing,  and,  moreover,  furnishes  some 
proof  of  a  ready  circulation. 

Having  given  these  instructions  for  an  investigation  of  the 
general  appearance  of  the  horse,  we  add  a  sketch  ori  the 
ba^is  of  the  square  as  we  proposed  doing,    (See  page  325.) 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 

V. — ARABLE    HUSBANDRY   {continued). 

Farmyard  Manure,  made  under  covered  homesteads 
and  feeding-boxes,  proves  to  be  of  more  value  than  that 
made  in  open  yards  and  dunghills  ;  and  if  this  is  true  of 
large  farms,  it  is  still  more  so  in  the  case  of  small  farms, 
of  from  one  to  twenty  acres,  where  the  lesser  quantities 
of  manure  daily  added  are  more  exposed  to  the  wasting 
influence  of  the  weather.  Most  cottage  farmers  have  a 
pit,  which  keeps  the  manure  together  at  the  sides,  but  the 
surface  is  exposed  to  sun  and  rain,  like  that  in  the  open 
yards  of  the  large  farmers.  To  gain  the  full  advantage  of 
it  covered  homestead  the  cottager's  dung-pit  should  be 
roofed  over.  Into  this  pit  the  daily  cleanings  of  the  stable, 
cow-house,  and  piggeries  should  be  well  mixed  together, 
and  deodorised  with  dry  earth,  rough  salt,  and  the  ashes 
from  the  cottage.  The  manure-pit  in  most  cases  may  be 
so  contrived  that  the  liquid  from  the  stable— if  there  is 
one — cow-house,  or  piggery,  may  flow  into  it.  But  the 
more  advisable  plan  is  to  use  up  the  liquid  with  dry 
earth,  and  then  to  spread  the  wet  earth  over  the  pit.  We 
have  seen  both  the  solid  and  liquid  droppings  of  the 
stable,  cowhouse — one  horse  and  two  cows — and  piggery 
thus  deodorised  and  removed  to  the  dung-pit  at  least 
twice  every  day  ;  and  the  advantage  of  the  plan  told 
successfully  in  the  increased  produce  of  hay,  com,  forage, 
and  root  crops  grown  by  the  cottager.  The  wet  earth 
from  the  "  cottage  commode  "  should  also  be  added  to  the 
manure  in  the  pit  daily.  If  there  is  a  liquid-manure  tank 
— as  there  always  should  be— the  slops  from  the  cottage 
may  flow  into  it,  the  pipes  being  flushed  daily  with  a 
pailful  of  water,  to  keep  all  clean,  and  avoid  stagnation 
and  sewage  gases. 

The  Liquid  Manure  Carts  and  Barrows  of  the  cottage 


farmers  of  the  Continent  are  generally  on  the  old  swing- 
barrel  plan,  more  common  in  large  gardens  than  on  small 
farms  in  Britain.  But  the  old  wooden  barrel,  whether 
swung  on  two  pivots,  or  placed  horizontally  between  two 
shafts,  with  the  bung-hole  uppermost,  is  fast  being  super- 
seded by  galvanised  iron  ones,  of  vastly-improved  con- 
struction. 

The  old  practice  of  applying  small  doses  of  farm  sewage 
on  the  principle  of  the  watering-pan,  has  also  been  given 
up  in  the  case  of  cultivated  crops,  as  in  that  of  pasture  ; 
but  the  application  of  100  tons  of  water,  to  wash  in  arti 
ficial  manure  and  supply  moisture  to  the  roots  of  forage 
plants  at  the  same  time  and  of  lesser  quantities,  applied 
by  water-drills  or  by  hand,  are  fast  coming  into  general 
use  as  improvements ;  and,  therefore,  cottage  farmers 
who  have  not  water  laid  on  to  their  fields  by  pipes  and 
hydrants,  should  have  each  his  water-barrow  or  can.  A 
pony  swing-cart  is  often  used  for  unlevel  land,  in  which 
case,  by  means  of  a  perforated  hose,  screwed  on  to  tlie 
discharge-pipe,  and  lying  on  the  ground,  or  by  discharging 
the  water  into  a  long  shallow  or  perforated  trough,  water 
could  be  apphed  at  the  rate  of  100  tons  per  acre,  about 
141  gallons  per  pole  of  30^  square  yards  (see  tables) ;  and 
by  screwing  on  a  vulcanised  india-rubber  hose,  terminating 
in  one  or  two  legs,  water  could  be  applied  to  one  or  two 
drills,  either  continuously  or  on  the  principle  of  the  drop 
water-drill.  A  larger  water-cart,  supported  by  three 
wheels,  is  sometimes  used.  It  is  made  for  comparatively 
level  work,  but  can  be  made  suitable  for  unlevel  land. 

The  following  three  tables  will  enable  the  cottager  to 
calculate  the  number  of  plants  grown  per  acre,  and  the 
weight  and.  measure  of  water  required  to  water  them : — '■ 

Table  I. 

CUBIC  MEASURE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  WATER. 


Cubic  Inch. 

Ounce. 

Pound. 

Stone. 

Qr. 

Cwt. 

Ton. 

17329 

I 

277274 

16 

I 

388  1836 

224 

14 

I 

776-3672 

448 

28 

2 

I 

3105-4688 

1792 

,     112 

8 

4 

I 

62109376 

35840 

2240 

160 

80 

20 

I 

Table  II. 

WEIGHT  AND  CUBIC  CAPACITY  OF  LIQUID  MEASURES. 


rgiU 

5    oz. 

8 -6648  cub.  in- 

I  pint 

li  lbs. 

34'6592      M 

I  quart 

2i     » 

69-31^5      " 

I  gallon 

10       „ 

277-274      » 

6cal.  iqt 

62J    „ 

1728      „ 

I  cub.ft. 

1 1  -2  gaL 

I    cwt 

3105-4688      „ 

178      „ 

168-3  „ 

15           M 

46656      „ 

27      „ 

224     „ 

I    ton 

62109-376      „ 

35  84      ., 

Tabls  III. 

NUMBER  OF  SQUARE  AREAS   IN  AN   .\CRE  OF   L.\ND. 


sq. inch. 


144 

1296 

39204 

I 568 I 60 

6272640 


1  sq.  foot. 


4 

36 

1089 

43560 

174240 


I  sq.  foot. 


9 

272J 
10S90 
43560 


li  sq.ft. 


4 
121 

4840 
19360 


sq.  yd. 


I 

30!^ 
I2IO 
4840 


s.pole.  sq.  rd    acre. 


I 
40 
160 


The  county  customs  relative  to  manure,  at  the  expiry 
and  commencement  of  leases,  are  very  diflerent.  In  some 
counties,  the  incoming  tenant  gets  the  manure  left  by  his 
predecessor,  without  payment ;  in  other  counties,  he  has 
to  pay  for  all  the  manure  he  receives,  and  also  for  the 


328 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 


unexhausted  manure  in  the  land.  The  custom  in  every 
place  requires  to  be  carefully  attended  to,  both  at  the 
commencement  and  expiry  of  the  lease  ;  the  more  advis- 
able course  being  to  have  the  "  tenant  right,"  as  it  is 
technically  termed,  expressed  in  writing. 

Liquid  Manure  Tanks  on  the  old  plan  were  generally 
circular,  resembling  a  pump.  The  more  recent  ones  are 
oblong.  Those  of  the  small  cottage  farmers  of  the  Conti- 
nent, who  farm  from  one  and  a  half  to  five  acres,  and  up- 
wards, are  mostly  oblong,  and  divided  into  three  or  more 
compartments  (generally  five)  by  subdivision  walls.  This 
is  done  purposely  to  enable  the  cottager  to  temper  the 
liquid,  by  allowing  the  artificial  materials  added  to  un- 
dergo fermentation  in  one  compartment  while  another  is 
being  emptied  and  a  third  filled,  so  that  by  such  means  he 
can  adapt  the  supply  to  the  manurial  requirements  of  his 
different  crops.  The  more  advanced  plan,  however,  is  to 
mix  the  arti- 
ficial manures 
required,  at 
-the  time  of  ap- 
plication to  the 
land,  or  else  to 
spread  them 
over  the  land, 
and  wash  them 
in,  so  that  sub- 
division tanks 
are  unneces- 
sary ;  but  a 
much  larger 
per  centage  of 
water  is  now 
being  used 
than  in  Flan- 
ders and  other 
places  of  the 
Continent,  so  ^^^ 
that,  unless 
where  there  is 
a  command  of 
river,  pond,  or 
pump  water, 
or  town  sew- 
age, larger 
tanks  will  be 
required  in 
which  to  store 
rain  water  for 
summer     use. 

The  expense  of  a  tank  depends  much  upon  the  position. 
It  is  built  and  arched  over  with  stone  or  brick  set  in  cement 
(technically  "  steined  "),  plastered  inside  and  puddled  out- 
side the  mason-work  with  tempered  clay,  v/hen  requisite. 
Those  made  are  quoted  to  have  cost  from  los.  to  14s.  per 
cubic  yard  of  liquid,  or  per  contents  of  i68"3  gallons.  A 
tank  6  feet  wide  and  30  feet  long,  by  6  feet  deep,  would 
contain  40  cubic  yards  =  6,730  gallons,  and  would  cost 
;/^20  at  the  former  price,  and  ^28  at  the  latter.  One 
9  feet  wide  by  30  feet  long  and  9  feet  deep,  would  contain 
60  yards  =  10,098  gallons  =  2,799,360  cubic  inches,  or 
less  than  a  rainfall  of  an  inch  to  half  an  acre  when 
spread  evenly  over  the  whole  surface.  A  gallon  of  water 
weighs  10  lbs.  ;  a  cubic  foot  (6  gallons  i  quart),  62  J  lbs.  ; 
a  cubic  yard,  15  cwt.  7  lbs.  ;  60  cubic  yards,  45  tons  and 
rather  more.  Many  of  the  tanks  in  Flanders  have  a 
capacity  of  200  tons  and  upwards,  on  farms  not  exceeding 
5  acres.  It  is  usual  to  calculate  an  inch  of  rainfall  at  100 
tons  per  acre,  and  this  weight  is  necessary  to  wash  in 
from  3  to  4  cwt.  of  guano,  evenly  spread  over  an  acre  of 
Italian  rye-grass,  in  the  summer  season.  Liquid  manure 
and  seed  drop-drills  apply  from  200  to  500  gallons  per 
acre,  in  sowing   mangold-wurzel,  &c.  ;    watering   plants 


grown  in  rows  with  water-drills,  the  rows  being  27  inches 
apart,  from  1,000  to  2,000  gallons,  according  to  the  state 
of  the  land  ;  watering  newly-planted  cabbages,  and  the 
like,  by  hand,  requires  from  a  pint  to  a  quart  to  each  plant. 
The  number  of  plants  per  acre  will  be  given  under  the 
respective  crops.  At  present  we  are  discussing  the  size 
of  the  tank  and  the  quantity  of  water  required  per  acre, 
so  that  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say  that  from  6,000  to  50,000 
pints  or  quarts  will  be  required  to  water  an  acre  of  cab- 
bages or  Belgian  carrots,  &c.,  by  hand,  and  half  that 
quantity  for  half  an  acre.  Some  advocate  the  keeping  of 
the  farm  sewage  in  one  tank,  on  the  Flemish  plan,  and 
the  rain  water  in  another  ;  and  the  mixing  the  former 
with  the  latter  at  the  time  of  application  ;  and  this  plan 
has  several  things  to  commend  it,  as  the  water-tank  can 
be  filled  full  in  rainy  weather,  without  loss  from  overflow- 
ing;  whereas,  the  sewage  tank  must  never  be  allowed -to 

overflow.  The 
urine  from  a 
milch  cow  has 
been  variously 
estimated  by 
experiment  at 
from  two  to 
seven  gallons 
daily,  a  horse 
one-third,  and 
a  pig  one- 
seventh  this 
quantity.  The 
slops  from  the 
cottage  can 
easily  be  ap- 
proximated by 
measurement 
during  a  day 
or  two,  in  a 
similar  way,  so 
as  to  estimate 
the  size  of  the 
tank  required 
to  -  hold  the 
farm  sewage  of 
the  cottage, 
when  thus  col- 
lected separa- 
tely. A  porta- 
ble pump,  with 
a  ■  vulcanised 
India  -  rubber 
hose,  as  shown  at  work  (Fig.  i),  would  serve  both  tanks, 
and  the  water  and  sewage  could  both  be  pumped  up  into 
a  cistern,  first  the  one  and  then  the  other,  for  being  sent 
to  the  field  through  pipes  by  gravitation,  in  a  mixed 
state  ;  or  the  water  and  sewage  could  be  pumped  up  into 
a  water-barrow  or  cart,  so  much  of  each,  when  wheeled  or 
carted  on  the  field  ;  or  they  could  be  wheeled  or  carted 
separately,  should  crops  so  require  it.  Our  illustration  is 
from  an  improved  double  action  force  pump,  the  working 
parts  of  which  are  few  and  simple,  and  in  the  event  of 
accidents  can  be  readily  and  quickly  repaired. 

Succession  of  Crops. — Few  subjects  have  given  rise  to  a 
greater  diversity  of  opinion  than  the  best  mode  of  cropping 
land.  Some  even  argue  that  if  land  is  properly  cultivated 
and  manured,  it  will  continue  to  grow  wheat  or  any  other 
crop,  year  after  year  in  succession,  for  an  indefinite  period ; 
and  the  argument  is  supported  by  actual  experiments,  ex- 
tending over  a  long  series  of  years.  Such  examples,  how- 
ever, when  closely  examined,  are  isolated  and  exceptional 
in  character,  and  wanting  in  many  respects  to  be  of 
general  application.  They  prove  much  in  the  progress 
recently  made  in  the  manufacture  and  use  of  artificial 
manures — as  will  subsequently  be  shown  when  we  come 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


329 


to  treat  of  specific  manures — but  they  do  not  disprove 
the  soundness  of  the  alternate  system  of  cropping.  If 
the  cottager  is  a  freeholder  or  copyholder,  he  will  be  at 
liberty  to  adopt  any  system  of  cropping  he  may  judge 
best,  and  to  make  such  changes  in  the  rotation  as  future 
improvements  may  suggest  ;  but  if  he  is  a  tenant,  the 
mode  of  cropping  is  a  matter  of  special  agreement  with 
his  landlord.  A  written  lease  for  a  term  of  years,  extend- 
ing over  four  or  five  rotations  of  the  farm,  renewable  one 
rotation  before  expiry,  is  now  generally  considered  ad- 
visable both  for  landlord  and  tenant,  but  many  tenants 
prefer  yearly  tenancy.  The  common  period  for  farm 
leases  is  seven,  fourteen,  or  twenty-one  years.  Should  a 
lease  be  allowed  to  run  out,  and  the  tenant  remain  in 
occupation  from  year  to  year,  the  conditions  of  the  expired 
lease  as  to  cropping  will  (by  law)  still  remain  in  force. 
Should  a  tenant  have  no  lease  or  written  agreement  as  to 
crops,  he  will  be  considered  to  be  bound  by  the  custom 
of  the  district  in  which  the  farm  is  situated.  And  whether 
he  has  or  has  not  an  agreement,  if,  at  the  expiration  of 
his  occupation,  the  farm  is  found  to  be  depreciated  in 
value,  he  will  be  liable  to  an  action  for  "  dilapidations." 
In  either  case,  the  stipulation  for  cropping  should  be 
liberal,  and  carefully  drawn  up,  suitable  provision  being 
made  for  change  with  consent  of  the  landlord,  so  as  to 
enable  the  tenant  to  profit  by  improvements  made  during 
the  currency  of  his  lease.  And  such  changes  are  as 
necessary  for  the  landlord  as  the  tenant,  for  unless  the 
productive  resources  of  the  land  are  developed  during  the 
currency  of  the  lease,  th^  landowner  cannot  gain  their 
full  benefit  at  its  close.  An  extension  of  the  four  and  five 
course  shifts  of  cropping,  according  to  soil,  climate,  and 
crops  grown,  are  those  best  adapted  for  cottage  farms. 
The  following  four  examples  are  given  for  illustration  : — 

Example  I. 
Four  Course  Shift  of  Cropping.  —  I.   Potatoes,  mangolds,  and 
other  root  crops.     2.   White  com  crops — as  wheat,  barley,  and 
oats.     3.   Rye-grass    and    clover,    for    hay   and    green   forage. 
4-   White  corn  crops — as  wlieat,  &c. 

Example  IT. 
Five  Course  Shift  of  Cropping. — i.   Turnips,    potatoes,    and 
other  root  crops.     2.   White  com  crops — as  wheat,  barley,  and 
oats.     3.   Rye-grass   and   clover,  hay.      4,   Pasture.     5.   White 
corn — as  wheat  and  oats. 

Example  III. 
Six   Course   Shift   of  Cropping. — i.  Turnip  and  other  root 
crops.     2.   Wheat  or  barley.     3.   Rye-grass  and  clover,  for  hay 
and  soiling.     4.  Oats.     5.   Peas  or  beans,  manured.    6.  Wheat 

Example  IV. 
Sroen   Course  Shift  of  Cropping. — i.   Root  crops,    manural. 
2.   Barley  and  wheat.     3.    Rye-grass  and  clover,   for   hay  and 
soiling.     4.   Pasture.      5.  Oats.     6.   Peas  and  beans,  manured. 
7.    Wheat. 

These  may  be  given  as  general  rules,  but  they  must 
be  varied  to  suit  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Some  particular 
crops  are  only  adapted  to  "  light,"  others  to  "  stiff"  soils. 
On  extremely  "  light"  land,  admirably  adapted  for  the 
cultivation  of  turnips  and  barley,  beans  cannot  be  grown 
to  advantage ;  and  on  those  "  stiff"  soils,  which  produce 
the  finest  beans  and  wheat,  turnips,  mangold,  and  pota- 
toes do  not  succeed,  and  their  places  have  to  be  supplied 
by  vetches,  mustard,  and  other  green  crops.  On  "  stiff" 
land,  also,  the  practice  of  making  nciked  fallows  still 
prevails  in  many  districts.  This,  where  used,  would 
take  the  place  of  the  root  crop,  as  given  in  our  rules. 

The  third  example  is  a  modification  of  the  first,  and 
the  fourth  a  modification  of  the  second.  A  further 
modification  of  the  five  course  shift  is  to  allow  the  land 
under  grass  to  lie  two  and  three  years  in  pasture,  when 
it  is  termed  the  six  and  seven  course  ameliorating  shifts. 


It  is  easy  to  extend  the  four  course  shift  to  eight,  twelve 
or  sixteen.  Thus  : — i.  Potatoes  and  mangolds,  or  swedes, 
where  mangold-wurzel  cannot  be  grown  ;  2,  Barley ;  3, 
Rye-grass  and  clover  ;  4,  Wheat ;  5,  Turnips  ;  6,  Oats  ; 
7,  Beans  ;  8,  Wheat 

The  practice  of  allowing  the  land  to  lie  one,  two,  and 
three  years  in  pasture  (although  yet  common  in  some  places, 
under  the  mistaken  notion  that  any  other  would  exhaust 
and  ultimately  ruin  the  land)  is  not  well  adapted  for  pro- 
fitable cottage  farming,  the  pasture  for  the  most  part 
being  comparatively  worthless  for  milch  cows  in  the 
summer  time,  while  the  other  shifts  do  not  produce  a 
sufficient  supply  of  winter  food,  more  especially  in  the 
north,  where  the  winters  are  long.  Thus,  if  the  farm  con- 
sists of  seven  acres  under  the  above  seven  course  ameliorat- 
ing shift,  three  acres  would  be  under  pasture,  one  under 
hay,  one  turnips  and  potatoes,  and  only  two  acres  under 
white  com.  No  doubt  the  land  may  "  rest "  in  pasture;  but 
the  old  proverb  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  "  Milch  cows 
eat  with  two  mouths,"  and  that  what  they  consume  with 
their  feet  adds  little  to  the  pail.  Practically  "  rest "  means 
the  consolidation  of  the  land  with  what  cow-droppings 
and  refuse  vegetable  matter  it  may  receive,  and  as  this  can 
be  better  done  by  claying,  deepening,  and  manuring,  the 
more  advisable  course  is  to  improve  the  land  in  this  way, 
so  as  to  adapt  it  for  the  four  course  rotation  of  cropping, 
sufficiently  extended  to  meet  the  requirements  of  both  the 
land  and  the  cottager.  For  example,  according  to  the 
four  course  practice,  turnips,  barley,  grass,  and  oats, 
are  each  grown  upon  one  shift,  or  plot  of  land,  once 
in  four  years,  in  other  words,  there  are  three  free  years 
between  iridividual  crops ;  thus,  if  turnips  are  grown  upon 
plot  I  this  year,  then  three  intervening  crops  of  white 
corn  and  grass  are  grown  before  turnips  are  again  sown 
in  field  i,  and  so  on  for  the  other  crops.  Now,  under  an 
extended  four  course  shift,  there  may  be  seven,  eleven,  or 
fifteen  years  between  the  crops,  the  land  at  the  same  time 
being  kept  in  a  higher  state  of  fertility. 

In  situations  where  there  is  a  command  of  town  sewage 
or  river  water  for  irrigation,  Italian  rye  grass  may  be  pro- 
fitably grown  for  two  years  in  succession.  The  practice, 
therefore,  would  rank  under  a  modification  of  the  five 
course  shift.  But,  as  illustrated  under  Example  II.,  the 
different  crops  would  follow  each  other  too  closely  in 
succession;  consequently,  the  five  must  be  extended  to  a 
ten  course  shift.  If  for  easy  calculation  we  assume  the 
farm  to  consist  of  ten  acres,  in  five  two-acre  fields,  then 
two  acres  will  be  in  Italian  rye  grass,  one  acre  being 
broken  up  every  year  and  one  being  laid  down.  Each 
of  the  other  four  two-acre  fields  would  be  divided  into 
two  plots  of  one  acre  each,  so  cropped  as  to  keep  indi- 
vidual crops  sufficiently  far  asunder  so  as  to  prevent 
degeneracy.  And  this  is  one  of  the  most  promising 
modes  of  cropping  for  a  cottage  farm  of  a  few  acres 
of  land,  as  will  be  shown  when  we  come  to  treat  oi 
the  actual  quantities  of  produce  now  being  grown  pa 
acre  under  this  system  of  tanning. 

In  the  above  hypothetical  examples  the  land  has  beeft 
assumed  to  be  of  uniform  quality,  and  this  rule  generally 
applies  to  cottage  farms,  especially  those  of  the  smaller 
size.  There  are,  however,  exceptions,  where  part  of  the 
small  farm  only  is  good  land,  the  rest  being  of  inferior 
quality.  If  practicable,  the  bad  acres  should,  in  getting 
the  farm  into  a  proper  cropping  condition,  be  so  improved 
as  to  render  them  as  equally  productive  as  the  good.  But, 
when  this  cannot  be  done,  the  size  of  the  plots  on  the 
inferior  land  must  ba  inversely  as  their  quality,  compared 
with  the  others,  in  order  to  produce  an  equal  amount  of 
produce  for  the  support  of  the  milch-cows.  In  other 
words,  the  plots  of  the  inferior  land  must  be  so  much 
larger  than  those  of  the  good  land,  purposely  that  the 
former  may  grow  as  much  produce  yearly  as  the  latter, 
for  the  use  of  the  cottager  and  his  live  stock. 


330 


HOME  GARDENING. 


HOME  GARDENING.  I 

THE   VEGETABLE   GARDEN    {coiltmued).  j 

The  Broad  Bean.— The  use  of  this  much-esteemed  \ 
vegetable  is  well  known  to  every  one  who  has  a  spot  of ; 
ground  for  a  garden,  and  particularly  so  to  cottagers  and  { 
farmers  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  who  consider  a  good  ! 
dish  of  beans  and  bacon  a  very  substantial  meal  at  harvest  i 
time.  The  seeds  are  the  only  part  used,  and  very  delicious  ' 
they  are  when  gathered  young  and  from  good  sorts.  There 
are  several  varieties  of  the  bean,  but  the  principal  now 
planted  in  British  gardens  are  the  early  Mazagan,  one  of 
the  hardiest  and  best-flavoured  of  any  of  the  early  kind  ; 
Beck's  new  dwarf  green  ••em,  early  longpod, early  hangdown 
longpod,  early  green  longpod,  Marshall's  prolific,  broad 
Spanish,  and  broad  Windsor.  This  latter  variety  is  greatly 
esteemed  at  table,  and,  as  such, 
no  one  should  fail  to  put  in  a  row 
or  two  of  seed.  The  time  of  sow- 
ing or  planting  will  very  much 
depend  upon  the  time  at  which 
the  produce  is  required  ;  for  in- 
stance, the  earliest  crop,  whether 
early  Mazagan  or  anything  else, 
should  be  planted  from  the  be- 
ginning of  October  to  the  end  of 
December,  provided  the  weather  continues  open  and  mild, 
on  a  warm  border  with  a  southern  exposure.  These  plant 
in  rows,  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  asunder,  making 
each  drill  two  inches  deep,  and  placing  the  seed  not  nearer 
than  three  inches  to  each  other  in  the  rows.  It  is  a  very 
good  plan  to  sow  a  single  drill  very  thickly  urnier  a  south 
■wall,  in  order  that  it  may  be  protected  during  the  winter 
months,  and  when  spring  arrives  plant  them  out  in  rows. 
The  most  successful  method  is  to  sow  them  in  a  bed  of 
light  earth,  under  a  garden  frame  laid  sloping  a  little  to  the 
sun.  Plant  the  beans  all  over  the  bed,  an  inch  apart  in 
every  direction,  and  cover  them  about  two  inches  deep 
with  light  earth  ;  and  when  the  plants  are  well  up,  and 
frost  shows  signs  of  approaching,  cover  the  frame  down 
with  the  lights,  giving  plenty  of  fresh  air  whenever  the 
weather  will  permit  with  safety.  Transplant  them  in 
February  or  March,  provided  the  weather  proves  fine  and 
mild  ;  but  not  otherwise,  as  you  had  far  better  defer  the 
work  than  run  the  risk  of  losing  them.  In  taking  up  the 
beans,  case  the  earth  about  the  roots,  and  take  them  up 
with  as  much  soil  as  will  adhere  to  the  roots,  taking  off 
the  old  beans  at  the  bottom,  and  also  the  end  of  the 
tap  root.  By  this  previous 
protection,  the  crop  will  be 
accelerated  about  a  week  or 
Yen  days.  Although  the 
greatest  care  may  have  been 
taken  in  the  protection,  the 
crop  will  sometimes  be  de- 
stroyed by  very  severe  frosts.  This  being  the  case, 
we  recommend  our  readers  to  guard  against  such  a 
calamity  by  sowing  them  thickly  in  a  moderate  hot-bed 
in  January  or  February,  or  in  pots,  and  placing  them  in  a 
cucumber-frame,  and  afterwards  hardening  them  off  until 
they  are  fit  to  transplant  in  the  open  ground.  For  full 
and  general  crops,  begin  to  sow  about  the  latter  end  of 
January,  provided  the  weather  is  open  and  mild,  such 
varieties  as  the  longpod  and  broad  Spanish,  in  some  warm 
quarter  of  the  garden,  where  the  soil  is  light  and  mellow, 
and  the  exposure  open,  and  continue  planting  the  various 
sorts  until  May  or  even  June.  The  space  of  time  betv/een 
sowings  for  successional  crops  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered ;  that  is  to  say,  sow  the  following  or  successive 
crop  as  soon  as  the  preceding  one  makes  its  appearance 
above  ground,  but  not  before.  For  the  main  summer 
crops,  the  broad  Spanish,  longpod,  and  Windsor  are  con- 
sidered the  most  proper.     The  Windsor  is  considered  the 


best  flavoured,  but  not  so  good  a  bearer  as  the  others. 
For  late  crops,  to  come  in  about  September,  the  early 
kinds  are  most  proper,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  early 
Mazagan,  Beck's  new  dwarf  green  gem,  early  longpod, 
early  hangdown  longpod,  and  early  green  longpod,  as  they 
are  constituted  to  stand  late  as  well  as  early.  P"or  early 
crops,  one  pint  of  seed  will  be  required  for  every  forty  feet 
of  row  or  drill ;  and  for  main  crops,  a  quart  at  least  will 
be  needed  for  every  sixty  feet ;  while  for  late  crops,  the 
same  quantity  as  recommended  for  early  ones  will  be 
found  ample.  Plant  all  the  early  kinds,  both  for  early 
and  late  crops,  in  rows  two  feet  and  a  half  apart,  three  or 
four  inches  distant  from  each  other  in  the  rows,  and  two 
inches  deep  ;  and  the  larger  kinds  for  main  crops,  three 
feet  from  row  to  row,  five  or  six  inches  apart  in  the  row, 
and  not  less  than  four  inches  deep.  Perform  the  work 
with  a  dibble,  having  a  thick 
blunt  end,  to  make  a  wide  aper- 
ture for  each  bean  (Fig.  2  shows 
the  dibble),  so  as  to  admit 
each  seed  down  to  the  bottom, 
without  having  any  hollow  be- 
low. As  soon  as  one  row  is  thus 
planted,  move  the  line  for  the 
next,  and  with  a  rake  fill  in  the 
holes,  leaving  the  ground  smooth 
and  even  ;  and  thus  proceed  until  the  whole  of  the  space 
is  completed.  Dig  the  ground,  and  plant  it  bit  by  bit,  in 
order  to  avoid  treading  upon  it,  which  should  always  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible.  Some  people  make  it  a 
practice  to  tread  the  seed  in  (as  they  call  it),  in  order  to 
secure  it  in  the  soil ;  but  this,  we  are  convinced,  they 
would  never  do  were  they  at  all  acquainted  with  the  use 
of  atmospheric  air  in  promoting  germination  and  vege- 
tation. The  beans  that  are  sown  in  the  summer  months, 
and  when  the  ground  is  dry,  may  with  advantage  be 
soaked  in  soft  water  for  a  few  hours  previously,  as  it 
materially  assists  their  germination ;  or  if  sown  in  drills, 
as  they  mostly  are,  the  ground  should  be  well  watered, 
and  the  beans  put  in  directly,  drawing  the  earth  over 
them  while  the  ground  is  moist.  As  soon  as  the  beans 
are  up  about  three,  four,  or  five  inches,  they  should 
be  earthed  up  on  each  side  of  the  row,  clearing  away 
all  weeds  at  the  same  time.  The  hoeing  must  be 
repeated  as  often  as  necessary,  both  to  keep  down  the 
weeds  and  loosen  the  soil  about  their  roots  to  encourage 
the  growth.  In  performing  this  operation,  great  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  cover  the  plants  with  earth,  as  such  a 

course  would  occasion  them 

to  rot  or  fail.     If  the  ground 

between  the  rows  were  stirred 

I     with   a   three-pronged   fork, 

_:       " ^^      after  the  hoeing  is  finished, 

^      it  would  be  of  considerable 
**  advantage   to   their  growth. 

As  soon  as  the  different  crops  come  into  full  blossom 
they  should  be  topped,  as  it  is  termed;  that  is  to  say, 
the  tops  of  each  should  be  pinched  off  at  the  dotted 
lines  (as  shown  in  the  cut.  Fig.  i),  in  order  not  only  to 
accelerate  their  fruiting  and  encourage  the  poc  s  to 
become  well  filled,  but  to  stop  the  ravages  of  the  black 
fly,  to  which  they  are  very  subject.  The  beans  should 
be  gathered  when  about  half  their  full  size,  as  at  that 
time  they  are  much  better  flavoured  than  when  they  are 
older  and  become  black-eyed.  Beans  for  seed  should 
be  gathered  when  the  pods  are  beginning  to  turn  black ; 
the  stalks  should  be  pulled  up  with  the  beans  upon  them, 
and  placed  in  the  sun  till  quite  dry,  after  which  the  pods 
should  be  taken  off  the  stems,  and  stored  in  a  dry  place 
for  use.  Some  people  take  the  seed  from  the  pods  as 
soon  as  dry,  a  practice  we  do  not  approve  of,  well  knowing 
them  to  keep  much  better  in  the  pods  than  when  taken 
out  ;  the  precaution  holds  good  with  most  other  seeds. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


131 


Runner  Beans. — This  plant  has  a  twining  stem,  and 
would  rise  or  grow  to  twelve,  fourteen,  and  even  twenty  feet 
high,  provided  it  had  sufficient  support.  This  useful  vege- 
table is  trained  in  various  ways  ;  for  instance,  the  general 
method  of  training  resorted  to  by  cottagers  is  strings  ; 
another,  and  in  our  opinion  a  better  method,  is  to  have 
upright  supports,  one  foot  apart,  with  a  cross-rail  fixed 
at  the  top  ;  and  the  third,  which  is  the  easiest  plan  of 
any,  is  to  get  some  tall  brushwood  and  fix  it  in  the 
ground  in  the  same  manner  as  you  would  stick  peas, 
and  it  will  in  time  cover  them,  and  look  exceedingly 
picturesque. 

Another  very  excellent  method  is  that  of  employing 
small  poles  about  six  or  seven  feet  long  (like  hop-poles 
on  a  small  scale),  which  are  stuck  into  the  ground  on 
either  side  of  the  row  of  beans,  so  as  to  cross  each  other 
diagonally. 

The  pods  are  oblong,  seeds  kidney-shaped,  smooth 
and  shining,  and  when  ripe  varying  in  colour  according 
to  the  sort — that  is  to  say,  either  white,  black,  or  mottled. 
The  fruit  may  be  had  in  the  open  ground  from  June  till 
destroyed  by  frost  in  the  autumn.  The  unripe  pods  are 
the  parts  in  request,  and  when  boiled  are  very  delicious. 
There  are  several  varieties,  as  the  scarlet  runner,  the  most 
beautiful  and  lasting  bearer,  and  consequently  the  best 
for  a  main  crop  ;  the  white  runner,  a  variety  of  the 
scarlet,  the  seed  and  blossom  white,  but  the  pods  very 
similar  to  the  scarlet  kind  ;  and  the  painted  lady,  the 
blossom  of  which  is  red  and  white.  Although  there  are 
many  sub-varieties,  these  are  the  only  three  worth  growing. 
The  scarlet  runners,  like  the  white  and  variegated,  are 
tender  in  their  nature,  unable  to  bear  the  air  of  our  climate 
before  the  latter  end  of  April  or  beginning  of  May,  the 
seed  being  liable  to  rot  in  the  ground  if  planted  sooner, 
even  in  a  dry  soil. 

It  must  be  known  that  sharp  cold  checks  the  plants, 
so  that  they  make  but  little  progress  before  the  weather  is 
settled  and  warm.  The  scarlet  runner  is  most  esteemed, 
on  account  of  its  greater  prolificacy  and  longer  con- 
tinuance in  fruit ;  the  pods  are  thick  and  fleshy,  and  if 
gathered  while  young  are  very  good.  The  white  runner  is 
also  good  for  a  principal  crop.  The  painted  lady  is  more 
of  an  ornament,  but  the  pods  are  very  good  eating  never- 
theless. 

The  whole  family  of  beans  flourishes  in  a  light  and  very 
rich  soil,  and  if  the  land  is  a  little  moist,  so  much  the 
better. 

Do  not,  as  a  rule,  commence  planting  the  beans  till 
the  beginning  of  May,  and  then  only  a  moderate  crop, 
deferring  the  principal  crop  till  the  first  week  in  June. 
The  scarlet  runner  is  the  best  for  principal  crops.  Sow 
in  rows  about  five  feet  apart,  and  in  drills  not  more  than 
two  inches  deep,  placing  the  beans  about  five  inches 
asunder  in  the  rows  ;  after  which  cover  them  up  evenly, 
making  the  gfound  quite  level.  This  vegetable  may  be 
planted  on  each  side  a  walk,  and  so  rodded  as  to  form 
an  arched  top,  making  a  very  pleasant  shady  walk  in  the 
warm  days  of  summer. 


THE    REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF 

CHILDREN. 

IX. — children's  clothing  {continued). 

Nightgowns.— Th&sz  should  be  made  as  simple  as 
possible  for  little  children.  Take  a  plain  breadth  of  calico 
at  eightpence  a  yard,  long  enough  for  the  child.  Run 
and  fell  it  together  behind,  leaving  a  placket-hole  which 
must  be  hemmed.  Double  it  in  half,  and  double  again 
to  find  the  shoulders.  Take  a  slope  off;  cut  a  straight 
slip  in  the  side  for  the  sleeves  to  be  put  in.  The 
placket-hole  should  be  open  enough.     Run  and  fell  the 


shoulders  ;  scope  out  the  neck  a  little  in  front  ,  set  it  in 
a  band  three-quarters  high  ;  make  the  sleeves  of  straight 
pieces  as  long  as  the  rows,  and  moderately  wide  ;  run 
and  fell  them  together.  Run  and  fell  the  top  into  the 
arm-hole,  and  set  the  cuff  into  a  band  that  will  slip  over 
the  child's  wrist  ;  then  run  a  string  round  the  top  band  ;  the 
bottom  having  been  previously  hemmed.  The  nightgown 
may  be  worn  this  way,  or  it  may  be  gathered  into  a  band 
sewn  on  at  the  waist  in  front  as  far  as  the  arms,  and 
lined  with  a  similar  bund  on  the  wrong  side.  The  band  in 
front  is  in  one,  with  a  pair  of  strings,  piped  and  lined,  that 
button  or  tie  behind,  but  quite  loosely,  Fig.  17.  In  winter, 
a  flannel  gown  is  desirable  for  so  young  a  child,  made 
the  same  way,  of  Welsh  flannel.  If  desired,  the  neck 
and  wrists  of  the  child's  gown  may  be  edged  with  em- 
broidered work  ;  but  it  is  quite  unnecessary.  A  child 
should  have  half-a-dozen  longcloth  nightgowns,  and  four 
flannel  ones,  as  they  require  frequent  changes.  Some 
mothers  make  gowns  much  longer  than  the  child's  height, 
to  wrap  the  feet  in  and  keep  them  warm  in  bed.  Fig.  17 
shows  the  gown  made  to  button  on  one  side. 

We  subjoin  a  few  designs  for  best  frocks.  Fig.  18  is  a 
dark  blue  velvet  dress.  The  body  is  cut  according  to  our 
pattern  before  given,  but  full  two  inches  larger  every  way, 
because  the  child  will  grow,  and  velvet  is  a  costly  material. 
The  top  of  the  body  is  drawn  with  a  ribbon,  and  at  the 
waist  in  front  two  little  pleats  may  be  noticed.  There 
are  similar  ones  behind.  The  skirt  is  set  in  the  waist 
with  pleats,  the  front  width  gored.  Behind  are  a  few  box 
pleats.  The  front  of  the  dress  is  robed  with  rich  Spanish 
crochet  lace,  and  the  sleeves  and  berthe  ornamented  to 
correspond.  Fig.  19  shows  how  the  back  is  made  and 
adorned.  A  broad,  short  pinked  sash  of  dark  blue  sarcenet 
should  be  worn,  fastened  behind. 

Fig.  20  is  a  summer  dress.  There  is  first  a  fine  Swiss 
muslin  skirt,  with  a  number  of  minute  tucks  edged  with  a 
deep  embroidery.  Over  this  is  a  tunic,  gathered  at  the  back 
and  plain  in  front.  It  is  gored  and  pleatless  in  front,  and 
edged  with  a  very  narrow  embroidery.  Behind,  the  tunic 
is  a  panier,  that  is,  a  single  plain  breadth  much  longer 
than  it  appears,  caught  up  into  pleats  in  the  sides  where 
the  seam  joins  it  to  the  front  of  the  tunic,  and  gathered  in 
a  bunch  of  gathers  at  the  waist.  This  not  only  puffs  it  out, 
but  gives  the  edge  a  scallop  look  Uke  the  front.  No  sash 
should  be  worn  with  this,  but  only  a  narrow  plaid  waist- 
ribbon  hooked  into  a  bow  behind.  Plaid  ribbons  seem  to 
suspend  the  tunic  at  the  sides.  The  body  and  sleeves  are 
plain.  The  berthe  sets  out  nicely  over  the  sleeves,  and  is 
made  with  three  rows  of  tucks  and  spaces  alternately.  It 
is  edged  with  embroidery  and  so  is  the  neck.  There  are 
plaid  satin  bows  on  the  shoulders.  A  frock  may  also  be 
made  from  this  pattern  without  a  tunic,  and  the  trimming 
only  put  on  the  skirt  to  imitate  one.  Then  a  broad  sash 
may  be  used,  like  Fig.  21,  which  shows  the  back  of  the 
little  frock.  The  sleeves  worn  with  the  dress  should  have 
bows  of  plaid  ribbon  upon  them. 

Fig.  22  is  a  pretty  design  for  a  muslin  frock  body  for  a 
little  girl.  It  is  made  with  what  are  called  Sabot  sleeves — 
very  wide  frills  stiffened  up,  and  fastened  down  at  the  lower 
end  to  the  body.  They  are  exceedingly  full  and  very 
closely  pleated,  and  edged  with  lace  or  embroidery,  and 
goffered  when  washed.  The  body  is  full,  back  and  front, 
pleated  into  the  neck  and  into  the  waistband.  A  sash 
and  a  plain  skirt  suit  this  body  very  well  If  made  in 
thick  material,  the  sleeves  must  be  lined  with  sarcenet,  and 
stiffening  put  between  the  sleeve  and  the  lining. 

Fig.  23  is  a  frock  for  a  little  boy.  It  is  made  without 
pleats  in  front,  of  cambric  muslin  with  a  deep  hem  and  an 
embroidered  edge.  The  trimming  across  the  body  and 
skirt  is  a  double-edged  muslin  insertion,  with  a  blue 
ribbon  run  in  it  Embroidery  edges  the  neck  and  sleeves. 
Either  in  velvet  or  muslin  this  makes  a  pretty  frock  ; 
or  in  merino  trimmed  with  velvet  ribbon  the  same  colour, 


332 


THE   REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF   CHILDREN. 


broad  and  narrow,  and  an  embroidered  edge  added  on 
one  side  of  the  velvet. 

CLOTHING   FOR   CHILDREN   OF   SIX  YEARS. 

The  present  prices  of  longcloth  and  cahco  are  much 
higher  than  they  were  formerly,  and  the  quality  is  inferior. 
Longcloth  under  8d.  or  8^d.  is  not  worth  purchasing, 
because  it  so  soon  wears  out,  and  then  there  is  the  trouble 
of  making  new  things,  and  time  occupied  that  might  be 
otherwise  turned  to  account.  8d.  is  a 
good  standard  price  for  both  ladies'  and 
cliildren's  clothing,  and  longcloth,  not 
calico,  should  be  purchased. 

For  a  little  boy  of  six  years  old,  cut 
a  Shirt  according  to  Fig.  7  in  shape, 
seventeen  inches  long  and  twenty  wide 
(double).  It  is  similar  in  pattern  to  the 
one  ilsed  at  two  years  old,  but  larger ; 
the  material  is  double  at  the  top,  so  as  Fig 


Drawers  for  Boys  are  not  only  larger,  but  vary  from  those 
used  at  an  earlier  age.  Each  leg  is  cut  separately.  The 
material  must  be  doubled  on  the  straight  side  of  the  leg; 
from  A  to  B  (Fig.  3),  and  here  it  is  eighteen  inches  long, 
allowing  for  a  hem  and  three  tucks.  But  we  recommend 
mothers,  as  children  grow  fast,  to  cut  the  drawers  two 
inches  longer,  and  dispose  of  the  additional  length  in  a 
way  we  shall  presently  describe.  The  measure,  with  the 
allowance  made,  is  twenty  inches  from  A  to  B,  eleven  from 
"  C  to  D,  eight  and  a  half  from  B  to  E, 
eleven  and  a  half  from  F  to  G,  and 
fifteen  and  a  half  from  H  to  D.  Run  and 
fell  the  leg  together  from  E  to  D.  Round 
the  end,  from  B  to  E,  make  an  inch 
wide  hem,  and  above  it,  three-quarter 
inch  tucks.  Cut  a  slit  down  the  side 
from  A  to  a.  Make  a  quarter  inch  wide 
hem  on  the  front  side,  and  a  very 
narrow  one  towards  the  back.     Stitch 


to  form  the    shoulders.      Cut   the   flaps 
at  the  mark  at  A  A,  and  cut  the  top  of 
the  shoulders    straight,    in   the  manner 
shown  there  ;  the  three-cornered  piece 
between  the  shoulder  and  the  flap  comes  away  entirely. 
The  dotted  lines  at  B  B  show  where  pieces  are  applied  on 
the  wrong  side  to  strengthen  the  arm-holes.    Two  straight 
bands  are  cut— each  two  inches  wide  and  ten  inches  long 
— for  this  purpose,  sewn  to  the  edge  of  the  shirt,  and  then 
turned  down,  pinned  flat,  and  neatly  hemmed.     The  flaps 
must  be  cut  apart  at  the  top,  and  hemmed  round,  as  well 
as  the  edge  of  the  shoulders.     The  seams  should  be  run 
and  felled  before  the  flaps  are  hemmed,  and  left  open  at 
the  bottom  as  far  as  C  C.     A  gusset  is  inserted  at  each 
side  at  C  C,  and  the  open  piece  hemmed  very  narrowly. 
A  hem,  half  an  inch  deep,  round  the  bottom,  completes 
the  shirt. 


Figr-  23. 

the  wide  one   across  the  other.     Make 

the   other   leg,    and  then    run  and  fell 

Fig-  i8.  them  together  from  C  to  D,  going  right 

round    the    other    side    from   D    to   C. 

Lastly,  set  them   in   the  bands,   one   for  the    front  and 

one  for  the  back — the  front,  thirteen  and   a   half  inches 

long,  the  half  inch  to  turn  in  ;   and  the  back,  fourteen 

inches,  one  half  inch  of  which  is  turned   in.     Make  a 

button-hole  in  each  side  of  the  front  band,  and  one  in 

the  middle  (shown  in  Fig.  4,  at  A  A  a),  but  only  at  the 

two  ends  of  the  back.     The  drawers  are  now  completed. 

To  shorten  them  for  use,  make  a  tuck  near  the  top  of  each 

leg,  rather  better  than  half  an  inch  wide,  at  B  B  B  B,  and 

from  C  to  C,  on  both  sides,  rather  less  than  half  an  inch 

wide.     As  the  child  grows,  these  can  be  let  down,  either 

entirely,  or  narrowed  to  make  the  drawers  longer. 

A  Stay  Bodice  is  the  next  article  required.    Measure  the 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


333 


size  round  of  the  child,  just  under  the  arm-pits,  taking  the 
size  very  loosely  and  easily  ;  allow  three  or  four  inches 
over.  Then  measure  the  depth  of  the  body.  Always  cut 
your  pattern  first  in  paper,  and  then  try  it  against  the 
child.  If  you  have  any  old  lining,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  put 
the  pattern  next  to  the  lining,  and  fit  it.  The  stay  body, 
like  all  the  other  articles  of  a  child's  clothing,  should  be 
easy.  It  is  wrong  ever  to  girt  children  in  any  part  of 
the  figure.  The  stay  body  should  wrap 
over  about  four  inches,  and  tie,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  ID,  having  a  good  shape  cut  in 
jean,  and  also  in  linen  lining.  There  are  no 
turnings-in.  Tack  the  jean  and  lining  toge- 
ther flat,  by  the  edges.  Run  three  piping 
cords  across  the  centre ;  leave  an  inch 
space,  and  run  three  more  ;  and  so  on,  till 
all  the  body  is  quilted.  These  cords  are 
inserted  the  short  way,  as  Fig.  lo  shows. 
A  piece  of  stay  binding  is  wanted,  and 
should  be  stitched  all  round.  Cut  straps 
for  the  shoulders,  of  jean,  line  them  with 
linen,  bind  them  all  round,  and  sew  them 
to  the  body  at  the  four  a's  in  Fig.  lo.  The 
strings  are  sewn  in  the  way  illustrated.  In 
cutting  the  body,  there  is  a  slight  curve 
or  stomacher  in  front,  and  a  little  sloped 
out  over  the  hips,  which  makes  the  petti- 
coat sit  better  than  if  the  body  were  straight, 
which  gives  it  a  bunchy  look  about  the  waist. 


pleat  the  skirt  before  sloping,  then  pin  it  to  the  bodice, 

and  try  it  on  the  child.     It  will  immediately  be  seen  how 

much  slope  is  needed. 

In  another  place  we  shall  have  a  word  to  say  about  the 

washing  of  children's  flannels,  which  is  very  important, 

and  yet  very  little  understood. 

The   White  Petticoat  is   now   wanted.     Rather  stout 

calico  should  be  used  for  this.  To  cut  the  body,  measure 
the  child  round  easily  under  the  arms, 
round  the  waist,  and  round  the  shoulders. 
Write  down  these  measures  : — Mark  at  the 
top  of  a  square  of  paper  a  quarter  of  the 
size  of  the  waist,  across  the  paper,  like  the 
line  A  in  Fig.  ii.  Measure  the  child  from 
under  the  arm  to  the  waist,  and  make  a 
dot  on  the  paper  at  B.  Then  mark  on 
the  paper  a  quarter  of  the  size  round  of 
the  child  under  the  arms,  which  will  bring 
you  about  to  the  dot  c.  You  must  then 
draw  a  line  from  A  to  c.  Measure  loosely 
round  the  top  of  the  child's  arm.  Say  it  is 
eight  inches  (it  may  be  more),  but  take 
the  half  of  whatever  it  is,  and  pin  it  on  a 
tape  -  measure.  Suppose  it  is  the  eight 
inches,  put  a  pin  at  four  inches  in  the 
tape  ;  lay  the  tape  in  a  curve  like  a  half 
circle  on  your  paper,  and  it  will  describe 
the  mark  from  C  to  D.  Take  a  quarter  the 
measure  of  the  neck,  and  mark  it  by  a  dot 


Pig   20. 

The  neck  is  also  hollowed 
front  and  back,  but  most  in 
front. 

Make  the  Flaftnel  Petti- 
coat as  before  described. 
Take  two  widths  as  long  as 
the  child  requires,  allowing 
two  inches  for  the  hem,  and 
four  inches  each  for  two  tucks. 
Herringbone  the  seams 
nicely.  Make  the  hem  and 
the     tucks  an     inch    apart. 

Cut  a  placket  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  back  breadth, 
half  way  down ;  herringbone  a  hem  each  side.  Pleat 
the  flannel  at  the  waist  ;  make  a  box  pleat  in  front. 
The  front  of  the  flannel  requires  to  be  sloped  as  much 
as  the  curve  of  the  body.  To  do  this,  place  anything 
across  the  body,  from  B  to  C  (Fig.  10),  that  will 
make  a  line  exactly  straight  with  the  hips.  Put  a  pin 
where  it  comes,  at  d,  and  measure  the  distance  from 
D  to  E.  A  thin  child  will  bear  the  flannel  sloped  equally 
with  this  measure  ;  but  a  stout  child  has  a  full  stomach, 
and  the  slope  may  lie  half  or  three-quarters.     It  is  best  to 


Fig.  17. 


at  E.  Then  draw  a  line 
from  D  to  E.  Make  a  sloping 
line  from  E  to  F  for  the  neck, 
and  from  A  to  G  at  the  waist. 
Now  cut  out  the  paper;  cut 
a  lining  from  this.  First 
pin  the  paper  on  the  lining  ; 
stick  pins  in  the  lining,  all 
round  the  edge  of  the  paper. 
Leave  the  pins  in,  and  cut 
the  lining  two  inches  wider, 
each  way,  at  the  sides.  Then 
pin  it  slightly  together  where  the  pins  are,  and  tr>'  it 
on.  The  margin  left  is  to  allow  for  alterations,  if  the 
pattern  is  incorrectly  taken.  This  pattern  will  serve  also 
for  frock  bodies.  To  make  a  high  body,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  extend  the  pattern,  by  taking  the  length  of  the 
shoulder'  from  D  to  H,  instead  of  D  to  E,  and  measure  a 
quarter  of  the  size  of  the  throat  from  H  to  I.  This  pattern 
(Fig.  11)  must  be  cut  out  of  double  stutf,  twofold  in  the 
material,  coming  from  G  to  I,  as  it  represents  only  half  a 
front,  the  waist  at  the  top.  For  the  backs,  allow  an  inch 
for  each,  to  make  a  hem  from  G  to  i,  if  the  stuff  is  folded 


334 


DOMESTIC    MEDICINE. 


there  to  cut  the  backs.  Having  procured  a  satisfactory 
pattern,  allow  an  inch  at  the  sides  and  shoulders,  and  half 
an  inch  at  the  neck,  waist,  and  arm-hole,  for  turnings. 
Tack  the  backs  and  fronts  together  by  the  sides  and 
shoulders,  an  inch  in,  and  slip  the  bodice  on  to  try  it.  If 
too  high  in  the  neck,  long  in  the  waist,  or  tight  in  the 
arms  (making  due  allowance  for  turnings-in),  slip  it  with 
the  scissors,  as  shown  by  marks  in  Fig.  12,  which  repre- 
sents the  three  pieces  of  the  bodice  before  joining.  Hem 
the  backs  ;  stitch  the  sides  and  shoulders.  Run  a  piping 
round  the  neck  and  waist,  turn  down,  and  hem  them  on 
the  wrong  side.  Pipe  the  arm-holes,  and  put  in  the  sleeve. 
The  skirt  of  the  white  petticoat  must  be  a  little  longer 
than  the  flannel,  and  should  be  ornamented  with  a  narrow 
hem,  and  a  number  of  narrow  tucks  all  of  equal  width. 
For  every  such,  allow  double  the  width.  Two  breadths 
of  longcloth  are  wanted.  Run  and  fell  these  ;  make  the 
hem-and  tucks.  Make  a  placket-hole  ;  gather  the  waist, 
and  sew  it  to  the  body. 

Frocks  for  girls  of  this  age  may  be  made  in  a  variety  of 
ways.  Some  like  merino,  percale,  or  fancy  stuff  frocks, 
according  to  the  season,  thick  or  thin  ;  simply  made  like 
the  petticoat — a  broad  hem  and  one  or  two  tucks  in  the 
skirt,  and  a  low  body,  trimmed.  Robe  trimmings,  cover- 
ing body  and  skirt,  are  pretty ;  or  the  body  only  may  have 
braces,  and  a  row  of  trimming  be  placed  straight  round  the 
head  of  each  tuck.  Many  frocks  are  made  without  tucks, 
but  they  are  useful,  because  children  grow  so  fast.  When 
a  dress  has  been  made  without  tucks,  and  the  child  grows 
out  of  it,  the  best  method  of  lengthening  the  skirt  is  to 
mitre,  that  is,  regularly  scallop  the  edge,  and  bind  it  with 
braid.  If  the  frock  is  coloured,  lengthen  it  with  black  ;  if 
black,  with  a  colour.  Scallop  and  bind  the  piece  added, 
and  hem  it  on  above  the  scallops  of  the  frock,  on  the 
wrong  side,  so  that  the  frock  and  scallops  fall  over  the 
new  piece.  The  scallops  of  the  one  ought  to  be  uniform 
with  the  scallops  of  the  other,  and  not  to  be  arranged 
alternately. 

DOMESTIC    MEDICINE. 

,  BILIOUSNESS  AND  BILIOUS  ATTACKS. 
We  will  treat  first  of  biliousness.  As  we  have  already 
said,  people  are  very  fond  of  attributing  all  sorts  of 
symptoms  to  bile,  and  are  rather  pleased  than  otherwise, 
when  ailing,  to  be  told  that  their  liver  is  affected.  The 
symptoms  generally  held  to  show  that  people  are  "  bilious  " 
are  such  as  the  following  : — Want  of  appetite,  foul  tongue, 
constipation,  sallow  or  dingy  complexion,  flatulence,  and 
other  symptoms  of  indigestion.  If  any  pain  about  the 
right  shoulder  or  side  is  added  to  these  symptoms,  then 
they  would  be  held  by  "  liver  "  doctors  and  their  patients 
to  be  unmistakably  bilious.  And  so  they  may  be  ;  only 
people  should  know  that  really  very  little  is  known  con- 
cerning the  symptoms  of  too  much  bile,  or  too  little  bile,  or 
bad  bile.  Cases  of  jaundice  are  better  understood  ;  but 
the  less  obvious  affections  of  the  liver  are  yet  very  obscure  ; 
and  no  great  harm  and  very  much  good  would  be  done  if 
people  talked  and  thought  a  little  less  about  their  livers. 
It  is  probable  that  in  many  cases  in  which  the  above 
symptoms  are  present,  the  stomach  and  tlie  intes- 
tines are  as  much  at  fault,  or  more,  than  the  liver.  Where 
the  complexion  gets  dingy,  the  skin  greasy  and  not  clear, 
the  countenance  rather  bloated,  where  the  bowels  are 
costive,  where  there  is  a  general  sluggishness  of  body  and 
mind,  and  where  digestion  goes  on  slowly  and  uncomfort- 
ably, with  much  wind  ;  in  this  case  probably  the  small  intes- 
tires  are  as  much  at  fault  as  the  liver.  But  this  is  the 
condition  called  "  biliousness."  The  state  of  the  bowels 
is  characteristic  ;  the  motions  are  hard,  dry,  and  dark, 
and  the  urine  is  frequently  thick. 

Causes. — The  causes  of  this  condition  are  various.  It 
is  not  uncommon  in  those  who  have  resided  for  some 


time  in  a  climate  hotter  than  their  original  one.  It  is 
almost  natural  to  some  people;  and  in  others  it  is 
largely  brought  on  by  inactivity,  by  too  much  food 
and  beer  or  stimulants,  and  by  want  of  exercise  in  the 
fresh  air. 

Treatment. — It  is  in  such  cases  as  this  that  the  discipline 
of  a  hydropathic  establishment,  if  not  its  water,  does 
good.  But,  short  of  such  a  costly  remedy  as  this,  much 
may  be  done  by  careful  diet  and  simple  living  to  cure  this 
condition  of  biliousness,  which  is  both  depressing  and 
distressing.  A  mild  purgative  occasionally  in  the  morning 
will  do  good — such  as  a  teaspoonful  or  two  of  Epsom 
salts  in  cold  water.  Light  food,  such  as  a  fish  dinner 
occasionally  in  place  of  a  heavy  dinner,  and  the  use  of 
water,  with  a  glass  or  two  of  cheap  French  wine,  in  place 
of  the  rich  beer  and  hot  spirits  which  are  too  largely  used 
in  daily  life  in  England.  Where  the  light  French  wines 
are  not  liked,  nothing  stronger  than  a  little  weak  sherry 
and  water  should  be  used.  Bilious  people  should  use 
brown  bread,  too,  instead  of  white,  and  should  use  water 
freely  for  washing  purposes  all  over  the  body  every 
morning. 

Bilious  Attacks  should  be  distinguished  from  "bilious- 
ness." Biliousness  is  a  slow  habit  of  dull  health.  Bilious 
attacks  occur  at  intervals.  They  are  characterised  by 
severe  headache,  furred  tongue,  sickness,  perhaps 
vomiting,  and  occasionally  there  is  diarrhoea,  though  there 
may  be  constipation.  The  vomited  matters  at  first  consist 
only  of  food  taken,  or  of  the  mucus  of  the  stomach  ;  but  if 
vomiting  continues,  then  the  vomit  may  be  yellow  or 
green.  Such  attacks  are  accompanied  with  shiverings  and 
a  feeling  of  illness.  They  occur  frequently  in  persons 
subject  to  them  ;  sometimes  they  seem  to  occur  almost  at 
regular  intervals.  Notwithstanding  that  such  attacks  are 
called  bilious  attacks,  it  is  probable  that  the  stomach  is 
more  to  blame  than  the  liver.  The  vomiting  of  bile  proves 
nothing  as  to  "biliousness,"  for  if  vomiting  occurs  from 
any  cause  and  goes  on  long  enough,  some  bile  will  find  its 
way  into  the  stomach  and  be  vomited  up. 

Causes. — Such  attacks  often  come  on  without  any  very 
obvious  cause.  But  in  other  cases  it  is  possible  to  trace 
these  to  one  of  two  causes.  A  cold  east  wind,  or  a  long 
continuance  of  wet  cold  weather,  especially  if  it  be  long 
continued,  will  produce  such  attacks  in  a  large  number  of 
people.  The  complaint  is  really  a  sort  of  "  cold  "  in  the 
stomach — what  doctors  call  gastric  "  catarrh."  Very  often 
it  is  preceded  and  followed  by  symptoms  of  a  cold.  At 
other  times  this  is  the  only  cold  experienced  ;  and  just  as 
other  people  would  get  a  cough  or  cold  out  of  exposure  to 
an  east  wind,  persons  subject  to  bilious  attacks  will  get 
one  of  these.  Another  common  cause  of  the  attacks  we 
have  been  describing  is  an  indiscretion  in  diet — taking 
something  indigestible.  Different  people  will  find  different 
things  to  disagree  with  them,  and  it  is  impossible  to  lay 
down  a  rule  of  forbidden  food  that  would  apply  to  all 
cases.  But  every  person  may  easily  find  out  for  himself 
what  does  disagree,  and  abstain  from  it.  Sometimes 
such  attacks  come  on  not  from  the  bad  quality  but  the  bad 
quantity  of  food— too  much.  People  indulge  in  too  much 
food,  or  too  much  wine,  or  spirits  or  beer. 

Treatment. — When  such  attacks  occur  they  will  often 
yield  to  domestic  measures.  The  principal  points  are,  rest 
both  of  the  stomach  and  the  system.  The  patient  should 
first  be  quiet  ;  and  if  very  oad,  he  should  lie  down,  and 
give  his  stomach  nothing  to  do  for  a  few  hoi:rs,  more  than 
drinking  a  little  water  or  a  little  thin  iu,lk-and-w.iter ; 
thereafter  he  may  take  a  little  barley-water,  or  mutton 
broth,  or  beef  tea,  without  fat,  and  wait  till  some  appetite 
comes  upon  him  before  taking  stronger  food.  If  he  is  cold 
and  shivers,  hot  bottles  may  be  applied  to  the  feet.  In 
addition  to  these  measures,  if  the  sickness  is  troublesome, 
a  little  mustard  plaister  may  be  applied  over  the  stomach, 
and  an  effervescing  draught  may  be  taken  every  three  01 


CASSELL'S    HUUhEHOLD    GUIDE. 


335 


fcnir  hours,  consisting  of  a  teaspoonful  of  the  effervescing 
ciiro-iartrate  of  sodu  of  the  British  Pharmacopceia.  Should 
the  sickness  continue,  or  be  accompanied  with  other 
persisting  symptoms,  a  medical  rtten  should  be  consulted. 
The  great  thing  for  people  subject  to  such  attacks  is  to 
avoid  them.  By  avoiding  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  and 
such  articles  of  food  as  are  likely  or  known  to  disagree 
with  them  or  to  irritate  the  stomach,  it  will  be  possible  to 
of'.en  prevent  such  attacks  coming  on ;  and  prevention  is 
better  than  cure. 


HINTS  TO  LETTER-WRITERS.— VI. 

In  addressing  letters  to  go  by  post,  accuracy  is  of  supreme 
importance.  Myriads,  of  letters  find  their  way  to  the 
Dead  Letter  Oftice  annually,  in  consequence  of  insufficient 
address.  There  are  in  the  metropolis  a  great  many  streets 
named  alike,  as  North  Street,  South  Street,  High  Street, 
Market  Street,  &c.  To  prevent  miscarriage,  therefore, 
not  only  should  the  name  of  the  street  follow  the  name  of 
the  person  addressed,  but  it  is  well  to  add  the  parish,  and 
essential  to  mark  the  postal  district.  To  lessen  the  labour 
of  the  letter-carriers,  the  number  of  the  house,  as  well  as 
the  name  of  the  street  should  be  written.  The  one  rule  is 
to  specify  whatever  is  required  to  indicate  the  district, 
street,  house,  and  individual.  Risk  is  rather  incurred 
than  diminished,  however,  in  ordinary  cases,  by  giving  the 
name  of  a  house.  Thus,  suppose  A.  B.  resides  at  a  house 
called  Rosemary  Lodge,  London  Road,  it  is  best  to  omit 
the  mention  of  "  Rosemary  Lodge"  if  the  number  is  known, 
though  it  matters  little  if  the  number  is  put  upon  the 
envelope.  For  example,  we  may  either  write,  "A.  B.,  Esq., 
Rosemary  Lodge,  666,  London  Road,  E.  ;"  or,  "A.  B., 
Esq.,  666,  London  Road,  E."  Usually,  the  preference 
should  be  given  to  brevity.  When  the  number  is  unknown, 
it  is  very  desirable  to  give  the  initials  or  Christian  name  of 
the  person  addressed,  because  there  may  be  others  of  the 
name  in  the  neighbourhood.  In  writing  to  country 
places  confusion  often  arises  from  the  failure  to  prefix  the 
initials  of  the  person  addressed,  for  in  small  towns  there 
are  several  families  of  one  name. 

There  are  many  country  places,  also,  which  are  named 
alike,  as  Barton,  Burton,  Norton,  Sutton,  Morton,  &c. 
To  prevent  eiTor,  the  county  should  be  indicated  ;  and  as 
even  this  may  not  be  enough  if  the  place  wanted  is  not  a 
post  town,  it  is  needful  to  put  in  the  name  of  the  post 
town.  A  letter  addressed  "  George  Jones,  Esq.,  Stratford," 
might  be  sent  either  to  Stratford-on-Avon  in  Warwick,  or 
to  Stratford  in  Essex,  whereas  the  mention  of  the  county 
would  prevent  mistake.  Letters  to  the  smaller  towns  in 
Scotland  may  have  N.B.  (North  Britain)  inscribed  upon 
them  ;  letters  for  North  or  South  Wales  may  have  the 
initials  N.W.  or  S.W.,  as  the  case  may  be;  and  letters  for 
Ireland  may  have  that  word  below  the  address.  To 
mention  all  the  cases  in  which  similar  precautions  are 
advisable  would  occupy  too  much  space  ;  those  which 
have  been  given  will  be  sufficient  for  persons  of  ordinary 
prudence. 

In  writing  letters  to  America  several  precautions  must 
be  observed.  To  the  United  States,  the  address  should 
always  end  with  either  U.S.A.  or  "  United  States  of 
America."  Moreover,  the  particular  State  must  be  indi- 
cated, either  by  the  name  in  full,  or  by  an  abbreviation. 
The  Americans  are  fond  of  abbreviations,  but  some  of 
them  are  little  known  here  :  thus,  D.C.  means  the  District 
of  Columbia  ;  N.Y.  is  New  York  ;  Pa.  is  Pennsylvania  ; 
Me.  is  Maine  ;  N.H.  is  New  Hampshire  ;  Vt.  is  Vermont ; 
Mass.  is  Massachusetts;  R.I.  is  Rhode  Island;  N.J. 
is  New  Jersey;  Ct.  is  Connecticut;  Del.  is  Delaware; 
Md.  is  Maryland;  Va.  is  Virginia;  N.C.  is  North 
Carolina  ;  S.C.  is  South  Carolina  ;  Geo.  or  Ga.  is  Georgia  ; 
Ala.  is  Alabama  ;  Mi.  is  Mississippi  ;  La.  is  Louisiana; 
Ten.  is  Tennessee  ;  Ky.  is  Kentucky ;  O.  is  Ohio  ;  Ind. 


is  Indiana;  111.  is  Illinois;  Mo.  is  Missouri;  Mich,  is 
Michigan;  Ark.  is  Arkansas;  Fl.  is  Florida;  Wis.  is 
Wisconsin;  lo.  is  Iowa;  Tex,  is  Texas;  and  Or.  is 
Oregon.  The  importance  of  these  names  or  abbreviations  ' 
will  apj)ear  when  we  state  that  the  American  Union  is  said 
to  contain  more  than  fifty  places  called  Washington.  . 
With  reference  to  New  York  Ciiy  the  name  of  New  York 
must  be  written  in  full. 

Similar   rules   apply   to  the   British   territories.      The 
letters    U.C,    are   for    Upper    Canada;    L.C.    for    Lower 
Canada  ;  N.S.  for  Nova  Scotia  ;  N.B.  for  New   Bruns-  .  * 
wick  ;  and  N.P.  for  New  Providence.     In  writing  from 
this  country  it  is  undesirable  to  employ  these  abbreviations. 

Letters  for  Australia  should  specify  the  colony,  whether 
New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  South  Australiai,  Queensland, 
or  Western  Australia,  wiih  such  other  details  as  may  tend 
to  ensure  correct  transmission,  such  as  the  nearest  post 
town  when  outlying  places  are  in  question.  In  like 
manner  letters  for  New  Zealand  should  state  what  province 
they  are  meant  for. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  note  that  the  rate  of  postage  for 
letters  to  America  and  the  colonies,  and  to  many  foreign 
countries,  varies  with  the  mode  of  conveyance  and  the 
route  ;  therefore  it  is  well  to  obtain  information  upon  these  . 
points,  which  may  be  done  at  any  post-office,  and  may 
prevent  expense  and  trouble.  There  are  places  to  which 
letters  are  not  forwarded  at  all  unless  prepaid.  Thus,  for 
a  letter  to  Victoria  via  Southampton,  6d.  must  be  prepaid 
for  half  an  ounce  ;  and  for  the  same  colony  vid  Marseilles, 
lod.  must  be  prepaid.  If,  in  this  case,  only  6d.  is  prepaid, 
the  letter  will  probably  be  forwarded  vid  Southampton  or 
vid  Panama,  although  the  words  ''^  vid  Marseilles"  are 
written  on  the  envelope.  Where  there  is  only  one  route 
and  one  charge,  it  is  possible  the  letter  will  not  be  sent 
at  all  if  insufficiently  stamped,  though  it  may  be  opened 
and  returned  to  the  writer  if  he  has  put  his  name  and 
address  inside,  as  he  ought  to  do. 

There  are  many  other  classes  of  foreign  letters,  as  those 
to  the  continent  of  Europe,  respecting  which  sundry 
precautions  arc  needed.  Some  foreign  towns  and  cities 
do  not  bear  the  same  names  with  us  as  they  do  abroad  ; 
but  this  will  not  cause  any  difficulty  to  the  sender  of  letters 
to  such  places.  To  show  what  we  mean,  we  will  give  a 
few  examples.  Not  only  is  Belgium  called  Belgique,  but 
Brussels  is  called  Bruxelles,  and  Liege,  Liittich,  while 
Malines  is  Mechlin.  Aix-la-Chapslle,  again,  is  called 
Aachen  ;  Mayence  is  Mentz  and  Maintz  ;  and  Vienna  is 
Wien.  In  Italy,  Leghorn  is  Livomo  ;  Turin  is  Torino  ; 
Florence  is  Firenza,  and  Genoa  is  Genova.  The  know- 
ledge of  such  differences  is  less  important  to  the  sender  of 
letters  than  to  the  receiver  ;  and  yet  it  is  well  to  be  aware 
of  the  fact  of  their  existence.  The  best  rule  in  writing 
to  foreign  places  is  to  employ  the  spelling  adopted  by  our 
General  Post  Office  in  its  official  lists.  Nor  is  it  neces- 
sary to  imitate  the  form  of  address  usual  in  the  country  to 
which  a  letter  is  sent.  This  is  optional.  Thus,  in  writing 
to  Paris  we  might  address  a  letter  in  the  French  fashion, 
and  say — 

<i  Monsieur, 

M.  Jacquet, 

Rue  de  'Br<?t.iEii«,  64, 
a  P.U4&. 

But  it  would  answer  every  purpose  to  write — 

M.  jacquet. 


64,  Rue  de  Brctagne, 


Pari-s. 


There  is  only  one  caution  which  need  be  given  in  reference 
to  addressing  a  French  gentleman,  and  that  is,  never  to 
write  to  him  as  "Mon.  Jacquet,"  or  whoever  he  may  be. 
Either  prefix  "  M.,"  "  Mons.,"  or  "Monsieur  ;"  but  never 
"Mon."  which  is  accounted  very  vulgar.  In  the  case  of 
letters  to  the  provinces  of  France,  the  "department," 
corresponding  to  an  English  county,  should  be  named, 
unless  the  town  be  an  important  one,  when  it  is  optional. 


33^ 


MARKETING. 


•   MARKETING.— II. 

Mutton  (Fig  i). — I.  Leg.     2.  Shoulder.     3.  Breast.     4. 
Chump  end  of  loin.  5.  Best  end  of  loin.  6.  Best  end  of  neck. 
7.  Scrag  end  of  neck.     8.  Head.     A  leg  of  mutton  with  a 
portion  of  the  loin  attached  forms  a  haunch  of  mutton. 
The  loin,  not  divided  along  the  back,  is  called  a  saddle 
of  mutton.     In  choosing  mutton  it  must  be  remembered 
that  it  is  of  various  kinds  as  well  as  qualities.     Some 
sorts  run  much  larger  than  others,  with  a  corresponding 
addition  of  fat  and  bone,  and  often   a  coarser  texture. 
The   meat   of  the  black-faced  sheep   is   excellent,  when 
well  fed.     Welsh  mutton  is  small  and  highly  esteemed. 
Forest  sheep  make  good  meat,  and  often  appear  in  the 
London  markets.      The   Dorset    mutton   is   of  medium 
quality.     The  Ryeland  sheep  is  small, 
and  produces  very  fine  meat.     Leices- 
ter mutton  is  large-boned,  but  when 
crossed  witTi  the   Cotswold  variety  is 
much  improved.     South  Down  mutton 
is   remarkably  good  ;    and   so   is   the 
small  Scotch  mutton,  although  it  is  apt 
to  be  lean.     As,  however,  purchasers 
cannot  always  ascertain  what  particu- 
lar sort  is  offered,  they  must  usually  be 
guided  by  size  and  appearance.    Gene- 
rally speaking,  wether  mutton  is  to  be 
preferred :    if  in  good  condition,  lean 
will  be  of  a  deep  red,  with  a  close  grain, 
the  fat  white  and  not  very  hard.      Ewe  mutton  is  paler  in  [ 
the  lean  and  closer  in  the  grain.     Young  mutton  is  tender  j 
and  elastic  to  the  touch,  but  old  mutton  feels  hard,  remains  j 
wrinkled  when  pinched,  and  has  fat  rather  clammy  and  ! 
sticky.     The  fat  of  young  mutton  can  easily  be  separated,  i 
while  that  of  old  meat  is  stringy  and  skinny.     The  leg  of  ; 
South  Down  mutton  is  an  economical  joint  whether  for  j 
boiling  or  roasting  ;  but  in  selecting  it  or  any  other  leg  of 
mutton,  preference  should  be  given  to  such  as  is  thick  in  1 
the  thigh  and  short  in  the  shank.     The  haunch  of  Welsh  j 
mutton  is  much  better  than  the  fore-quarter.     Loin  of  1 
mutton  is  not  usually  economical,  owing  to 
the   quantity  of  fat,  but  it  is  very  nice, 
either  roasted  or  in  chops.     When  the  fat 
of  mutton  is  yellow  and  watery  avoid  the 
meat.     A  leg  of  wether  mutton  is  known 
by  a  lump  of  fat  on  the  inside  of  the  thigh. 
Shoulder   of  mutton  is  most   economical 
when  roasted  and  eaten  cold.     A  haunch 
or  leg  of  mutton  for  present  use  is  best  if 
it  has  hung  a  few  days. 

La7}ib  (Fig.  2). — i.  Leg.  2.  Shoulder.  3. 
Breast.  4.  Chump  end  of  loin.  5.  Loin.  6. 
Neck — best  end.  7.  Neck— scrag  end.  8. 
Head.  Lamb  is  often  merely  divided  into  fore-quarters 
and  hind-quarters.  A  fore-quarter  consists  of  a  shoulder 
with  part  of  neck  and  breast.  A  hind-quarter  consists 
of  a  leg  and  loin.  What  is  called  the  target  of  lamb  is 
the  ribs  from  which  the  shoulder  has  been  removed. 
The  joints  of  lamb  vary  in  size  like  those  of  mutton, 
according  to  the  breed  and  age  of  the  animal.  This 
meat,  like  veal,  is  best  cooked  fresh.  Its  freshness 
may  be  easily  ascertained  by  the  colour,  feeling,  and 
smell.  For  a  fore-quarter  the  old  test  is,  that  if  the  vein 
in  the  neck  is  of  a  fine  blue  colour,  the  meat  is  good,  but 
if  greenish  or  yellow  the  meat  is .  stale.  For  a  hind- 
quarter,  respect  must  be  had  to  the  kidney  and  the 
knuckle  :  if  the  kidney  emits  a  faint  and  unpleasant 
smell,  or  if  the  knuckle  joint  is  flexible,  the  meat  is  not 
good.  Lamb  is  more  expensive  than  mutton,  and  although 
highly  esteemed  is  less  nutritious.  It  may  be  added  that 
the  eyes  of  a  recently  killed  lamb  are  plump  and  bright. 

Pork. — Of  pork  there  are  many  varieties.    In  choosing, 
as  a  rule,  we  should  select  the   meat    which  is  young. 


not  too  large,  and  not  overburdened  with  fat.  Dairy- 
fed  pork  has  fine  white  fat,  pale  and  smooth  lean, 
and  thin,  smooth,  and  clean  rind.  It  is  usually  rather 
small,  and  a  leg  ought  At  to  weigh  above  six  or  seven 
pounds.  Whenever  the  joints  run  large,  with  coarse- 
grained lean  and  fat  to  match,  the  meat  will  be  most 
likely  hard  and  insipid.  In  all  cases  the  rind  must  be 
thin,  the  lean  tender,  and  the  fat  of  a  fine  white  colour. 
Old  meat  is  harsh  and  even  hard  to  the  touch,  and 
generally  has  a  thick  firm  rind,  and  lean  somewhat  dark 
in  colour.  Fresh  pork  is  cool  and  smooth  to  the  touch  ; 
but  stale  meat  is  clammy  and  apt  to  look  of  a  greenish 
tint  in  places.  The  first  part  to  turn  is  the  knuckle. 
What  is  called  measly  pork  is  diseased  meat,  and  on  all 
accounts  to  be  avoided  as  very  unwholesome.  It  is 
commonly  sold  to  the  poor,  at  a  low 
price,  by  unprincipled  dealers.  Tainted 
pork  is  objectionable  and  injurious. 
Pork  is  often  sold  salted ;  and  the  pur- 
chaser must  be  careful  to  see  that  it  is 
in  a  sound  condition.  Unsaleable  meat 
is  sometimes  salted  to  save  it,  but  it  is 
always  an  abomination ;  and  so  is  meat 
which  has  been  spoiled  in  the  salting, 
as  often  occurs  in  warm  weather.  The 
extent  to  which  pork  is  consumed  by  the 
industrial  classes  at  all  seasons,  renders 
it  important  that  the  rules  for  ascer- 
taining its  quality  should  be  well  known. 
In  selecting  bacon  the  purchaser  will  observe  several 
things.  He  will  not  find  it  economical  to  buy  bacon 
from  huge  animals  with  a  great  depth  of  fat  and  little 
lean  in  proportion  ;  nor  from  large  underfed  animals  with 
too  little  fat  and  too  much  skin  and  bone.  Smaller  sized 
and  well-fed  young  meat  is  best.  The  fat  of  this  will  be 
firm,  and  have  a  slight  pink  tinge,  but  feel  greasy  to  the 
touch  ;  the  lean  will  be  bright  and  stick  well  to  the  bone, 
and  the  rind  will  be  thin.  Rusty  or  reasty  bacon  will 
show  yellow  in  the  lean,  if  not  in  the  fat ;  and  will,  of 
course,  be  ill-flavoured. 

Hams  are  of  several  kinds.  Those  from 
Westphalia  are  dry,  and  hard,  and  covered 
with  spice,  not  nice  to  look  at,  and  requir- 
ing to  be  soaked  many  hours  in  cold  water 
before  cooking.  When  properly  cooked, 
however,  they  are  very  good.  Other 
foreign  hams  are  apt  to  be  coarse  and 
large -boned  ;  but  when  smaller  and 
well -cured  they  are  often  excellent. 
English  hams  vary  very  much.  Some 
are  small  and  dried  rapidly  after 
^"  very   slight    salting.       Others   are    large, 

thoroughly  salted,  and  slowly  dried. 
The  first  will  not  keep  so  well  as  the  latter,  but  for  present 
use  in  small  families  they  are  preferable.  A  ham  which 
is  smooth  in  the  rind  and  short  in  the  hock  is  most 
economical  and  the  best  eating.  Long-legged  animals  are 
not  to  be  relied  upon  either  for  hams  or  anything  else. 
After  selecting  a  ham  of  proper  size  and  shape,  its  sweet- 
ness must  be  tested.  The  usual  method  of  doing  this  is 
by  thrusting  a  knife  under  the  bone  which  appears  on  the 
fleshy  side  of  the  ham.  If  the  knife  comes  out  clean  and 
has  a  sweet  smell,  the  ham  is  sound,  but  if  smeared  and 
with  an  unpleasant  flavour  it  is  bad.  This  operation 
requires  to  be  performed  with  some  care,  otherwise  it  may 
be  found  that  the  meat  is  slightly  tainted  after  all. 

Venison. — This  is  chiefly  tested  by  the  fat.  If  the  meat 
is  young  the  fat  will  be  thick,  clear  or  bright,  and  close  ; 
but  if  old  the  fat  will  be  tough  and  coarse.  Venison  first 
begins  to  change  at  the  shoulders  and  haunches,  into 
which  a  knife  must  be  thrust.  If  the  meat  is  good  the 
knife  will  come  out  clean  and  smicU  sweet  ;  but  if  bad  the 
knife  will  be  discoloured,  and  smell  rank. 


CASSELL'S   HOUli.-.rivnAJ    v.uiur.. 


J.jr 


Patchwork  is  looked  upon  as  an  old- 
fashioned  thing.  But  many  old-fashioned 
things  are  being  revived — some  of  them  with 
benefit.  Patchwork  is  one  that  should  not 
be  despised.  Mere  cotton  patchwork  may 
be  made  pretty  to  look  at,  and  useful  for 
the  counterpanes  for  the  inferior  rooms  of 
a  house.  Counterpanes  are  rather  expensive 
articles,  if  good  ;  and  a  nicely  made  patch- 
work cover  looks  better  than  a  cheap  counter- 
pane. Patchwork  quilts  may  also  be  given 
in  charity.  Patchwork  made  of  pieces  of 
silk  and  satin  is  handsonje,  especially  if 
arranged  with  taste ;  and  may  be  used  for 
•quilts,  sofa  and  chair  covers,  cushions,  and  ottomans. 
Patchwork  counterpanes,  if  nicely  made,  look  exceedingly 
well.  The  pieces  can  generally  be  begged,  but  all  good 
upholstery  shops  will  sell,  and  even  give,  cuttings  to  good 
customers.  Patchwork  quilts  allow  of  great  exercise  of 
taste.  The  most  common  is  the  diamond,  each  device  kept 
by  alternately  light  and  dark  stars,  and  the  chess-boarrd 
pattern ;  but  there  are  many  others.  Some  are  simply  made 
of  squares  or  diamonds,  joined  without  order.     Counter- 


Fig  2. 


panes  are  often  made  by  mixing  a  variety  of  these  devices. 
The  centre,  perhaps,  may  be  of  stars ;  the  intermediate 
portion  and  the  border  chiefly  of  diamonds,  as  in  Fig.  I,  or 
squares,  as  in  Fig.  2. 

ELEMENTARY. 

Simple  squiires  are  the  commonest  kind  of  patchwork. 
Cut  them  two  inches  square  eacji  way.  They  are  cut  in 
card.  Any  common  visiting  or  trade  cards  will  do,  and 
covered   with   cotton  or  silk.     .A.11   pieces  are  use<l  nnd 

22 


338 


HOUSEHOLD    CHEMISTRY. 


joined  by  chance  and  without  order  ;  only  silk  and  cotton 
are  not  mingled  in  the  same  article — it  must  be  of  one  or 
the  other  only. 

Ceunterpanes  in  Patchwork. — Fig.  2  is  a  design  for  a 
patchwork  counterpane  or  table  cover,  which  may  be  made 
of  any  mixed  scraps  ;  keeping  the  dark  parts  of  the 
design  dark,  and  the  light  ones,  light  The  ground  is  of 
light  squares. 

This  would  make  a  beautiful  piece  of  fancy  work, 
in  purchased  materials  of  silk  or  satin.  The  centre 
diamond,  and  the  dark  squares  violet,  the  light  gold  colour  ; 
the  diamond  round  it,  dark  patches  of  bright  red,  of  a 
crimson  shade  ;  the  light  of  azure.  The  straight  lines  each 
way,  one  violet,  one  the  new  intense  green,  reversed  on 
the  opposite  side.  The  four  stars,  azure  for  the  light, 
crimson  the  dark.  The  zigzag  line,  bright  green.  The 
border  of  half-squares,  which  comes  next,  violet  The 
alternate  light  squares  at  the  corners,  gold  colour ;  the 
dkrk  half-squares  next  them,  crimson.  The  pattern-like 
clusters  of  light  azure  and  the  black  one  in  centre  dark 
crimson.  A  straight  line  round,  also  of  green.  Alter, 
make  squares  of  violet  Greek  border  of  azure.  Alternate 
squares  crimson.  Ground,  a  friars'  grey  (a  sort  of  pale 
neutral  green);  a  French  grey  (lavender);  azurehne (a pale 
bluish  tint) ;  a  stone  colour,  a  cream  colour  or  white.  Wad, 
and  line  with  silk.  Quilt  by  running  between  all  the  joins. 
Add  a  rich  upholstery  cord  all  round,  and  tassels  at  the 
corners  of  gold-coloured  silk. 

Colours  used  : — Azure,  bright  green,  violet,  gold  colour, 
crimson  ;  the  ground  colours  to  choice. 

Another  disposal  of  colours  : — All  the  dark  patches  a 
bright  crimson  red.  Greek  border,  azure,  and  straight 
border  of  a  light  colour  within  the  Greek  one,  Metternich 
green.  Light  part  of  the  clusters  of  fine  amber.  Light- 
coloured  alternate  squares  round  the  straight  diamond 
border,  Havannah.  Zigzag  border  inside  the  diamond  line, 
Metternich  green.  Four  stars  round  light  parts,  azure. 
Centre  diamond,  blue,  light  parts,  amber.  Ground  of 
friars'  grey.     Gold  tassels,  and  lining  bright  crimson. 

Colours  used  in  working  : — Bright  light  crimson,  azure 
blue,  Metternich  green,  golden  amber,  a  very  little  Havan- 
nah, friars'  grey. 

If  these  are  of  satin,  and  the  lining  of  sarcenet,  the 
quilt  will  be  splendid.  Join  the  lining  in  breadths.  Quilt 
with  friars'  grey  tailors'  twist 

It  may  be  as  well  to  explain  that  Metternich  green  is  that 
rich,  full,  deep-coloured  "  candlelight  green,"  almost  of  a 
verdigris  shade,  and  metallic  in  hue.  Havannah,  a  light 
brown,  richer  than  a  fawn.  The  worker  can  get  the  light 
shades  at  any  first-rate  Berlin  wool  depot,  and  match  them 
in  satin.  The  green,  however,  can  only  be  procured  in 
silk,  such  as  fdoselle.     Greens  in  wool  are  all  dull. 

Fig.  I  is  a  design  for  a  different  kind  of  patchwork  quilt 
It  is  a  sort  of  applique  work  on  stout  coarse  linen  sheeting. 

To  make  this,  in  the  first  place  apiece  of  stout  white  linen, 
a  yard  square  is  taken.  On  the  centre  of  this  a  patchwark 
star  (see  Fig.  i),  is  placed.  A  piece  like  a  ring  is  cut  from 
dark-coloured  chintz  and  run  on  round  this,  leaving  a  few 
inches  between  the  star  and  the  ring.  A  border  of  three 
rows  of  triangular  pieces  is  added.  Between  the  ring  and 
the  border  eight  inches  are  left,  filled  in  the  corners  with 
diamonds,  and  between  with  leaves.  A  border  six  inches 
square  is  covered  with  dark  crosses  at  the  corners  and 
diamonds  and  leaves  between  ;  this  is  bordered  by  a 
piece  of  light-flowered  chintz  a  foot  wide,  with  dark-col- 
oured diamonds  a  foot  square.  The  next  border  is  six 
inches  wide,  with  diamonds  and  ovals  attached  to  it  ;  the 
ground  light ;  the  diamonds  and  ovals  alternately  of  two 
or  three  colours.  A  border  of  striped  chintz,  with  a  fringe 
and  cord  all  round,  finishes  this  counterpane. 

We  shall  return  to  this  subject  and  give  other  designs 
in  a  forthcoming  paper.  The  size  of  the  patchwork  arti- 
cles we  may  of  course  leave  to  be  decided  by  the  require- 1 


ments  of  the  maker.  The  patterns  given  in  one  of  our 
present  examples  (Fig.  2),  may  be  very  readily  adjusted 
for  any  size  by  counting  the  squares  and  getting  the  same 
number  into  the  space  of  the  article  the  maker  has  in  hand. 


HOUSEHOLD  CHEMISTRY. 

INTRODUCTION. 
Chemical  operations  are  performed  every  hour  in  the 
day  in  every  household.  From  the  moment  when  the 
housemaid  strikes  the  first  match  in  the  morning  to  the 
moment  when  the  last  candle  is  extinguished  at  night  the 
forces  of  chemistry  are  at  work  ;  and  even  when  all  is  still, 
and  the  gentle  breathing  of  the  sleeping  inmates  is  the 
only  perceptible  movement  in  the  house,  that  very  breath- 
ing involves  a  beautiful  and  complex  chemical  process. 
And  yet  how  very  few  people  know  anything  of  chemistry ! 
The  mistress,  when  she  washes  her  hands,  produces  a 
double  decomposition — and  does  not  know  it.  The 
housemaid,  in  striking  the  lucifer,  is — little  as  she  suspects 
it — promoting  oxidation  through  the  influence  of  friction. 
And  the  cook  may  be  shortly  defined  to  be  a  skilful 
practical  chemist  who  knows  nothing  of  chemistry. 

We  hope  in  this  series  of  articles  to  illustrate  the  im- 
portance of  chemistry  in  our  everyday  lives,  and  the 
numberless  uses  to  which  even  a  slight  knowledge  of  it 
may  be  applied.  Systematic  instruction  in  the  science 
would  of  course  be  out  of  place  here.  The  title  which  we 
have  selected  indicates  our  plan  with  sufficient  distinct- 
ness. We  only  propose  to  draw  attention  to  those  facts 
in  chemistry  which  have  a  direct  practical  bearing  upon 
the  welfare  of  the  individual  household. 

FOOD. 
Let  us  begin  with  that  most  interesting,  most  impor- 
tant, and  most  extensive  subject,  food,  and  endeavour  to 
glean  together  some  few  of  the  many  facts  which  science 
has  made  known  in  regard  to  its  nature,  its  uses,  and  the 
various  methods  of  preparing  it  which  we  have  at  our 
disposal.  It  is,  indeed,  a  very  wide  subject,  for  not  only 
have  we  to  consider  a  multitude  of  different  substances, 
prepared  and  cooked  by  a  multitude  of  different  methods, 
but  we  must  also,  if  we  would  know  anything  of  the 
reason  of  the  facts  which  come  before  us,  endeavour  to 
learn  something  of  the  complex  changes  which  go  on'  in 
the  body,  and  the  way  in  which  the  food  we  eat  con- 
duces towards  them. 

Why  is  Food  required? — The  question  seems  almost 
absurd,  so  familiar  is  the  fact ;  and  yet  the  answer  to  it 
involves  one  of  the  grandest  chapters  in  the  history  of 
science.  In  its  simplest  form  it  may  be  given  in  three 
•woxdiS—food  is  fuel.  We  require  food  frequently  for  just 
the  same  reason  that  a  fire  requires  coals  frequently,  and 
a  lamp,  oil — because  we  are  burning  away.  Strange  as 
this  may  appear,  it  is  a  most  certain  fact.  The  air  that  we 
breathe  into  our  lungs  contains  oxygen,  and  this  oxygen 
combines  with  or  burns  the  muscles  and  other  organs  of 
our  bodies  just  as  it  does  the  coals  in  a  fire.  The  heat 
produced  in  a  man's  body  in  the  course  of  a  day  is  con- 
siderable in  quantity,  though  not  very  intense  in  quality. 
Taking  the  average,  it  is  enough  to  raise  five  and  a  half 
gallons  of  water  from  freezing  point  to  boihng  pointy  and 
this  is  about  the  heat  that  would  be  given  off  during  the 
burning  of  a  pound  of  coals.  All  this  heat  comes  from  the 
slow  wasting  or  burning  of  the  substance  of  the  body,  so 
that  it  is  evident  that  if  we  did  not  make  up  for  this  constant 
loss  by  eating  food,  our  organs  would  soon  be  wasted 
away  and  consumed.  A  moment's  thought  will  show  how 
closely  this  agrees  with  well-known  facts.  Why  does  an 
animal  become  so  thin  during  the  slow  and  painful  process 
of  .starvation  ?  Clearly  because  the  slow  fire  in  his  body 
is  not  fed  with  the  fuel  of  food. 
This  first  simple  view  of  the  object  of  food  must,  how- 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


339 


ever,  be  examined  a  little  more  narrowly,  and  we  then  find 
that  it  requires  a  slight  modification  before  we  can  accept  it. 
For  after  all  it  is  not  the  food  itself,  but  the  substance  of 
the  body,  which  is  burnt.  We  must  remember  that,  even 
if  no  food  is  eaten,  the  slow  burning  of  the  body  goes  on 
as  long  as  the  life  of  the  animal  lasts.  It  is,  therefore, 
evident  that,  although  it  is  ultimately  burnt,  the  immediate 
object  of  the  food  is  to  repair  the  body — to  make  up  for 
its  incessant  losses.  Let  us  look  for  a  moment  at  the 
changes  which  the  food  undergoes  when  eaten.  It  first 
goes  to  the  stomach,  and  is  there  subjected  to  the 
beautiful  cooking  process  which  is  called  digestion.  We 
shall  have  more  to  say  about  this  farther  on,  and  need 
only  remark  here,  that  by  it  the  food  is  converted  into 
a  creamy  liquid.  This  passes  on  into  the  intestines,  and 
hence,  by  a  most  elaborate  and  wonderful  process,  it  is 
absorbed  into  and  becomes  a  part  of  the  blood.  All  the  food 
which  acts  any  useful  part  in  the  body  is  first  converted 
into  blood.  The  blood — the  mighty  river  of  life,  as  it  has 
been  called — rushes  with  amazing  force  and  swiftness 
through  every  part  of  the  body.  And  it  is  from  the  blood 
that  the  constantly-wasting  organs  of  the  body,  muscles, 
bones,  nerves,  and  all  derive  their  nutriment ;  it  is  by  it 
that  their  losses  are  compensated.  Finally,  to  make  an 
end  of  this  part  of  the  wonderful  story,  it  is  by  the  blood 
that  the  worn-out,  burnt,  and  now  useless  materials  are 
removed  from  the  organs  and  thrown  out  of  the  body. 

Different  functio7is  of  Food. — Hitherto  we  have  as- 
sumed, for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  that  the  whole  heat  of 
the  body  is  derived  from  the  combustion  of  the  living 
organs  of  the  body,  and,  as  a  consequence,  that  all  the 
food,  after  it  is  converted  into  blood,  is  absorbed  by  and 
becomes  a  phrt  of  those  organs.  But  this  is  not  really 
the  case,  and  we  are  therefore  led  to  take  another  step 
onward  in  our  inquiry.  The  new  step  will  involve  a 
little  additional  labour  of  thought,  but  it  is  well  worth  the 
effort,  for  it  is  absolutely  necessary  if  we  wish  to  attain  an 
accurate  and  scientific  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  food. 
It  has  been  found  that  the  heat  produced  by  the  burning 
of  the  organs  of  the  body,  is  only  a  small  part  of  the 
whole  heat  of  the  body.  The  rest  of  the  heat  is  pro- 
duced by  the  direct  combustion  of  the  blood  itself  So 
that  although  all  the  useful  food  is  converted  into  blood, 
only  a  portion  of  that  blood  is  employed  in  repairing  the 
muscles  and  other  organs  of  the  body. 

We  are  thus  led  to  perceive  that  there  are  two  different 
uses  to  which  the  food  which  is  eaten  and  converted  into 
blood  has  to  minister.  The  first  is  the  repair  of  the 
organs,  and  the  second  the  direct  production  of  heat  in 
the  blood.  And  it  is  a  very  singular  and  interesting  fact, 
that  side  by  side  with  this  distinction  between  the  offices 
of  food,  there  is  an  equally  well  marked  distinction  between 
the  qualities  of  different  kinds  of  food.  Some  of  the  most 
important  constituents  of  food  are  utterly  different  in 
composition  from  the  solid  organs  of  the  body.  They 
cannot,  under  any  circumstances,  be  employed  in  the  body 
for  the  repairing  of  those  organs.  They  are  only  valuable 
for  the  heat  they  produce  when  they  are  burnt  in  the 
blood  ;  in  other  words,  they  are  mere  fuel.  Food  of  this 
kind  is  conveniently  described  as  heat-producing  food. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  another  great  class  of  food- 
ingredients,  which  consists  of  articles  almost  identical  in 
composition  with  the  organs  which  have  to  be  repaired. 
Let  us,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  confine  our  attention 
to  those  very  important  organs,  the  muscles,  which  con- 
stitute what  is  generally  called  the  flesh  of  the  animal. 
A  large  portion  of  all  food  has  almost  exactly  the  same 
chemical  composition  as  flesh.  It  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  main  purpose  of  food  of  this  kind  is  to  form 
flesh,  and  it  is  therefore  known  as  fleshforming  food. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  this  term 
does  not  convey  the  whole  truth  in  regard  to  this  kind  of 
food.     For  some  part  of  the  so-called  flesh-forming  food 


does  not  become  converted  into  flesh,  but  is  burnt  in  the 
blood,  like  the  heat-food.  And  even  that  part  of  it  which 
does  become  flesh  is  afterwards,  as  we  before  explained, 
wasted  away  and  burnt,  so  that  although  heat-food  can 
never  act  as  flesh-food,  flesh-food  can,  and  does  act  as 
heat-food.  Dr.  Savory  fed  some  rats  for  a  considerable 
time  entirely  on  flesh-forming  food,  and  he  found  that 
they  remained  in  good  health  and  retained  their  ordinary 
heat ;  but  this  experiment,  though  very  interesting  as 
illustrating  the  double  office  of  flesh-food,  must  not  be 
understood  as  proving  that  heat-food  may  be  dispensed 
with,  for  most  animals  would  suffer  very  seriously  upon 
such  a  diet,  and  require  a  properly-balanced  proportion  of 
the  two  kinds  of  food. 

Work  done  by  the  Body. — There  is  yet  another  aspect  of 
this  subject  which  must  not  be  left  unnoticed.  The  body 
is  not  only  a  producer  of  heat — it  is  a  very  powerful 
engine.  The  muscles  of  the  body  are  in  reality  machines 
for  doing  work.  And  the  work  they  do  is  much  greater 
than  most  people  have  any  idea  of.  A  strong  man  can 
easily  do  in  a  day  as  much  work  as  though  he  lifted  350 
tons  a  foot  high.  The  .heart  itself,  the  most  powerful  and 
the  most  untiring  of  the  muscles,  pumps  out  the  blood  which 
passes  into  it  with  a  force  which  appears  almost  incredible. 
At  every  beat  it  throws  out  five  or  six  ounces  of  blood, 
and  in  twenty-four  hours  from  fourteen  to  nineteen  tons  ! 
The  force  required  to  do  this  would  lift  fourteen  sacks 
of  coals  to  the  top  of  the  Monument  at  London  Bridge. 

The  whole  of  this  enormous  daily  work  is  done  at  the 
expense  of  the  food  consumed,  as  certainly  as  the  work 
done  by  a  steam-engine  is  done  at  the  expense  of  the  coals 
burnt  in  the  boiler-fire.  And  it  appears  probable  that  the 
parallel  is  still  closer,  for  as  in  the  steam  engine  the  work 
is  done,  not  by  the  coals,  but  by  the  heat  produced  from 
the  coals,  so  the  work  of  the  animal  body  is  done  by 
means  of  the  heat  developed  in  it,  and  the  whole  of  this  heat, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  comes  ultimately  from  the  food. 

It  was,  until  lately,  believed  that  all  the  work  of  the 
body  was  done  by  the  burning  of  the  muscles  themselves. 
If  this  were  true,  it  is  evident  that  flesh-forming  food 
would  be  the  only  kind  which  would  be  of  any  use  for 
the  doing  of  work.  But  ,this  has  been  clearly  shown 
to  be  a  mistake,  and  it  is  now  held  to  be  highly  probable 
that  both  kinds  of  food,  inasmuch  as  they  both  produce  heat 
in  the  body,  are  alike  serviceable  for  the  doing  of  work. 
The  practical  importance  of  the  question  will  be  perceived 
at  once.  Men  who  do  hard  work  eat  more  than  others, 
and  unless  they  know  the  right  kind  of  food  to  eat,  it  is 
obviously  possible  that  they  may  be  cramming  themselves 
with  large  quantities  of  food  which  is  of  little  or  no  real  use 
to  them.  We  shall  havemore  to  say  on  this  subject  hereafter. 

Classification  of  Food. — We  may  now  attempt  to  form 
a  classification  of  the  constituents  of  food,  which,  without 
pretending  to  purely  scientific  completeness,  shall  yet  be 
sufficient  for  the  practical  purposes  which  we  have 
in  view.  It  is  very  difficult  to  frame  a  thoroughly 
satisfactory  definition  of  food.  Perhaps  the  simplest  is 
that  which  includes  under  it  everything  which  is  assimi- 
lated in  the  body,  and  which  is  necessary  or  useful  to  it 
Taken  in  this  wide  sense,  the  term  must  be  applied  to 
some  substances  which  are  not  generally  reckoned  under 
it.  Water  for  instance,  common  salt,  and,  even  medicine, 
must  in  this  view  be  regarded  as  food,  and,  in  accordance 
with  it,  we  will  divide  Sie  materials  of  food  into  the  four 
following  heads  : — 

1.  Flesh-formers. 

2.  Heat-givers. 

3.  Mineral  food. 

4.  Stimulants,  spices,  flavours,  &c. 

The  two  last  of  these  may  be  dismissed  for  the  present 
with  ver)'  few  remarks.  We  shall  have  much  to  say 
hereafter  about  water,  and  something  about  salt    The 


340 


COOKING. 


laineral  c^bstancc  called  phosphate  of  lime  is  an  essential 
ingredient  of  food,  because  the  bones  of  animals  consist 
chiefly  of  it.  All  the  most  important  articles  of  food 
contain  it.  Our  fourth  head  is  of  necessity  very  vague. 
Under  it  we  include  alcohol,  tea,  coffee,  spices,  essences, 
and  many  other  things  which  are  useless,  or  nearly  so,  for 
the  actual  nourishment  of  the  body,  but  which  in  many 
cases  have  a  high  special  value  of  their  own.  The  first 
two  heads  require  a  somewhat  closer  examination. 

Flesh-formers. — The  solid  part  of  the  flesh  of  all 
animals  consists  chiefly  of  a  substance  called  fibrin. 
Fibrin  stands  naturally  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  flesh- 
formers,  for  nothing  could  be  more  suitable  for  the  repair 
of  the  flesh  than  flesh  itself  Albumin,  which  is  found  in 
the  juice  of  flesh,  in  the  white  of  egg,  and  in  the  blood,  is 
another  flesh-former,  very  similar  to  fibrin  in  composition 
and  properties.  It  is  equal  to  fibrin  as  a  flesh-former,  and 
as  it  is  soluble  in  water  in  its  natural  condition,  it  is  more 
easy  of  digestion.  It  has,  however,  the  curious  power  of 
becoming  insoluble  when  boiled.  White  of  egg  consists 
almost  entirely  of  albumin,  and  every  one  knows  how 
entirely  it  is  altered  by  a  few  minutes'  exposure  to  the 
heat  of  boiling  water.  Milk  contains  a  third  important 
flesh-former  called  Casein.  It  forms  the  curd  of  milk  and 
constitutes  the  greater  portion  of  cheese. 

These  three  substances,  almost  identical  in  composition 
with  one  another,  and  with  the  flesh,  are  the  most 
important  animal  flesh-formers.  But  it  has  been  found 
that  compounds  very  similar  both  in  composition  and 
properties  occur  in  those  vegetables  which  |are  used  as 
food.  If  a  little  flour  be  tied  up  in  a  small  linen  bag  and 
squeezed  under  water  with  the  fingers  for  some  minutes, 
a  line  white  powder,  called  starch,  is  squeezed  out  and  a 
sticky  mass  is  left  behind,  well  known  as  bird-lime.  This 
is  called  gin  tin.  It  is  a  very  important  and  valuable  flesh- 
former.  Lastly,  peas,  beans,  and  some  other  vegetable 
substances  contain  a  compound  called  legiwiin,  which  is 
similar  to,  some  say  identical  with,  casein  in  composition 
and  properties,  and  we  have  therefore  in  the  most  import^ 
ant  articles  of  food  five  distinct,  though  very  similar, 
flesh-formers. 

Heat-producers. — The  substances  which  are  exclusively 
destined  for  the  maintenance  of  the  animal  heat,  and 
thereby  to  the  production  of  work,  are  more  numerous 
than  the  flesh-formers,  with  the  exception  of  gelatin,  of 
which  we  .shall  speak  presently,  and  their  chemical  com- 
position is  much  better  understood.  Leaving  gelatin 
out  of  the  question  for  the  present,  they  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  the  three  following  classes  : — 

1.  Fats  and  oils. 

2.  Starches  and  gums. 

3.  Sugars. 

Fats  and  oils  form  a  very  well-marked  and  important 
class.  They  are  found  both  in  animal  and  vegetable 
foods,  and  differ  but  slightly  in  composition  in  all  cases. 
The  most  important  examples  among  animal  food  are  the 
fat  of  butchers'  meat,  the  suet,  lard,  and  dripping  which  are 
obtained  from  it,  and  butter,  which  in  the  form  of  cream 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  ingredients  of  milk.  Most  of 
the  staple  articles  of  vegetable  food  contain  a  greater  or 
less  proportion  of  fat  or  oil,  and  they  are,  in  particular, 
found  in  all  seeds. 

Starches  and  sugars  are  mainly  derived  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  though  examples  of  both  occur  in  the 
animal  body.  They  all  have  about  the  same  composition, 
and  although  they  contribute  largely  to  the  heat  of  the  body, 
they  are  not  as  valuable,  considered  merely  as  fuel,  as  the 
fats  and  oils,  which,  we  shall  hereafter  find,  give  out 
more  heat  in  their  burning  than  an  equal  weight  of  any 
other  article  of  food. 

Another  common  constituent  of  food  is  known  as 
gelatin.     It  occupies  a  somewhat  ambiguous  position  in 


our  classification.  It  can  only  be  obtained  from  certain 
animal  substances,  and  does  not  exist  ready-formed  even 
in  them.  When  the  tendons,  skin,  and  similar  parts  of 
animals  are  boiled  for  a  length  of  time  in  water,  they 
gradually  become  soluble  and  then  constitute  gelatin. 
Bones  behave  in  a  similar  manner,  but  the  mineral  matter 
remains  behind  unchanged.  Glue  and  size  are  prepared 
in  this  way  from  the  hides  of  animals.  They  consist  of 
somewhat  impure  gelatin.  Isinglass  is  nearly  pure 
gelatin,  and  it  is  found  in  a  less  pure  state  in  calves'  feet 
jelly,  and  in  the  substance  which  is  sold  under  the  name 
of  gelatin  in  the  shops. 

Gelatin  is  so  like  the  flesh-formers  in  composition  that 
we  should  naturally  be  inclined  to  class  it  among  them  ; 
and  it  is  almost  always  considered  by  persons  ignorant  of 
science  as  a  nutritious  and  valuable  food.  But  it  appears 
t©  be  nearly  certain  that  it  has  no  value  whatever  as  a  flesh- 
former,  and  it  must,  therefore,  be  classed  amongst  the 
heat-givers.  This  fact  is  of  greater  practical  importance 
than  we  should  at  first  sight  imagine.  How  often  do 
people  judge  of  the  quality  of  soup  or  broth  by  the  stifi"- 
ness  of  the  jelly  which  it  forms  on  cooling.  The  test 
is  utterly  fallacious,  because  the  stiffness  is  entirely  due 
to  gelatin.  It  is  very  easy  to  make  the  poorest  soup 
set  to  a  firm  jelly  by  merely  adding  to  it  a  little  isinglass. 
One  pound  of  gelatin  will  convert  ten  gallons  of  water 
into  jelly,  but  this  jelly  has  very  little  value  as  food,  and 
is  utterly  useless  for  the  production  of  flesh. 


COOKING. 

RIVER     F  I  ,S  H  . 


The  Carp,  of  which  we  on  the  next  page  gi\e  an 
engraving,  is  a  fish  retaining  its  place  in  general  Cookery 
mainly  on  the  strength  of  its  former  reputation.  In 
many  parts  of  the  Continent  it  is  still  held  in  more 
esteem  than,  in  our  own  opinion,  its  culinary  merits 
entitle  it  to.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  fish  to  keep  in  ponds, 
as  we  keep  pretty  birds  in  cages — to  look  at  and  not  to 
eat.  It  becomes  very  tame  ;  is  gifted  with  considerable 
cunning  ;  will  rarely  take  a  bait ;  when  enclosed  in  a  net, 
will,  if  at  the  bottom,  stick  its  nose  into  the  mud  and  let 
the  net  slip  over  it ;  or,  if  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  will 
"  take  back,"  like  a  horse  wanting  to  clear  a  hedge,  and 
then,  with  a  rush,  leap  over  it.  There  is  no  knowing  how 
long  a  carp  will  live  ;  we  have  ourselves  seen  carp  which 
must  have  been,  undoubtedly  and  with  no  mistake,  not  less 
than  eighty  or  ninety  years  of  age,  and  yet  quite  juvenile 
in  appearance.  The  length  of  days  once  accorded  to  the 
patriarchs  may  very  possibly  be  still  enjoyed  by  certain 
fish,  when  they  once  have  grown  big  enough  to  escape 
being  swallowed  by  their  hungry  admirers  and  friends. 

During  the  last  century  foolishly  high  prices  were  often 
paid  for  unusually  fine  specimens  of  carp.  The  real  value 
of  the  fish  (independent  of  its  handsome  appearance)  lay 
(in  those  ante-railway  days)  in  its  astonishing  tenacity 
of  life,  and  consequent  power  of  supporting  long  journeys 
without  injury  to  its  health.  Carp  were  sent  to  market, 
or  to  wealthy  customers,  on  approval,  and  if  not  purchased 
were  sometimes  returned  to  their  pond. 

Carp,  like  most  other  permanent  freshwater  residents, 
are  in  season  all  the  year  round,  except  during  the  interval 
between  their  spawning  (the  first  hot  days  in  May)  and  the 
flowering  of  wheat  (say  the  beginning  of  July).  No  con- 
noisseur would  ever  dream  of  buying  a  dead  carp.  Scale 
it,  remove  the  gills,  but  leave  the  head  ;  save  the  blood  (to 
be  cooked  in  the  sauce)  and  the  milt  or  roe.  Small  or 
undersized  fish  do  best  in  a  Matelote  (as  on  next  page)  ; 
fried,  or  otherwise,  they  are,  we  think,  very  poor  eating. 
Handsome  specimens  assert  their  right  to  the  honours  of 

Carp,  Stewed  Whole,  for  which  you  must  have  a  kettle 
not  much  larger  than  will  conveniently  hold  your  fish. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


341 


After  cleaning,  marinade  or  pickle  it  in  wine,  salt,  and 
vinegar,  with  the  addition  of  any  spices  or  aromatics  you 
please.  Six  or  eight  hours  will  not  be  too  long  for  it  to 
remain  there.  You  may  then  boil  it  either  in  Court- 
Bouillon  (see  p.  323),  or  in  wine  diluted  with  broth  or 
water.  When  the  fish  is  cooked,  lay  it,  without  breaking 
it,  in  its  dish  (without  a  strainer)  ;  take  enough  of  the 
boilings  to  make  your  sauce  ;  add  to  it  the  blood,  some 
thickening  and  browning,  some  seasonings,  in  which  you 
will  be  guided  by  your  own  discretion,  as  custom  allows  you 
a  very  broad  margin  in  the  preparation  of  this  pretentious 
dish.  Pour  the  boiling  sauce  over  your  carp,  and  make  a 
prominent  display  of  the  milt  or  roe. 

Stewed  Carp,  under  various  high-sounding  names,  may 
be  garnished  with  the  most  incongruous  and  expensive 
things  that  a  cook's  imagination  can  devise — with  orna- 
ments of  puff-paste,  crawfish,  cockscombs,  turkey  pinions, 
forcemeat  balls,  sliced  sweetbreads,  truffles,  dear  little 
dickey-birds,  and  what  not  besides.  Broiled  carp,  even 
with  caper-sauce,  is  not  a  dish  for  the  gods  nor  yet  for  the 
goddesses.  In  short,  considering  the  carp's  intelligent 
and  familiar  disposition  ;  considering  that  it  is  a  want  of 
the  respect  due  to  age  to  partake  of  a  creature  who  may  be 


excellent,  make  a  tasty  garnish  to  lay  round  /ar^e  dishes 
of  any  boiled  fish. 

Small  perch  (in  company  with  carp,  tench,  jack,  eels, 
and  whatever  else  comes  to  hand)  are  turned  perhaps  to 
the  best  advantage  in 

T/ie  Mariner  s  Matelote.~yN\\h  the  matelote  of  eggs 
we  gave  the  meaning  of  the  word.  Take  live  fish,  various 
and  sundry  ;  clean  them  without  washing  them ;  for 
mariners  hold  that  fish,  once  out  of  water,  should  never 
go  back  to  it.  Cut  it  in  pieces  without  losing  the  blood. 
Put  all  into  a  stewpan  with  a  couple  of  dozen  of  small 
white  onions,  scalded,  and  almost  cooked  enough.  Season 
with  salt,  pepper,  bay-leaf,  and  lemon-peel.  Pour  in 
enough  claret  or  red  vin  ordinaire  to  cover  the  fish. 
Boil  over  a  smart  fire,  taking  care  that  the  wine  does  not 
catch  fire.  Put  in  a  lump  of  butter  as  big  as  a  walnut. 
Arrange  your  fish  on  slices  of  toasted  bread,  and  pour  the 
sauce  over  them. 

Bream  and  Roach  are  hardly  worth  the  cooking.  You 
may  salt  and  stew  the  large  ones,  and  make  a  fry  of  the 
small  ones,  together  with  gudgeon,  bleak,  dace,  and  any 
other  "  such  small  deer  "  that  can  find  room  in  the  pan. 

Pike,  Bailed   Whole. — The  pike,  like  carp  and   most 


THE   CARP. 


older  than  your  great-grandfather,  should  he  be  alive  ;  and 
considering  that,  to  eat,  he  is  only  a  fourth-rate  fish,  we 
prefer  petting  and  feeding  a  carp  to  feeding  on  him. 

Stewed  Tench. — Tench  are  always  bought  alive.  They 
spawn  later,  and  therefore  continue  in  season  later  in 
spring  than  the  carp.  As  the  skin  is  invariably  eaten, 
carefully  remove  all  the  scales,  which  are  small  and  deep- 
set.  The  previous  pickling,  as  with  carp,  is  not  necessary, 
but  the  fish  will  be  all  the  better  for  it.  Then  treat  it  in  the 
same  way  as  for  stewed  carp,  omitting  the  extravagances, 
and  cooking  it  in  the  least  quantity  of  liquor  possible. 
As  the  boilings  from  tench  become,  when  concentrated,  a 
jelly,  stewed  tench  makes  a  handsome  as  well  as  a 
palatable  dish  cold,  for  which  purpose  it  may  hz  a  little 
more  highly  seasoned.  Indeed,  we  are  heretical  enough  to 
prefer  a  fine  tench  to  his  much  be-praised  cousin  the  carp. 

Boiled  Tench. — Prepare  as  above,  and  boil  in  salt  and 
water  acidulated  with  vinegar  when  cold.  It  may  be 
served  with  any  full-flavoured  sauce  you  prefer. 

Perch  is  an  excellent  fish,  with  white,  firm,  well-flavoured 
flesh,  when  taken  from  waters  that  are  clear  and  deep. 
When  you  buy  it  dead,  see  that  the  eyes  are  bright  and 
the  gills  rosy  red.  It  is  difficult  to  scale  ;  plunging  it  in 
boiling  water  a  minute  will  help  you  ;  but  ask  the  fish- 
monger to  clean  it  for  you,  and  beg  of  him  not  to  flay  it. 
Perch  boiled  in  vinegared  water,  and  served  with  essence 
of  anchovy  sauce,  is  a  delicate  and  dainty  dish,  light, 
and  easy  of  digestion.     Fried  perch,  bread-crumbed,  also 


other  fresh-water  fish,  is  in  season  throughout  the  cold 
months  of  the  year,  up  to  the  time  of  its  spawning  in 
spring.  It  then  becomes  "indisposed"  to  appearance  at 
table,  recovering  its  health,  also  with  carp,  when  wheat 
comes  into  flower.  As  this  event  conveys  no  precise 
date  to  most  town  residents,  we  would  advise  them  to 
extend  the  close  season  a  little  longer,  and  leave  pike 
unmolested  till  the  beginning  of  August.  It  is  best  to 
buy  pike  alive,  which  is  frequently  possible.  Fish  that 
have  died  in  the  water,  confined  and  starved  in  boxes,  or 
forgotten  in  hoop-nets,  are  of  quite  inferior  quality. 
Snared  or  speared  pike  are  sometimes  much  injured  by 
the  wire  or  the  spear.  If  killed  immediately,  the  fish  is 
none  the  worse  to  eat,  and  the  unsightly  scar  can  be  con- 
cealed with  garnishing.  Pike  from  muddy  waters  (the 
same  of  eels,  carp,  and  tench)  are  improved  by  keeping 
a  few  days  or  a  week  in  a  tank  fed  with  a  current  of  pure 
spring  water,  and  giving  them  a  few  gudgeons  and  roach 
to  serve  both  as  companions  and  pr/y.  The  usual  advice 
in  selecting  fish  is  to  take  short  plump  individuals,  and 
to  leave  those  of  longer  and  slenderer  proportions.  This, 
however,  must  be  accepted  with  a  certain  reservation. 
With  the  pike,  as  with  many  other  fish,  the  diffierence  of 
figure  is  distinctive  of  sex,  the  female  being  short  and 
deep,  the  male  long  and  slender.  The  flesh  of  both,  in 
season,  is  good  ;  the  main  question  of  preference  lies 
between  the  roe  and  the  milt  towards  the  Z\e:-,?  of  wirtor. 
There  is  a  tradition  that  the  pike  is  an  introduced  fish, 


342 


COOKING. 


naturalised  in  this  country  at  the  same  time  with  hops 
and  turkeys  ;  respecting  the  truth  of  which  we  entertain 
Urong  doubts.  Certainly,  live  pike  may  have  been 
Drought  to  England  and  turned  out  in  some  simple- 
minded  gentleman's  waters,  just  as  coals  may  have  been 
carried  to  Newcastle  ;  but  that  would  be  no  proof  that 
they  did  not  exist  here  before.  It  seems  scarcely  pos- 
sible that  a  fish  so  widely  distributed  throughout  Great 
Britain,  found  in  isolated  mountain-lakes  in  Wales  and 
Scotland,  in  Highland  rivers  with  no  other  communica- 
tion than  their  outlet — the  sea  (and  salt  water  is  fatal  to 
the  pike) — can  be  anythi<ig  else  but  a  native  species. 
Moreover,  in  1586,  Camden  wrote  his  dulcet  lines — 

"  Horsea  pike, 
None  like." 

Norfolk  must  very  speedily  have  attained  the  reputation 
for  pike  in  which  it  is  still  pre-eminent.  The  best-sized 
pike  for  the  table  ranges  from  three  to  eight  pounds. 
Heavier  fish,  though  handsome  on  the  board,  are  apt 
to  prove  coarse  when  tested  by  the  eating.  Small  pike 
(jack),  from  one  to  two  pounds,  are  delicate,  and  ex- 
cellent fried  whole.  For  boiling  nothing  can  be  better 
than  a  six-pound  fish.  For  a  large  party,  two  such  fish 
will  give  greater  satisfaction  to  the  palate  than  one  of 
twelve  pounds.  Scale  your  pike,  remove  the  eyes,  but 
leave  the  fins  for  show.  Empty  it ;  save  the  liver,  if 
good,  together  with  the  roe  or  milt.  Boil  these  in  salt 
and  water  a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  twenty  minutes,  ac- 
cording to  their  size,  and  set  them  aside.     Then  make 

Stuffings;  for  Pike. — After  grating  enough  bread-crumb 
to  fill  your  pike's  belly  two-thirds  full,  make  up  the  other 
third  with  chopped  veal  or  beef-suet,  the  liver  and  roe  or 
milt  broken  up,  the  rind  of  half  a  lemon  minced  fine,  a 
little  fine- chopped  parsley,  fennel,  and  chervil,  with  a  fair 
sprinkling  of  pepper  and  salt ;  during  the  mushroom 
season  chopped  mushrooms  or  buttons  may  be  added ; 
make  this  into  a  stiff  paste,"with  two  or  three  raw  eggs 
broken  into  it.  The  belly  of  your  pike  being  well  wiped 
out,  stuff  it  with  this,  and  sew  up  the  opening  with  needle 
and  thread.  Then  tie  the  head  and  tail  together,  passing 
the  tail  between  the  jaws,  so  as  to  make  an  "eternity"  fish. 
Then  drop  the  pike  in-to  a  large  kettle  of  boiling  water, 
with  a  small  handful  of  salt  in  it.  A  six-pound  fish  will 
take  about  half  an  hour's  boiling,  but  it  is  illusory  to  fix 
the  precise  number  of  minutes.  A  thick  female  fish, 
stuffed,  will  evidently  take  longer  cooking  than  a  slim 
male  fish,  unstuffed.  If  you  have  any  stuffing  left,  you 
may  make  it  into  cakes,  brown  them  in  a  Dutch  oven, 
and  use  as  garnishing.  Serve  your  boiled  pike  on  a 
napkin,  garnished  with  parsley,  and  accompanied  by 
anchovy  sauce,  i.e.,  melted  butter  with  which  two  or 
three  teaspoonfuls  of  essence  of  anchovy  have  been 
incorporated  in  a  saucepan  over  the  fire. 

Pike,  Baked  Whole. — For  this,  take  a  fish  of  not  less  \ 
than  four,  nor  more  than  eight  pounds'  weight.  Stuff  and 
truss  it  as  before,  with  a  more  liberal  allowance  of  suet 
in  the  stuffing.  Put  it  into  a  circular  dish,  not  too  deep, 
that  will  stand  tjie  oven.  Pour  over  it  enough  flour  and 
water,  or  flour  and  broth,  to  make  plenty  "of  gravj'. 
You  may  add  thereto  a  gla^s  of  wine,  white  or  red. 
Lay  dabs  of  butter  along  the  back  of  your  fish,  and  set 
it  into  tlie  oven,  where  you  must  be  able  to  baste  it  con- 
tinually from  the  moment  the  butter  begins  to  melt. 
If  you  cannot  do  this,  better  give  up  baking  your  pike. 
The  time  will  depend  on  the  briskness  of  the  oven. 
When  done,  serve  the  pike  on  a  hot  dish.  Strain  the 
gravy  througli  a  small  cullender  into  a  saucepan,  stir 
in  a  teaspoonfui  of  essence  of  anchovy,  or  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  catchup,  or  a  glass  of  red  wine,  let  boil  an 
instant,  and  send  up  in  a  sauceboat.  Large  pike,  of 
twelve  pounds  and  upwards,  are  best  divided  into,  say, 
four  portions;  the  head  and  shoulders,  two  middle  pieces, 


and  the  tail.  The  first  and  the  last  may  be  boiled,  and 
served  accompanied  by  anchovy  sauce,  and  garnished 
with  forcemeat  baked  into  cakes  or  boiled  as  small 
dumplings,  or  both.  One  middle  piece  may  be  stuffed, 
and  roasted  with  a  bottle-jack  before  the  fire.  The  other 
may  be  cut  up,  lengthwise,  into  squares  or  oblong  pieces, 
removing  the  'bor\e.s,fried,  and  served  with  anchovy  sauce. 
This  is  the  most  expeditious  plan  (and  not  the  least 
palatable)  when  a  large  pike  is  sent  into  the  house,  and 
a  dish  of  fish  demanded,  with  little  time  to  prepare  it 
in.  The  pike  being  deficient  in  fat  does  not  lend  itself 
satisfactorily  to  pickling  or  potting,  or  other  preparations 
with  vinegar  and  spice.  In  trout  and  salmon  countries  it 
is  unduly  underrated.  Pike-fishers  there  are  looked  upon 
as  amateur  rat-catchers  would  be  in  sporting  counties, 
which  does  not  prevent  a  nice-sized  pike  from  being  very 
acceptable  meat  now  and  then. 

Eels  Stewed  with  Sorrel,  D.B. — Large  eels  are  not 
required  for  this  dish,  middle-sized  ones  are  the  best, 
small  ones  will  do.  Buy  them  alive.  If  you  can  pr»- 
cure  them  from  brackish  water,  rivers'  mouths,  or  estu- 
aries, all  the  better.  When  skinned,  cut  them  into 
pieces  three  or  three  and  a  half  inches  long.  Put  them 
into  a  vessel  or  bowl,  pour  boiling  water  over  them, 
to  make  them  discharge  what  blood,  &c.,  they  may 
contain.  The  French  kitchen  term  for  this  operation, 
whether  performed  with  cold  or  boiling  water,  is  degorger, 
for  which  our  word  "disgorge"  is  rather  too  strong.  Its 
object  is  not  only  to  improve  colour  by  rendering  pro- 
visions whiter  and  more  delicate-looking,  but  to  remove 
strong  and  unpleasant  flavours.  It  will  thus  often  render 
agreeable  articles  otherwise  unpalatable.  It  is  not  a 
cooking,  but  a  mere  preliminary  to  cooking.  As  soon  as 
the  articles  are  sufficiently  cleansed,  they  are  taken  out  of 
the  water,  drained,  and  the  real  cooking  then  begins ; 
therefore,  set  your  cleansed  pieces  of  eel  aside  to  drain. 
All  eels,  in  whatever  way  they  are  to  be  dressed,  should 
be  thus  treated.  Take  two  or  three  handfuls  of  broad- 
leaved  sorrel  ;  if  not  to  be  had,  any  garden  variety;  in 
default  of  which,  the  wild  sorrel  of  the  pastures  will  do ; 
wash  it  well,  to  get  rid  of  sand  and  dirt.  If  the  leaves 
are  tender,  as  in  spring,  put  them  as  they  are  into  a  sauce- 
pan with  the  water  adhering  to  them,  cover  them  down 
close  with  the  lid,  stew  them,  and  work  them  to  a  mash 
with  a  spoon.  Later  in  the  season,  when  the  mid  rib  of 
the  leaf  is  tough,  strip  off  the  green  portion,  and  stew  that 
only  to  a  mash.  Thus  prepared,  with  the  addition  of  a 
little  salt,  sorrel  will  keep  for  some  little  time,  and  be 
ready  when  wanted.  The  French,  in  fact,  in  whose 
cookery  sorrel  is  absolutely  a  necessary  ingredient,  boil  it 
down  in  this  way  during  the  course  of  summer,  as  a  pro- 
vision for  their  winter  requirements.  In  every  small 
French  town,  prepared  sorrel,  fit  for  immediate  use,  may 
be  bought  by  pennyworths,  and  less.  Chop  a  few  onions 
very  fine.  Put  butter  in  a  stewpan  ;  when  it  is  brown, 
cook  the  chopped  onions  in  it.  Season  with  pepper  and 
salt.  Throw  in  your  eels,  and  let  them  brown  in  the 
butter.  When  they  are  nearly  done  enough,  add  the 
sorrel  prepared  as  above.  When  the  eels  are  quite  done, 
take  them  out  with  a  spoon,  and  lay  them  on  the  dish  in 
which  they  are  to  be  served.  Take  the  saucepan  with  the 
sorrel  in  it  off  the  fire.  As  soon  as  it  has  ceased  boiling, 
stir  into  it  two  yolks  of  t^z  (o''  rnore,  according  to  the 
quantity  of  eel),  working  them  together,  round  and  round, 
until  all  is  smooth  and  thoroughly  incorporated.  Then 
pour  the  sorrel  over  the  eels,  and  serve. 

Eels  are  curious  and  contradictory  creatures.  They 
are  so  tenacious  of  life  as  to  be  hard  to  kill,  and  yet  can 
neither  stand  heat  nor  cold.  A  sharp  frost,  or  a  tempe- 
rature a  httle  above  100''  Fahr.,  does  for  them  com- 
pletely. They  were  long  believed  viviparous  (not  to 
mention  the  advocates  of  their  spontaneous  generation), 
but  are  now  asceftained  to  be  produced  from  roe,  like 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


34'3 


other  bony  fishes.  The  parents  prefer  brackish  water  to 
spawn  in.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  young  perform  a 
migration  up-stream,  which,  on  many  rivers  is  called  eel- 
fare.  We  have  seen  them,  a  couple  of  inches  long,  crawl- 
ing up  sluice-gates,  mill-dams,  and  other  obstacles  which 
would  seem  impossible  to  be  surmounted  by  such  tiny 
creatures. 


THE  REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF 
CHILDREN. 

X. — DIETARY     OF     YOUTH. 

The  principal  stages  of  growth  maybe  broadly  defined  as 
those  of  infancy — ranging  from  birth  till  the  age  of  two 
years  ;  childhood — from  two  to  seven  years  ;  and  youth — 
from  the  latter  period  until  maturity  is  attained.  Through- 
out these  respective  stages  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  the  food  suppHed'to  the  growing  frame  should  be  of  a 
nature  not  only  adequate  to  arrest  the  cravings  of  hunger, 
but  likewise  to  ensure  the  development  of  the  body  and 
mind.  The  latter  is  a  consideration  of  fully  as  much 
weight  as  the  welfare  of  the  body,  for  it  has  been  proved 
by  incontestable  evidence  that  under-fed  children  are  apt 
to  be  of  puny  intellect,  whilst  those  who  are  rationally 
nourished  usually  possess  the  supreme  blessing  of  a  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  chief  articles  of  food 
which  are  suitable  to  the  wants  of  early  childhood  ;  it 
remains  now  to  consider  what  changes  and  additions 
become  necessarj'  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  more 
active  period  of  existence.  The  simple  nourishment,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  milk  and  farinaceous  foods,  so  invaluable 
at  an  earlier  age,  needs,  in  youth,  the  reinforcement  of 
stronger  elements.  More  meat  is  necessary,  more  fat, 
more  bone-forming  substances.  A  dietary  which,  from 
oversight  or  any  other  cause,  is  of  too  uniform  a  character, 
however  wholesome  in  its  constituents,  fails  to  fulfil  the 
general  utility  of  food,  simply  because  its  powers  are  con- 
fined to  one  sphere  of  action.  For  instance,  there  are 
certain  foods,  as  rice,  in  which  the  flesh-forming  proper- 
ties are  very  small ;  and  there  are  others,  as  dry  peas,  in 
which  the  same  properties  are  large.  Again,  in  rice,  the 
bone-forming  properties  are  only  contained  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one-third  to  what  is  found  in  dry  peas  ;  yet  the 
food  of  growing  boys  and  girls  is  liable  to  consist  more 
largely  of  rice  than  of  peas,  for  no  reason,  possibly,  than 
that  the  one  is  more  easily  prepared — "  readier  to  hand  " — 
than  the  other.  The  same  illustration  may  be  applied  to 
a  variety  of  foods,  which  arc  unwittingly  given  or  with- 
held, to  the  benefit  or  detriment  of  the  growing  frame,  as 
pure  chance  may  decide. 

The  chief  point  to  aim  at  in  feeding  young  persons  is 
variety.  Our  range  of  food  is  unlimited,  and  the  con- 
sumption should  not  be  restricted  to  a  few  articles,  except 
in  cases  of  impaired  health.  The  more  we  limit  the  tastes 
of  growing  children,  the  more  liable  is  their  digestion  to 
suffer  later  in  life.  lilany  pwirents,  from  over-anxiety,  con- 
fine their  family  fare  to  what  they  consider  the  strictly 
wholesome,  and,  by  so  doing,  nauseate  the  stomachs  of 
their  offspring.  Others,  for  the  sake  of  economy,  prescribe 
a  certain  course  of  living  from  one  week's  end  to  the  other. 
The  intention  is  to  regulate  expenses,  but  it  does  not 
answer  in  the  long  run.  The  appetite  soon  fails  ;  certain 
dishes  on  certain  days  are  regularly  refused  by  some 
members,  who  prefer  to  eat  dry  bread,  perchance,  to  the 
unwelcome  stew  or  soup.  But  in  advocating  variety  in 
the  selection  and  use  of  food,  we  must  caution  our  readers 
against  suddenly  adopting  any  very  material  change  in 
diet,  as  serious  consequences  have  been  known  to  follow 
too  abrupt  a  departure  from  an  established  system  of 
dietary. 

The  error  of  too  exclusive  a  dietary  is  most  apt  to  be 


committed  in  large  schools.  Although  everything  may  be 
wholesome  that  is  set  before  them,  many  children  loathe 
some  of  their  meals ;  and  if  they  have  not  the  means  to 
buy  such  substitutes  as  the  "tuck  shop"  supplies,  they 
fare  but  badly,  and  are  liable  to  fall  into  ill  health.  An 
instance  of  the  craving  of  children  for  the  apparently  un- 
wholesome, and  the  beneficial  change  which  freedom  to 
indulge  in  such  coveted  treats  effects,  has  recently  occurred 
in  one  of  the  largest  public  schools  in  England.  With  a 
view  to  counteract  some  ailments  which  occasionally  broke 
out  in  the  school,  the  boys  were  forbidden  to  buy  any 
sweets,  cakes,  or  fruit.  The  shop  which  had  been  sanc- 
tioned in  the  play-ground  for  the  sale  of  such  things  was 
closed,  and  strict  watch  was  kept  to  prevent  any  surrepti- 
tious articles  from  being  smuggled  into  the  school.  Very 
few  weeks  had  elapsed,  however,  before  the  authorities  of 
the  school  were  puzzled  by  the  sudden  outbreak  of  skin- 
diseases  amongst  boys  of  constitutions  least  subject  gene- 
rally to  maladies  of  the  kind.  Something  wrong  in  the 
dietary  was  suspected.  Although  perfectly  wholesome,  it 
was  shrewdly  surmised  that  it  might  be  too  exclusive  ef 
such  things  as  growing  children  crave  for.  The  order 
against  "the  shop"  was  rescinded.  The  boys  flocked 
daily  to  its  stores  for  sour  apples,  currant  cakes,  hardbake, 
treacle,  chocolate,  and  the  innumerable  compounds  which 
children  delight  in.  As  if  by  magic,  the  eruptive  com- 
plaints began  to  disappear  with  a  suddenness  as  remark- 
able as  the  outbreak  had  been. 

Undoubtedly,  children  brought  up  in  homes  where  the 
appetite  is  pampered  by  sweets  and  stimulating  diet  re- 
quire a  totally  different  treatment.  Curtailment  then 
becomes  necessary  in  most  cases.  But  growing  boys  and 
girls  at  school,  and  youths  prematurely  confined  during 
long  hours  in  workshops  and  offices,  have  few  opportu- 
nities of  similar  indulgences.  Proyided  a  sufficient  interval 
be  placed  between  meals,  and  that  the  food  is  properly 
cooked,  young  people  so  circumstanced  may  eat  almost 
anything,  and  the  greater  the  change  of  food  the  better. 

The  best  test  of  the  quantity  a  youth  ought  to  be  allowed 
to  consume  will  be  found  in  his  own  appetite.  When, 
having  vigorously  attacked  whatever  has  been  set  be- 
fore him,  the  appetite  flags,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  meal  ought 
speedily  to  end,  and  not  to'  receive  stimulating  additions. 
For  instance,  if  a  boy,  having  brought  a  good  appetite  to 
the  task,  finds  it  a  difficulty  to  consume  the  portion  of  meat 
allotted  to  his  share,  and  declares  he  can  eat  no  more,  it 
is  injurious  to  his  health  to  tempt  him  to  prolong  the 
meal  by  the  offer  of  puddings,  pies,  &c.  The  bait, 
although  irresistible,  is  injurious  and,  if  often  repeated, 
cannot  fail  to  impair  the  soundest  digestion. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  well-known  preference  of  chil- 
dren for  puddings  instead  of  meat,  it  is  a  cohimon  practice 
in  some  establishments  to  set  the  pudding  on  the  table 
before  the  joint.  Having  satisfied  the  fost  craving  of 
hunger  with  the  least  expensive  fare,  the  meat,  from  its 
comparative  unpalatableness,  is  often  sent  away  untasted. 
Economy  of  this  kind  is  a  great  injustice  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  a  growing  child.  Meat,  in  some  form  or  other,  is 
highly  necessary  food  in  our  climate  daily,  especially  in 
the  confined  atmosphere  of  town  life,  combined  with  ex- 
cessive activity  of  mind. 

Dr.  Lankester  writes  very  forcibly  on  this  subject. 
Having  cited  historical  instances  to  the  effect  that  those 
races  who  have  partaken  of  animal  food  have  been  the 
most  vigorous,  the  most  moral,  and  the  most  intellectual 
races  of  mankind,  he  adds  that  "it  is  vain  for  a  man  to 
expect  to  get  through  intellectual  or  physical  labour  with- 
out an  abundant  supply  of  the  material  of  thought  and  of 
physical  power."  Animal  food  is  the  readiest  means  of 
securing  this  supply.  As  it  is  with  adults  so  it  is  with 
children,  with  the  additional  demand  in  the  latter  case  for 
extra  nourishment  consequent  on  growth.  The  question, 
has,  however,  two  sides. 


344 


COTTAGE    FARMING. 


COTTAGE   FARMING. 

V. — ARABLE    HUSBANDRY   {continued.) 
The  course  of  cropping  should,  as  much  as  practicable, 
correspond  to  the  requirements  of  the  cottage  farm  and 
the  cottager. 

).  If  he  has  nothing  but  his  farm  or  freehold^  to 
depend  upon,  and  keeps  two  or  three  milch  cows,  the  'ex- 
tension of  the  four  or  five  course  shift  may  meet  his 
demands. 

2.  If,  however,  his  farm  is  too  small  to  find  him 
in  full  employment,  and  if  he  is  consequently  either 
engaged  in  any  handicraft,  as  shoemaker,  tailor,  car- 
penter, or  in  the  service  of  a  large  farmer,  &:c.,  such  will 
materially  affect  his  position,  for  then  a  less  extended 
system,  with  fewer  kinds  of  crops,  may  suit  him  better. 

3.  If  the  whole  work  on  the  small  farm  is  done  by  con- 
tract, with  the  exception  of  the 
feeciing,  milking,  and  attending  one 
or  two  milch  cows,  the  four  or  five 
course  shift  of  cropping  may  be 
the  best  adapted  for  him — the 
former,  the  four  course,  if  he  has 
a  small  paddock  or  park  in  perma- 
nent pasture  for  his  cows  ;  and  the 
latter,  the  five  course,  if  he  has  not. 

4.  If  a  labouring  cottager,  who    has  not  full  employ 


Fig.  I. 


of  Great  Britain,  as  compared  with  the  eastern  seaboard, 
give  rise  to  similar  circumstances  relative  to  the  best 
course  of  cropping  to  be  adopted. 

6.  The  geological  character  of  the  soil  will  also  affect 
the  course  of  cropping.  It  is  the  province  of  art  to  break 
down  differences  under  this  head  to  a  common  equality, 
and  much  has  been  done  of  late  in  this  direction.  Still 
there  remains  a  wide  difference  in  many  examples,  where 
light  chalky  soils,  heavy  clays,  and  ferruginous  gravels 
call  for  a  corresponding  difference  in  the  course  of  crop- 
ping and  crops  best  adapted  for  each.  Lucerne,  for 
example,  may  be  grown  several  years  in  succession  on 
some  chalky  and  sandy  soils,  and  so  may  sainfoin. 

7.  The  taste  and  wealth  of  the  cottager,  command  of 
labour,  size  of  farm,  and  demand  for  produce  of  the  land, 
form  another  series  of  questions,  each  of  which  requires  its 
own  solution  in  determining  the  course  of  cropping.     The 

first — taste  and  wealth — require  no 
answer.  The  question  of  labour 
will  be  subsequently  considered 
under  a  separate  paragraph.  The 
size  of  the  farm  and  demand  for  its 
produce  will  depend  upon  the  family 
of  the  cottager.  If  the  produce  of 
the  farm  exceeds  the  consumption 
of  the  family,  the  question  resolves 
into  whether  the  excess  can  best  be   sold   in  the 


itself 


ment  at  home,  can  undertake  the  hired  work  of  another  \  form  of  dairy  produce,  as  milk  or  butter,  veal,  pigs  and 
small  farm — a  very  common  example — then  the  most  ex-  \  poultry,  and  so  on. 


tended  four  or  five  course  shift  of  cropping  may  best  suit 
the  convenience  of  both  cottagers,  as  the  smaller  the 
plots  the  less  risk  will  there  be  in  seed-time  and  harvest. 

5.  A  difference  of  climate  will  affect  the  course  of  crop- 
ping less  or  more.  If,  for  illustration,  we  take  two  extremes 
— the   southern   and   northern    counties    of    the    United 


the  former  Cthe  southern  counties  of  1  between  the  former  two- 


Kingdom — then  in 
England)  milch 
cows  may  graze  on 
the  pasture  eight 
or  nine  montbs,  so 
that  winter  pro- 
vision has  only  to 
be  made  for  three 
or  four  months  ; 
whereas  in  the 
latter— the  northern 
counties  of  Scot- 
land— milch  cows 
can  only  graze 
about  five  months  ; 
consequently,   they 

are  housed  for  the  seven  long  months  of  the  winter  season, 
and  have  to  be  provided  for  accordingly.  And  these  two 
extremes  are  not  only  wide  asunder  as  to  the  length  of  the 
winter  season,  when  milch  cows  are  housed,  and  the  length 
of  the  summer  season,  during  which  food  for  the  whole  year 
is  provided,  but  also  as  to  the  crops  which  can  be  culti- 
vated. Thus,  in  the  south  two  crops  can  be  taken  in  one 
year,  or  three  crops  in  two  years  ;  but  in  the  north  bastard 
spring  crops  of  tares  and  clover  and  autumn  crops  of 
turnips  cannot  be  grown,  so  that  one  crop  yearly  is  all 
that  can  be  taken  off  one  plot  of  land.  Again,  in  the  south 
harvest  is  early,  so  that  stubbles  can  be  autumn  fallowed 
and  manured  ;  whereas  in  the  north  this  can  only  be  done 
in  a  few  exceptionally  early  seasons.  Throughout  the 
intervening  counties,  between  these  two  extremes  of  south 
and  north,  the  gradation  of  climate  (the  altitude  as  well  as 
the  latitude  of  the  land  being  duly  considered)  requires 
to  be  carefully  taken  into  account  in  determining  the  best 
course  of  cropping  to  be  adopted.  The  peculiarly  moist 
and  mild  atmosphere  and  soil  of  Ireland,  so  favourable  to 
the  growth  of  grass  and  root  crops  for  dairy  husbandry, 
together  with  the  moister  climate  of  the  w;estern  seaboard 


Having  determined  the  course  of  cropping,  the  next 
question  for  solution  is  the  system  of  cultivation  best 
suited  for  carrying  it  into  eft"ect,  say  on  small  farms  of 
from  two  to  twenty  acres,  i.e.,  whether  spade-husbandry, 
horse-culture  (Fig.  i),  or  steam-culture  (Fig.  2),  or  any 
combination    of  thern.     Until  recently  the  question   lay 


ll:e  Fp: 


de  and  plough  ;  but  as 
steam  has  now  been 
proved  far  more 
advantageous  than 
either,  the  conclu- 
sion is  manifest 
that  a  combination 
of  steam  -  culture 
with  spade  -  hus- 
bandry is  the  most 
suited  generally,  as 
it  promises,  under 
ordinary  good 
management,  to 
yield  from  sixteerv 
to  twenty  bushels 
more  corn  per  acre,  and  from  twice  to  three  times  the 
weight  of  root  and  forage  crops,  provided  the  land  is 
laid  out  for  steam  as  already  directed.  In  digging 
with  the  spade  or  fork  an  acre  of  strong  clay  land 
twelve  inches  deep  the  cottager  lifts  about  twenty-four 
hundred  tons  ;  and,  as  driving  in  the  spade  not  unfre- 
quently  requires  the  exertion  of  more  labour  than  lifting 
the  spit,  it  follows  that  the  whole  bodily  toil  of  the  cot- 
tager cannot  be  estimated  at  less  than  twice  the  above,  or 
forty-eight  hundred  tons.  And  this  heavy  toil  is  not  the 
only  drawback  to  spade-husbandry ;  for  at  every  spit  the 
cottager  lifts  his  foot  and  sets  it  down,  thus  trampling  the 
land,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  spit  has  to  be  added  to  that 
of  his  own- body  in  determining  the  effect  produced;  and 
as  there  will  be  about  174,240  spits  in  digging  an  acre,  it 
is  not  very  easy  to  estimate  the  harm  done  to  the  land  by 
trampling,  especially  when  the  cottager  is  obliged  to  dig 
in  bad  seasons,  as  is  often  the  case.  Hence  the  reason 
why  so  few  have  adopted  spade-husbandry,  preferring  to 
have  their  land  ploughed.  But  steam  promises  to  obviate 
the  heavy  toil  of  deep  digging  ;  for,  if  properly  laid  out, 
three-fourths  of  the  farm,  when  cultivated  on  a  four  course 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


345 


shift  however  extended — and  three-fifths  when  cuhivated 
on  a  five  course  shift,  also  however  extended— may  be 
deeply  ploughed  in  the  autumn,  and  subsoiled  if  necessary, 
the  land  being  left  in  a  far  better  state  for  the  winter  frost 
and  drainage  than  can  be  done 
by  the  digging- fork  or  horse- 
plough.  The  plots  requiring 
manure  may  be  manured,  and 
the  steam  contractor  will  cart  out 
and  cover  the  manure  before  he 
leaves  the  farm.  This  concludes 
the  heavy  work.  The  subsequent 
operations  of  seeding,  hoeing,  and 
loosening  the  land  with  the 
digging -fork  in  the  spring  can 
be  done  by  the  cottager  or  a  hired 
servant  on  piecework,  as  will  sub- 
sequently be  shown.  The  heavy 
labours  of  clover  and  rye  grass, 


DECORATIVE  MODELLING. 
A  Bracket. — Let  us  say  that  our  student  has,  in  the 
entrance-hall  of  his  home,  wall  space  on  which  four 
brackets  can  be  placed.  We  shall  presently  fill  them  with 
vases  or  busts,  but  will  first  model 
the  brackets  themselves.  The 
ornament  upon  them  shall  betaken 
from  nature,  and  they  shall  repre- 
sent the  Four  Seasons.  The  first 
proceeding  will  be  to  get  two 
pieces  of  board,  of  the  size  and 
proportions  of  our  proposed 
bracket,  nailed  together  at  right 
angles,  thus,  f.  This  frame  must 
be  laid  on  the  inclined  plane,  and 
a  solid  core  or  body  of  clay  (which 
will  give  the  general  form  of  the 
bracket,  and  must  be  similar  in 
all   the   set)  built  upon  it.     (See 


THE    CORE 


<- 

li^ 


Fig.  4 

hay  and  corn  harvest,  can  be  con- 
tracted for  by  machinery,  with  or 
without  the  labours  of  the  cottager, 
as  the  case  may  be.  There  are, 
however,  many  exceptions  to  the 
above,  which  we  shall  treat  under 
spade-husbandry. 


HOUSEHOLD   DECORATIVE 
ART. 

X.  —  MODELLING     IN     CLAY     FOR 
AMATEURS  {continued). 

Our  first  lesson  has  been  for  practice 
only,  and  when  the  model  has  been 
carefully  and  conscientiously  finished, 
the  student  cannot  do  better  than 
break  it  up  and  see  that  the  clay  is 
re-prepared  for  use,  as  directed  in 
the  section  on  Material ;  but  we 
shall  suppose  that  by  copying  the 
cast,  sufficient  skill  has  been  attained 
ducing  something  more  original  in 
worth  preserving. 


Fig.  3- 

Fig.  I.)  On  this  the  ornamental 
parts  will  be  modelled,  but  before 
that  is  done  it  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  for  a  day  uncovered,  that  it 
may  slightly  harden  and  **  set./"  We 
propose  that  each  bracket  shall  be 
ornamented  with  the  appropriate 
growth  of  the  season  it  represents. 
Spring  shall  have  the  primrose, 
anemony,  and  snowdrop  ;  Summer, 
oak  and  briony ;  Autumn,  grapes, 
corn,  and  the  convolvulus  ;  Winter, 
holly  and  ivy.  Having  placed  the 
natural  objects  to  be  copied  beside 
his  work,  the  student  may  begin  tp 
form  his  composition.  And  here 
we  may  remark  that  if  he  possesses 
some  knowledge  of  drawing,  and  can 
make  a  rough  sketch  on  paper  of  the 
general  maimer  in  which  he  proposes 
to  arrange  his  design,  he  will  save 
himself  some  little  trouble  ;  but  this 
Figa.— sKCTioN.  is   not  essential  ;    and  if  he  cannot 

to  fit  him  for  pro-  i  do   it   he   must   begin    his   sketch  on   the   model   itself. 

its  character,  and  '  He  can  do  this  by  scratching  on  the  clay  core  with  one  of 
!  the  sharp-pointed    tools,  and    sticking    on   bits   of  clay 


346 


FURNITURE. 


here  and  there  to  throw  shadow  and  give  something 
like  the  proposed  effect.  When  he  is  tolerably  satisfied 
with  the  composition,  he  will  proceed  to  copy  the  natural 
forms,  by  laying  on  small  portions  of  clay,  and  then  gradu- 
ally working  them  up,  much  as  he  did  when  copying  the 
plaster  cast,  only  in  the  present  work  he  will  find  himself 
obliged  to  use  the  thumb  less  and  the  tools  more.  In 
imitating  fruit  and  flowers,  he  will  observe  that  an  in- 
finite number  of  minute  touches  are  required,  which  will 
call  for  some  exercise  of  patience  ;  but  for  this  he  will  be 
amply  compensated  by  the  interest  and  pleasure  derived 
from  working  direct  from  Nature.  As  he  goes  on  he  will 
discover  many  things  in  his  composition  which  do  not 
please  him,  but  he  will  find  it  easy  to  detach  any  leaf  or 
other  portion  (by  cutting  it  from  the  background  with  a 
thin  piece  of  wire),  and  move  it  to  the  required  place,  and 
thus  play  his  fohage  about  till  the  eye  is  satisfied.  It  will 
be  Well  to  keep  all  the  forms  resting  somewhat  solidly  on 
the  background,  and  not  to  "  undercut "  (that  is,  hollow 
them  from  beneath)  extravagantly,^  as,  by  so  doing,  he 
would  cause  himself  considerable  difficulty  in  the  after 
process  of  casting.  Also,  as  the  modelling  will  be  delicate 
and  easily  injured  by  pressure,  the  wet  cloth  with  which  it 
must  be  covered  should  be  supported  by  little  wooden  pegs, 
stuck  into  the  background  ;  the  holes  made  by  them  can 
be  easily  filled  when  the  model  is  finished.  In  our  illustra- 
tion (Fig.  3)  we  show  the  "  Summer  "  bracket  completed. 

A  Vase. — Few  objects  are  more  beautiful,  either  as  chim- 
ney ornaments  or  when  placed  on  brackets,  than  elegantly 
shaped  and  tastefully  decorated  vases  ;  we  will  now  show 
how  one  may  be  made.  As  it  is  impossible  (except  upon 
the  potter's  wheel)  to  form  the  body  or  core  of  a  vase  per- 
fectly symmetrical  in  clay,  it  will  be  necessary  to  draw  a 
section  of  the  proposed  shape  (see  Fig.  2),  and  having  cast 
a  block  of  plaster  to  the  required  size,  give  it,  with  the 
drawing,  to  a  turner,  who  will  shape  the  core  accurately  in 
a  few  minutes.  The  method  of  making  the  block  of  plas- 
ter will  be  shown  in  the  section  on  Casting.  The  core 
thus  made  may  be  decorated  with  flowers  or  other  natural 
objects  in  the  same  way  as  the  bracket,  but  more  dehcate 
modelling  will  be  required.  Before  the  work  is  begun  it 
will  be  necessary  that  the  plaster  should  be  wetted,  and  the 
clay  will  generally  adhere  to  it  sufficiently,  but  it  maybe  made 
to  do  so  more  closely  by  brushing  the  core  over  with  a 
little  soft-soap  or  some  similar  substance.  If  handles  are 
desired,  pieces  of  copper  wire  may  be  inserted,  and  bent 
to  the  required  curve ;  twine  should  be  wound  round 
them  to  give  a  firmer  hold  to  the  clay,  which  may  then  be 
worked  on.  No  wet  cloth  will  be  needed  for  this  model, 
as  the  plaster  core,  if  daily  saturated  with  water,  will  sup- 
ply the  clay  with  sufficient  moisture;  but  when  handles  are 
added  they  must  be  carefully  wrapped  in  wet  rag.  In 
Fig.  4  we  give  a  vase  in  its  finished  state. 


FURNITURE. 


THE  BEDROOM  {coniimied). 

Blankets. — To  sleep  under  a  heavy  weight  of  bed-clothes 
is  a  burden  to  most  people,  and  whatever  be  the  light- 
ness of  the  outer  quilt,  if  the  blankets  be  made  of  coarsely- 
spun  wool  of  a  poor  quality,  there  will'  be  considerable 
weight  in  them,  and  but  little  warmth.  A  light,  soft,  and 
well-woven  blanket  will  give  more  warmth  than  two  of 
coarse  and  ill  make.  The  best  blankets  are  on  both  sides 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  alike  in  the  "fluff"  of  the  wool,  which, 
however,  is  not  long,  on  the  contrary,  is  somewhat  short, 
thick,  and  very  soft.  Such  blankets  are  known  by  the 
name  of  "  extra  supers,"  and  will  cost  from  35s.  to  50s.  a 
pair.  _  The  process  of  raising  a  pile  on  the  blankets  is  a 
most  important  operation.  It  is  effected  by  rollers  covered 
with  brass  pins,  and  over  these  one  side  of  the  blanket  is 
passed  twice,  and  three  times  over  the  other,  which  is  on 


that  side  termed  the  right  side  of  the  blanket ;  and  if  the 
wool  with  which  blankets  are  spun  be  of  inferior  quality, 
this  dressing  will  vanish  in  the  first  time  of  washing  them. 
Another  thing  which  adds  to  the  cost  and  also  beauty  of 
blankets  is,  previously  to  the  pile  being  raised  on  them, 
thart  they  are  beaten  with  ponderous  wooden  hammers, 
reducing  a  blanket  sometimes  to  half  its  original  weight ;  1 
by  this  process  all  extraneous  matter  is  beaten  out  of  ' 
them.  In  common  blankets  the  beating  is  less,  and  they 
are  consequently  less  soft. 

Blankets  are  sold  by  the  width  and  length  of  so  many 
quarters  in  size,  and  should  be  chosen  for  their  weight, 
softness  of  wool,  and  thickness  in  pile  on  both  sides — 
blankets  of  this  quality  can  seldom  be  had  under  30s. 
the  pair ;  those  of  less  excellence  from  any  price  above 
I2S.  per  pair.  Common  blankets  shrink  very  much  in 
washing  them,  which  is  not  the  failing  of  the  best  kind ; 
the  different  process  of  manufacture,  and  the  quality  of 
the  wool  causing  the  difference. 

The  Aldershot  blankets,  made  of  dark  wool,  slate- 
coloured  or  brown,  are  useful  for  servants'  blankets,  and 
they  are  inexpensive— good-sized  ones  can  be  purchased 
for  6s.  per  pair.  They  are  very  soft  when  washed,  and  do 
not  shrink  so  much  as  common  white  blankets.  When 
put  into  a  calico  casing,  two  of  these  make  an  excellent 
and  warm  quilt  for  winter  for  servants'  beds. 

Sheets  and  Pillow-cases. — Formerly,  before  the  cotton 
era,  linen  sheets  were  highly  prized ;  now  these  are  scarcely 
to  be  seen  among  the  poorer  classes.  Linen  sheets  seem  to 
belong,  by  right,  to  the  upper  and  well-to-do  middle  classes. 
It  is  not  alone  the  difference  in  the  price  of  the  material 
that  has  ruled  this,  but  the  poorer  classes  have  found  out 
that  calico  sheets  are  more  comfortable  and  less  likely  to  give 
rheumatism,  or  increase  rheumatic  tendencies.  In  former 
times,  and  even  at  the  present  day,  in  low,  damp  situa- 
tions, among  some  of  the  peasantry  who  cannot  afford  the 
luxury  of  coddling  for  slight  ailments,  every  effort  is  made 
to  ward  off  sickness,  and  in  their  homes  blankets  will  be 
found  in  place  of  sheets.  Martyrs  to  rheumatic  affections 
have  been  cured  by  constantly  sleeping  in  blankets,  and 
where  the  skin  is  too  irritable  to  admit  of  these,  the  soft, 
unbleached  cotton  sheets,  manufactured  for  use  in  India 
and  the  tropics  generally,  have  been  found  an  excellent 
substitute.  Unbleached  cotton  is  much  warmer  than  the 
bleached  kind.  One  hundred  and  fifty  years  since  an  Act 
of  Parliament  was  passed  imposing  a  penalty  of  ;i^5 
upon  the  wearer,  and  ^20  upon  the  seller  of  a  piece  of 
calico.  This  was  to  encourage  the  trade  in  flax,  and  in 
articles  woven  from  it.  No  Act  of  Parliament,  however, 
could  stop  the  progress  of  such  a  universal  good  as  the 
introduction  of  cotton.  Those  who  could  not  indulge  in 
linen  garments  and  sheets  on  account  of  the  expense, 
were  in  a  few  years,  when  cotton  became  cheap,  enabled 
to  be  clad  decently,  and  have  a  sufficient  change  of  bed- 
clothes unattainable  heretofore.  Previous  to  the  civil 
war  in  America,  upwards  of  sixty-five  millions  were  in- 
vested in  cotton  machinery,  which  employed  four  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  people,  who  divided  among  them  an- 
nually upwards  of  eleven  millions  sterling.  The  domestic  • 
trade  of  England  alone  realised  twenty-four  millions  . 
sterling.  Such  is  the  value  of  cotton  in  a  financial  point 
of  view. 

Now,  of  cotton  there  are  several  kinds,  mostly  resolving 
themselves  into  long  and  short  staple  ;  at  least,  these  are 
the  ordinary  two  kinds  which  a  housekeeper  needs  to 
know  anything  about.  Articles  made  of  long  staple  wear 
better  than  when  made  of  short  staple,  because  in  the 
spinning,  the  joins  are  not  so  frequent,  and  the  cotton 
itself  is  silkier  and  softer.  During  the  war  much  of  the 
worst  kind  was  imported  to  give  employment  to  the 
starving  operatives,  and  was  woven  into  calico,  it's  defects 
being  hidden  by  the  quantity  of  "dress"  it  contained. 
These  defects  are  uneven  projections  in  the  cahco  caused 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE 


347 


by  spinning  short  staple  cotton  of  inferior  quality,  and 
when  an  undressed  calico  is  held  to  the  light  they  are  easily 
discernible.  A  calico  of  this  description  will  not  wear 
well,  simply  because  it  is  made  of  unevenly-spun  cotton. 
In  all  cotton  cloth  some  defects  ofthe  kind  are  perceivable, 
but  a  purchaser  should  choose  that  which  has  the  fewest, 
and  of  course  this  will  be  the  most  expensive.  Sheeting 
calico  should  have  the  thread  round  and  even,  both 
threads,  warp  and  woof,  being  alike,  not  a  thin  thread 
running  the  length  of  the  material,  and  a  thick  one  across 
it.  This  calico  will  "  slieve,"  that  is,  one  thread  pull  frona 
the  other,  or  it  will  crack  across,  without  other  indications 
of  wear.  Calico  for  sheets  is  sold  in  widths-  suitable  for 
beds  of  different  sizes,  and  is  not  dearer  in  proportion 
than  a  number  of  breadths  equal  to  the  width  of  sheeting 
would  be;  but  three  breadths  of  three-quarters  wide  calico 
seamed  together  would  be  stronger  than  sheeting  calico 
without  a  seam.  The  quantity  of  calico  necessary  for 
one  sheet  the  full  size  for  a  large  bedstead  would  be 
three  yards  and  a  quarter  long  by  two  and  a  half  wide. 
Whatever  be  the  width  of  a  sheet,  it  should  be  three- 
quarters  of  a  yard  longer  than  it  is  wide. 

For  servants'  and  young  schoolboys'  sheets,  the  un- 
bleached brown  cotton,  free  from  black  specks  on  both 
sides,  is  undoubtedly  the  best  material.  TJie  oftener  it  is 
washed  the  softer  it  becomes,  and  when  not  too  fine, 
imparts  warmth  nearly  as  much  as  wool  does.  It  is  also 
the  best  thing  for  pillow-cases. 

Sheets  of  linen,  to  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to 
them,  cannot  be  dispensed  with — habit  is  second  nature. 
The  same  observations  apply  to  choosing  the  linen  for 
these  as  to  calico :  the  fabric  should  be  free  from  coarse 
threads,  that  is  coarse  by  comparison  with  the  surrounding 
threads,  and  the  edges  of  the  material  even.  The  manu- 
facturers have  a  practice  of  "  dressing  "  linen  so  that  the 
threads  look  sound  and  even,  but  are  really  not  so  ;  the 
quality  can  only  be  detected  by  rubbing  soft  one  end  of  it. 
When  a  great  number  of  coarse  threads  are  prominently 
visible,  the  cloth  is  made  of  short  flax  imperfectly  spun, 
and  will  not  wear  well. 

The  practice  of  rolling  a  bolster  in  the  sheet  is  not  a 
comfortable  one,  nor  is  it  thrifty.  The  ticking  soon  gets 
dirty.  A  bolster  one  is  always  needed,  and  even  if  the 
sheets  be  of  calico,  these  and  the  pillow-cases  should  be 
of  linen.  Yard  wide  cloth  is  sold  for  the  purpose.  A 
bolster-case  should  be  sixty  inches  long  for  a  five-foot 
bedstead,  and  less  or  more  in  proportion  to  its  size.  The 
case  may  be  joined  at  one  end,  and  your  buttons  and 
button-holes  on  a  hem  two  inches  wide  will  fasten  it  at 
the  other  end,  or  one  end  may  be  set  into  a  circular  piece  of 
linen  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  opposite  end  drawn 
up  close  with  a  string  ol  tape.  Pillow-cases  rather  more 
than  three-quarters  of  a  yard  long  are  of  Irish  linen  a 
yard  wide,  the  selvage  of  one  side  doubled  in  half  and 
seamed  together  ;  the  two  raw  edges  is  a  felled  seam,  and 
the  remaining  selvage  side,  turned  down,  is  a  hem  an 
inch  broad,  and  for  closing  this  end  over  the  pillow  have 
four  small  linen  buttons  and  neatly-made  button-holes 
opposite  the  buttons  sewed  upon  the  hem  of  the 
seam. 

Towelling. — There  is  a  great  variety  of  fabrics  sold  for 
towels.  First  comes  the  huckaback — originally  huckle- 
bock — i.e.,  having  a  knotted  or  bunched  surface — and 
when  made  up  of  linen,  not  fine,  is  certainly  most  excellent 
for  absorbing  the  wet  and  for  rubbing  the  skin  wherewith 
to  create  a  reaction  and  glow.  Material  of  this  descrip- 
tion can  be  bought  for  eightpence  the  yard,  and  if  un- 
bleached is  preferable.  As  all  linen  articles  shrink  in 
washing,  huckaback  should  not  be  fine,  but  thick  and 
loose  in  its  texture.  Eighteen  nails  is  the  proper  length 
for  a  towel,  which  should  be  fringed  at  the  ends,  by 
cutting  the  selvage  on  the  four  sides  about  an  inch  in 
depth,  then  ravelling  so  far,  and  finally  sewing  over  the 


towel  between  the  fringe  in  an  irregular  manner.  Thus 
it  never  ravels  in  washing.  The  reason  for  fringing  the 
ends  is,  that  when  hemmed,  the  dirt  is  rarely  rinsed  out 
of  the  hems  in  washing,  then  the  mangle  cannot  press  in 
the  hems  to  the  detriment  of  the  next  towel  or  article 
beneath  it. 

■Kussian  Towelling,  termed  by  drapers  "crash,"  is  a 
strong  material  of  narrow  width  made  in  Russia,  and 
imported  therefrom.  Many  persons  prefer  this  make  for 
towels  because  of  its  roughness  when  new,  and  when  old, 
it  is  soft,  and  strong,  and  convertible  to  other  household 
purposes.  This  kind  is  preferable  for  runner-towels  ; 
three  yards  is  a  good  length  for  a  runner  ;  and  at  5d.  a 
yard  it  can  be  bought  of  an  excellent  quality. 


HOUSEHOLD  AMUSEMENTS.— XL 
ACTED  CHARADES  {continued.) 
Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  the  syllable  or  word  which 
is  represepted  should  be  uttered  during  the  scene.  Some, 
in  practice,  express  it  only  by  action  ;  others  think  it  best 
that  it  should  be  mentioned  in  the  course  of  the  dialogue, 
but  so  introduced  that  it  is  disguised,  or  withheld  from  all 
prominence.  This,  however,  is  a  matter  on  which  the 
performers  should  be  left  to  their  own  taste  or  judgment ; 
but  there  should  be  an  understanding  among  both  them- 
selves and'  the  spectators,  as  to  which  rule  is  to  be 
observed. 

The  next  thing  is  to  represent  the  syllables  agreed  upon. 
Where  the  company  are  not  generally  expert,  some  one  who 
has  had  experience  in  charade-playing  should,  if  possible, 
be  selected  as  the  leader  and  director  of  each  party,  and 
plan  the  various  parts  to  be  taken  by  all,  giving  hints  or 
instructions  as  to  the  details  of  the  performance.  As  much 
humour  as  possible  should  be  thrown  into  it,  and  clumsi- 
ness or  blunders  should  be  taken  as  of  no  account,  the 
object  being  simply  amusement.  An  awkward  but  good- 
humoured  performer  is  often  able  to  excite  as  much  harm- 
less mirth  as  any  of  the  rest. 

The  various  characters  in  the  scene  to  be  represented 
should  dress  themselves  up,  according  to  the  means  at 
hand,  for  their  respective  parts  ;  but  the  most  "  rough  and 
ready"  articles  of  costume  are  as  good  for  the  real  purpose 
as  any  other.  It  is  enough,  for  instance,  that  the  principal 
figure  in  a  scene  representing  "  age "  should  wear  a  g^ey 
wig,  or  a  slouched  hat  and  spectacles,  or  hobble  along  with 
a  stick,  doing  the  pantomime  of  deafness,  &c.  Those  who 
have  the  means  as  well  as  the  inclination  for  the  adoption 
of  an  elaborate  costume  in  the  performance  of  acting 
charades  can,  of  course,  gratify  their  taste ;  but  this  is  by 
no  means  necessary  to  the  thorough  enjoyment  of  the 
pastime  either  by  actors  or  spectators  ;  the  resources 
which  any  one  may  find  immediately  to  hand  often  creating 
the  most  amusement.  ' 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  "makeshift"  ex- 
pedients which  may  be  resorted  to  in  the  performance  of 
various  characters  in  the  scenes  of  a  charade. 

Ba^. — May  be  either  a  real  one  or  a  dummy;  theformei 
preferable  when  mamma  gives  consent  to  its  introduction. 

Bride.  —  Wreath  made  like  a  boy's  kite-tail  ;  anti- 
macassar fastened  to  the  hair  to  represent  the  bridal  veil ; 
white  paper  bows  pinned  to  dress  ;  white  kid  gloves  ;  and 
bouquet. 

Cabman. — Wideawake  hat,  handkerchief  round  the  neck, 
two  great  coats,  walking-stick  with  a  string  tied  to  it,  tart- 
dish  for  a  badge. 

Child. — Any  juvenile,  "  fractious "  or  otherwise,  will 
answer  the  purpose. 

Counsel. — Wig  made  of  cotton  wool,  paper  collar  with 
bibs,  long  dressing-gown,  roll  of  paper  in  the  hand. 
•     Country  girl. — Gipsy  hat  with  streamers,  dress  pinned 
up  at  four  points,  rouge  generally  reqw^-^ite. 


348 


HOUSEHOLD   AMUSEMENTS. 


Countrytnan.  —  Hat  brushed  the  wrong  way,  paper 
collars  with  the  corners  sticking  well  up,  silk  neckerchief, 
and  showy  waistcoat. 

Doctor. — White  neck-cloth  and  black  coat,  walking-stick 
with   a  knob,  which  is  frequently 
applied  to  the  lips  during  consulta- 
tion. 

Housemaid. — Short  apron,  bou- 
quet paper  with  or  without  ribbons 
as  cap. 

jFud^e. — Lady's  victorine  across 
the  head, dressing-gown  robes,  spec- 
tacles, desk,  and  pen. 

Military  Officer. — Turn-up  collar, 
cocked  hat,  sash,  moustache,  and 
cane. 

Naval  Officer.  —  Buttoned  coat, 
gold  paper  epaulettes,  boy's  cap 
with  gilt  band. 

Old  Man. — Hair  combed  off  the 
forehead,  which  is  marked  by  a  few 
lines  drawn  with  raw  umber  ;  little- 
cotton  wool  to  represent  white 
whiskers,  spectacles,  and  a  thick 
stick. 

Policeman. — Coat  closely  but- 
toned, collar  turned  up,  and  market, 
in  chalk  with  a  number  ;  hair 
brushed  up  to  the  top  of  the  head 
before  putting  on  the  hat. 

Prisoner. — Hair  short  and  rough., 
no    shirt-collar    or    front,   spotted 


inorning  costume ;   Mrs,  T.  at  fancy-work,  her  spouse 
looking  over  the  paper. 

Mrs.  r.— Dear  me !  How  I  long  to  see  town  again  So 
many  months  since  we  were  there  ;  and  really  one  seems 
to  be  almost  out  of  the  world  here, 
although  it  is  so  beautiful  in  sum- 
mer. Don't  you  think  so,  Charles  ? 
Mr.  T. — Well,  my  love,  perhaps 
;t  is  a  little— ah,  ahem — secluded  ; 
but  one  can  always  see  what  is 
going  on  by  the  papers  ;  and  then 
you  know  you  detest  town  formali- 
ties. 

Mrs.  Tl—True  ;  but,  my  dear,  one 
can't  see  the  shops  by  the  papers, 
and  I  should  so  much  hke  to  do 
so  now  and  then.  But  there,  Julia 
is  coming  to-day,  and  she  will  be 
able  to  tell  me  all  the  latest  styles 
and  the  fashions. 

Mr.  T. — Yes  ;  {aside)  and  to  ex- 
hibit a  few  of  them  in  her  own 
person,  I'll  warrant. 

Mrs.  T^.—Hark,  Charles  !.  I'm 
sure  that  must  be  Julia.  {Rising.) 
Pray  run  to  receive  her.  {Charles 
yawns,  and  moves  leisurely  towards 
■the  door.) 

Enter    Parlour-maid.  —  If     you 
Aase,  m'm,  ^liss  Julia  Mayfair. 
Enter   MlSs   Julia   (in  walking 
-osiuine.  but  dressed  in  extravagant 


handkerchief  round  the' neck,  charcoal  beard,  and^ black 
eye,  if  required. 

Sailor. —  Coat  tails  pinned  up  behind  for  jacket,  no 
waistcoat,  black  neckerchief  with  ends  loose,  turn-down 
collar,  yachting  hat. 

Tax-gatherer. — Buttoned  coat,  hat  over  eyebrows,  spec- 
tacles, book,  and  pen  behind  the  ear. 

Workman. — Square  paper  cap,  shirt  sleeves,  and  white 
apron. 

We  will  now  give  an  example  of  the  dialogue-charade, 
founded  on  a  word  of  two  syllables. 

FIRST  SYLLABLE. 

Characters,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Turtledove,  Miss  Julia  May-  \ 
fair  their  cousin,  Parlour-maid.  Scene,  the  drawing-room  \ 
jaf  a  country  cottage  ;   the  Turtledoves  seated,  in  easy 


imitation  of  ihe  lit;est  styles,  enormous  chignon,  &c.)  — 
My  dearest  Louisa  !  {embraces  her.)  How  charmed  I  am  to 
see  you  in  such  rural  simplicity !  Howdo,  Charles  ?  {Shakes 
hands.)  What  a  pretty  cottage  !  What  a  delightful  re- 
treat !  {Aside)  What  an  outlandish  place  !  {Takes  a  seat.) 

Mrs.  T. — You  can't  think,  my  love,  how  I  have  longed 
for  this  visit.  You  are  truly  kind  to  come  to  see  us. 
But  how  you  have  altered !  I  should  scarcely  have  re- 
cognised you  ! 

Miss  Julia. — Altered  I  Pray  don't  say  so.  You  don't 
think  I  am  looking  any  older,  I  hope  !  But  town  life  is 
extremely  fatiguing,  I  must  admit,  though  I  should  expire 
without  it  ! 

Mrs.  7'.— Older  !  Oh  dear  no  !  But  your  complexion, 
my  dear — your  {glances  at  her  chignon) — in  fact,  you 
seem  so  m.uchyJz/ydr  than  you  were 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEflOLD   GUIDF 


349 


Miss  yitlia. — Oh  yes,  my  clear.  Quite  the  rage,  I  assure 
you.  The  Auricomous  Fluid.  Nobody  would  be  seen 
without  It  now— that  is  {with  emphasis),  nobody  who  is  /// 
the  world. 

Mrs.  T. — Ah !  and  I  am  quite  out  of  it !    But  I  thought  !  do  twice, 
you  seemed  to  j/<7^/ so  much.  i      Fitz.— Thanks,    my     boy  — much.       I    sec    my    way 

Miss  7u/ia.- Stoop  ]  (/aue-hin^S^.)    What  charming  rus-    now,    I    think.       There's    nothing   hke    having  an   ex- 
ticity!     My  dear,  that's  the  Grecian  Bend  !     {Rising,  and^  perienced  guide  in  these   matters,  and  you  are  such  an 


7'i?;,7.-  Yes  ;  and  tell  her  you've  been  neglecting  busi- 
ness affairs  to  get  up  for  your  little-go,  and  had  no 
time  to  think  of  accounts.  That's  how  /  did  it. 
{Aside.)    Wish  I  could  do  it  again ;  but  same  game  won  t 


walking  across  the  room.)  There,  don't 
you  think  it  extremely  graceful .'' 

Af^s.  J".— Well,  my  love,  I  can't  say  I 
appreciate  it  at  present  ;  but,  of  course, 
if  it's  the  fashion,  that  must  be  my  want 
of  taste. 

Miss  yulia. — Quite  so,  my  dear.  But 
you  will  get  used  to  it  in  time,  and  when 
the  fashion  comes  down  into  these  parts, 
I  am  sure  it  will  suit  you  admirably. 

Mr.  T.  {advancing  tonvards  .  the 
audience,  and  speaking  aside.)  W'hat  ! 
Louisa  make  herself  such  an  object  I 
Whatever  Miss  Mayfair  may  think  of 
herself,  I    consider  her  a  perfect  Guy. 

SECOND  SYLLABLE. 

Scene,  supposed  to  be  a  ball-room. 
When  the  curtain  is  withdrawn,  two 
ladies  are  seen  seated  ;  two  gentlemen 
advance,  and,  either  in  the  ordinary  way, 
or  by  pantomime,  invite  them  to  be- 
come their  partners.  They  do  so,  and, 
some  one  volunteering  on  the  piano,  the 
four  perform  a  waltz,  or  a  redowa,  &c., 
according  to  taste. 

THE  WORD. 

Scene,  the  rooms  of  Mr.  Fitzsquander,  in  St.  vSwithin's 
College.  Curtain  withdrawn  discloses  Mr.  F.  seated  at 
a  table,  with  a  letter  in  his  hand  and  his  fingers  in  his 
hair, 

Fitzsquander  {rising). — Well,  i  am  in  a  fix !  Snap- 
child  and  Co.  down  upon  me  at  last,  and  Shentpershent 
says  '"his  friend"  ain't  wait  any  longer  for  his  money — 
the  old  thief.  And  the  governor  wrote  last  time  he 
wouldn't  stand  it  again.  I'm  up 
a  tree  now  and  no  mistake.  What's, 
to  be  done .''  I  must  have  some 
advice^don't  see  my  way  out  of  it 
at  all. 

Enter  ToM  TwisiEM.  —  Momin', 
Fitz.  How  are  you,  old  boy  ?  {Shakes 
hands  heartily.)  Why,  what's  the  mat- 
ter .'     You  look  scared. 

Fitzsquander. — Scared  !  Well  I  may 
be.  You're  just  in  the  njck  of  time, 
Tom — the  very  man  I  want.  Look 
here  !     {Shows  him  the  letter.) 

Tom  {reading  it). — Whew  !  That's 
just  like  'em,  old  fellow.  Told  you 
you  were  not  downy  enough  to  have 
dealings  with  Snapchild.  Wish  you 
had  taken  my  advice. 

Z'//::.— Well,  I  want  it  nozu.  What's 
to  be  done?  You're  used  to  this 
know, 

Tom. — Done  ?    Why,  go  to  the  governor,  of  course. 

Fitz. — No  good,  Tom.  Cut  up  rusty  last  time,  I  know 
the  old  boy — you  don't, 

Tom. — Well,  then,  go  to  the  Mum — write  to  the 
Mamma,  and  ask  her  to  get  round  the  governor  for 
you. 

^//-.— The  Mum!  Bravo,Tom!  Capital  idea.  Haven't 
tried  it  on  for  months.  She'll  do  it — she  knows  how.  The 
governor  can't  stand  her  argum-rnts. 


old   stager.     {Fraternal  demonstrations 
to  each  other.) 

The  company  now  have  to  guess  the 
vvord,  which  is  Guidance  (Guy-dance). 

Before  concluding  we  app>end  some 
further  hints  in  the  shape  of  an  illustrated 
acted  charade  (see  page  348). 

PANTOMIME    CHARADES. 

Acted  charades,  as  we  have  already 
Iiinted,  may  be  performed  entirely  in 
pantomime,  and  many  prefer  this  method 
of  playing  the  game,  as  it  is  easier  than 
starting  impromptu  dialogue.  All  that  is 
necessary  is  for  the  characters  to  dispose 
themselves  in  successive  groups  in  which 
the  various  syllables  of  the  word  are 
more  or  less  clearly  expressed.  The 
meaning  should  not  be  too  palpable,  but 
afford  a  little  room  to  the  spectators  to 
task  their  ingenuity  in  guessing  the  word 
represented. 

As  an  example  of  a  pantomime-charade 
we  give  the  three   scenes   representing 
I  the  word  POST- age.      The  character  of 

"  Meddlesome  Matty,"  it  will  be  ob- 
served, is  iiupposed  to  be  personated  by  a  gentleman, 
who  gets  himself  up  for  the  part — according  to  the 
general  and  the  best  custom  in  acting  charades — on  the 
spur  of  the  moment. 


sort 


thing, 


ODDS    AND    ENDS. 

Indij.n  Jar.;  for  Pot  Ponrri.—  Large  jars  suited  to  stand 
in  the  corners  of  rooms  can,  with  a 
little  trouble  and  not  much  cost,  be 
made  to  appear  as  handsome  orna- 
ments. They  should  be  a  couple  of 
feet  high,  of  common  red  clay.  They 
may  be  procured  at  many  large  gro- 
cers' ;  but  at  the  potteries,  if  any  one 
takes  the  trouble  to  write,  they  can  be 
made  for  a  small  cost.  Any  large 
china  vendor  can  give  his  customers 
the  address  of  the  potteries.  The  jar 
must  next  be  painted  some  pale  colour 
— a  light,  delicate  sea-green,  or  pea- 
green,  or  friars'  grey  is  a  good  shade. 
It  must  be  very  pale  and  delicate. 
Next  beg  or  buy  a  number  of  scraps 
of  chintz.  The  Cretonne  chintz  now- 
made,  and  covered  with  strange,  apo- 
cryphal birds  and  imaginary  monsters, 
is  largely  used  for  the  purpose.  The  greater  the  variety 
and  the  brighter  the  colours  the  better.  When  you  have 
a  sufficient  assortment  ready,  with  strong  gum  arrange 
them  according  to  taste  all  over  the  jars,  being  very  sure 
that  all  the  little  bits,  corners,  and  stalks,  are  quite  fixed 
down.  An  old  cambric  handkerchief  is  wanted  to  dab 
down  the  chintz  to  the  jar.  When  quite  dr>'  and  perfectly 
fixed,  have  the  jars  varnished,  or  varnish  them  at  home 
with  gum  copal  dissolved  in  turpentine  by  gentle  boiling. 
Take  care  not  to  let  the  turpentine  ignite.  Varnish  can 
be  bought,  but  it  is  difficult  to  procure  it  pure,  and  it  is 


3SO 


DOMESTIC    MEDICINE. 


expensive ;  but  for  those  unused  to  handle  combustible 
materials,  it  is  safer  to  buy  than  to  make  it.  The  varnish 
is  applied  with  a  large  brush,  going  all  over  the  jar  with 
bold  strokes,  and  never  touching  any  part  a  second  time 
whilst  wet.  When  dry,  give  another  coat.  Repeat  the  coats 
till  the  appearance  pleases.  It  should  not  be  too  thick,  or 
else  it  will  crack.  Whilst  varnishing  the  jars,  keep  them 
in  an  empty  room,  free  from  dust.  Put  roseleaves  or  pot 
pourri  in  the  jars,  and  place  ornamental  saucers  on  the 
top.  By  obtaining  vases  of  various  forms  from  different 
sources,  and  selecting  suitable  cuttings,  very  tasteful 
and  useful  articles  may  be  made  in  this  way.  But  the 
hous^ehold  decorator  should  remember  that  he  may  publish 
either  his  or  her  good  or  bad  taste  to  all  obacrvers  according 
to  the  selection  of  patterns  which  he  makes  and  the  mode 
in  which  he  uses  them  when  cut  out.  No  one  who  is  in  the 
habit  of  examining  attentively  the  objects  of  art  manufac- 
ture exposed  in  the  windows  of  our  "fashionable  houses" 
caA  have  failed  to  notice  the  mixed  and  incongruous  cha- 
racter of  our  modern  decorative  designs.  Variety  is, 
undoubtedly,  a  most  essential  principle  of  decoration,  but 
the  variety  we  speak  of  does  not  arise  out  of  the  design 
itself,  but  results  from  the  mixture  of  good  designs  with 
others  decidedly  bad,  and  is  by  no  means  desirable.  And  yet 
there  is  scarcely  a  warehouse  windowinourmost  fashionable 
London  streets  which  does  not  exhibit,  in  juxtaposition  with 
good  or  passable  designs,  others  which  indicate  the  utter 
absence  of  artistic  taste.  As  guides  for  our  readers  in 
this  question  of  taste  we  append  two  cuts.  Fig.  i  is  a 
Greek  vase  taken  from  the  original  in  the  British  Museum, 
in  which  the  ornaments  are  very  symmetrical  and  beautiful, 
and  their  arrangement  such  as  harmoniously  belong  to  the 
shapes  they  decorate.  Fig.  2  is  an  Indian  water-goblet, 
displaying  the  same  evidence  of  correct  taste  in  ornamen- 
tation.    Our  readers  could  have  no  better  guides. 

The  Page. — In  our  last  section  of  the  article  "  Inmates 
of  the  House,"  we  omitted  pointing  out  that  a  page  should 
not  fail  to  inform  his  employer  of  the  first  indication  he 
perceives  of  boots  wanting  repair.  If  the  sole  be  suffered 
to  wear  out  till  the  welt  is  exposed,  it  is  often  not  worth 
the  expense  to  repair  a  boot.  It  is  a  good  economy  of 
time  and  leather  for  gentlemen  to  have  at  least  two  pairs 
of  boots  in  wear  at  a  time. 

Chintz  Window  Curtains  have  the  double  advantage 
of  being  cheap  and  washing  well,  while  the  gay  colours  are 
pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  brighten  a  little  room.  Woollen 
materials  have  disadvantages,  as  not  only  do  they  fade 
sooner  than  chintz,  but  they  catch  and  retain  the  dust, 
and  look  dirty  and  old  long  before  it  is  worth  while  send- 
ing them  to  the  cleaner  or  dyer. 

Stain  for  Mahogany  Colour. — Take  one  pint  of  rectified 
spirits  of  wine,  and  put  it  into  a  bottle  with  one  ounce  of 
dragon's  blood  broken  to  pieces.  Put  the  bottle  in  a 
warm  place,  and  shake  the  mixture  from  time  to  time ; 
when  tiie  gum  is  dissolved  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  Another  \ 
method  is  to  "put  one  pound  of  logAvood  chips  into  four 
quai-ts  of  water,  with  two  handfuls  of  walnut  peels.  Boil 
these  together,  and  then  take  out  the  chips ;  after  which 
add  one  pint  of  best  vinegar,  and  the  preparation  will  be 
complete.  These  stains  are  for  giving  a  mahogany  tinge 
to  Hghter  coloured  woods. 


DOMESTIC     MEDICINE. 

BILIOUSNESS,     OR    BILIOUS     DISORDERS,     INCLUDING 
JAUNDICE. 

Everybody  thinks  himself  a  physician  for  this  complaint 
Of  all  theories  that  occur  to  people  to  explain  little  errors 
of  their  health,  none  occurs  more  commonly  than  that  of 
Bile — "  it's  only  bile."  No  organ  of  the  body  has  more 
blame  laid  upon  it  than  the  liver.     It  is  the  best  abused 


organ  in  the  body.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  but  one  that  may 
often  be  noticed,  that  ailing  people  seem  to  derive  great 
satisfaction  from  thinking,  or  being  told,  that  their  "liver 
is  affected."  What  makes  this  more  curious  is  the  fact 
that  though  the  liver  is  a  large  organ,  and  though  it  secretes 
about  two  pounds  01  two  pounds  and  ahalf  of  bile  everyday, 
of  a  dark  golden  brown  colour,  the  wisest  people  are  still  very 
uncertain  about  the  uses  of  this  big  organ  and  all  the  bile 
that  is  formed  in  it.  It  is  often  the  case,  however,  that  what 
learned  men  know  least  about,  ignorant  men  talk  most 
about.  It  is  easy  to  talk  glibly  about  that  of  which  little 
is  known.  Let  us  try  to  tell  our  readers  what  little  is  made 
out  as  to  the  uses  of  the  liver,  or  rather  of  the  bile  that 
flows  out  of  it  into  the  intestine  just  below  the  stomach. 
Ffrst,  the  bile  in  some  way  or  other  assists  digestion.  It 
especially  assists  the  digestion  of  oily  matters. 

Then,  though  it  is  not  necessary  to  the  digestion  of  meat 
and  eggs,  and  such  like  (albuminous)  substances,  it  is 
necessary  to  prevent  the  putrefaction  of  these  in  the  in- 
testines. 

Thirdly,  it  removes  from  the  blood  things  that  would 
injure  the  system  if  there  were  no  liver  to  remove  them. 

Fourthly,  it  contributes  something  to  the  formation  of 
the  motions  from  the  bowels,  but  not  so  much  as  used  to 
be  thought.  A  great  part  of  the  bile  that  is  formed  in  the 
liver  and  thrown  out  into  the  intestines  is  absorbed  again 
into  the  system  from  the  intestines — not  thrown  out  of  the 
body  with  the  motions. 

Physiologists  have  tried  a  curious,  but  a  legitimate 
experiment  with  dogs,  to  find  out  the  uses  of  bile.  The 
bile  flows  through  ducts,  as  we  have  said,  into  the  intes- 
tine. They  have  tied  these  ducts  and  made  an  opening 
between  the  gall  bladder  (which  receives  the  bile  when  it 
is  first  formed  before  being  passed  into  the  intestine)  and 
the  outside  of  the  body,  so  that  the  bile  was  not  allowed 
to  enter  the  intestine.  Two  animals  so  treated  died  ; 
one  at  the  end  of  twenty-seven  days  ;  the  other  at  the  end 
of  thirty-six.  Mark  the  symptoms  which  the  animals 
showed.  They  got  steadily  and  progressively  thi7t.  This 
thinning  proceeded  to  such  a  degree  that  nearly  every 
trace  of  fat  disappeared  from  the  body.  The  loss  of  flesh 
amounted  in  one  case  to  more  than  two-fifths!  and  in  the 
other  to  nearly  one-half  of  the  entire  weight  of  the  animal. 
There  was  also  a  faUing  off  of  the  hair.  There  was  an 
unusually  disagreeable  and  putrid  odour  in  the  breath  and 
in  the  discharges  from  the  bowels.  Though  the  animals 
had  a  good  appetite,  they  seemed  to  suffer  from  wind  and 
putrefaction  of  the  food  taken.  Notwithstanding  all  this, 
the  appetite  remained  good.  Digestion  went  on  after  a 
fashion,  but  after  a  very  windy  fashion.  None  of  the 
food  was  discharged  with  the  fjeces,  but  there  was  much 
rumbling  and  gurgling  in  the  intestines,  and  abundant 
discharge  of  wind.  There  was  no  pain,  and  death  took 
place  at  last  without  any  violent  sjTuptoms,  but  by  a 
simple  and  gradual  failure  of  the  strength  and  ilfe  of  the 
animals. 

It  is  apparent  from  these  experiments  that — though 
chemists  and  physiologists  have  not  yet  made  out  exactly 
the  part  played  by  bile — it  is  necessary  to  good  healthy 
digestion  of  food. 

Some  cases  of  disease  of  the  liver  occur  in  which  no 
bile  is  forrrved  in  it.  The  bile  is  retained  in  the  blood. 
If  this  disease  is  extreme  and  intense — that  is,  if  no  bile  is 
separated  from  the  blood,  the  chances  are  that  the  patient 
will  die  heav)'  and  in  a  deep  sleep.  For  if  the  urine  or  the 
bile,  instead  of  being  separated  from  the  blood,  are  left  in 
it,  they  act  as  poisons,  and  cause  either  convulsions  or 
coma  ;  that  is,  insensibility  and  death. 

Let  us  now  try  to  describe  the  two  common  cases  of 
jaundice  and  the  so-called  bilious  attacks. 

Jaundice. — Jaundice  is  a  disease  easily  recognised  by 
non-medical  persons,  for  its  chief  sign  is  a  yellowness  of 
the  skin  and  of  the  white  of  the  eye.     There  may  be  any 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


351 


degree  of  this  discoloration  from  slight  yellow,  such  as  is  I  even  be  repeated   in  an  hour  or  two  if  relief  does  not 

seen  in   most  babies  a   few  days  after  birth,   to  intens''  '  come. 

green  yellowness,  such  as  often  shows  disease  of  the  liver.  '      hnstly,  let  us  say  a  word  to  hard  livers,  and  all  who. are 


The  motions  arc  pale  and  without  their  u.sual  colour. 
There  is  indigestion,  flatulence,  and  dislike  for  fatty 
matters,  which  are  not  easily  digested.  There  may  be 
pain  over  the  stomach  and  liver,  or  there  may  not  be 
any  pain,  and,  as  we  have  implied,  the  skin  and  the 
eyes  get  yellow,  because  what  should  be  separated  from 
the  blood  by  the  liver,  is  not,  and  gets  into 
all  parts  of  the  system.  The  bowels  are 
generally  costive. 

Causes. — Now  this  state  of  jaundice  may 
arise  either  because  no  bile  is  formed  in  the 
liver,  or  because,  after  being  formed,  it  does 
not  get  into  the  intestine.  This  last  is  the 
most  common  case  of  jaundice.  It  may  be 
stopped  from  getting  into  the  intestine  by 
something  blocking  up  the  ducts  which  convey 
the  bile  ;  one  of  the  most  common,  and  really 
a  verj'  common,  cause  of  obstruction  to  the 
flow  of  bile  is  the  formation  of  little  stones  in 
the  gall  bladder— gall  stones — which  in  pass- 
ing through  the  duct  that  connects  the  gall 
bladder  with  the  intestine  give  rise  to  severe 
symptoms,  which  we  shall  now  describe. 

Symptoms  of  Gall  Stofies. — Probably  after 
some  uneasiness  about  the  right  side  there 
sets  in,  often  suddenly,  severe  pain  in  the 
right  side  or  more  towards  the  stomach,  so 
severe  as  to  make  the  patient  writhe.  Vomit- 
ing soon  comes  on  and  is  troublesome,  though 
it  tends  to  relieve  the  pain.  The  pulse  is  not 
much  quickened,  nor  is  there  much  fever. 
There  is  often  more  or  less  of  the  yellow 
tinge  of  jaundice  in  the  skin  or  in  the  eye, 
and  then  one  may  be  pretty  sure  that  the 
case  is  one  of  gall  stones.  In  such  cases  the 
motions  passed  after  the  pain  has  ceased 
often  contain  stones,  and  should  always  be 
carefully  examined. 

Another  common  cause  of  jaundice  is  when 
the  little  ducts  we  have  mentioned  become 
inflamed  and  their  walls  get  thickened,  and 
the  passage  of  bile  along  them  is  hindered. 

There  is  a  form  of  jaundice,  occurring  in 
summer,  or  autumn,  which  we  may  call  pain- 
less jaundice,  that  is  not  uncommon.  It  is 
jaundice  and  nothing  more  than  that,  and  the 
heavy  indolent  state  that  accompanies  it. 

The  most  unfavourable  cases  of  jaundice 
are  those  which  occur  in  older  people,  and 
especially  in  those  who  have  lived  very  hard, 
or  very  anxiously  ;  and  in  which,  notwith- 
standing the  use  of  means,  the  jaundice 
persists. 

Treatment. — The  reader  will  not  expect  us 
to  advise  him  to  treat  himself  for  a  complaint 
which  may  depend  on  many  different  states, 
and  requires  very  various  treatment.  But  we 
shall  aim  at  giving  a  few  useful  hints  to  persons 
affected  with  gall  stones,  or  having  occasional 
attacks  of  jaundice.     Gall  stones  occur  most  frequently  in 


conscious  that  they  drink  more  than  is  good,  for  them. 
Whenever  they  see  their  eyes  or  skin  getting  yellow,  let 
them  know  that  their  sin  is  finding  them  out,  and  that  it 
is  beginning  to  affect  very  vital  parts,  and  that  if  they  do 
not  take  thought  and  mend,  they  will  go  steadily  from 
bad  to  worse.  But,  in  such  cases,  it  is  often  wonderful 
how  improvement  in  health  follows  improve- 
ment in  habits. 


THE   HOUSE. 

^  WATER  .SUPPLY  {continued.) 

The  dwellers  in  cities  and  large  towns  arc 
gcHcrally  so  well  supplied  by  public  com- 
panies with  good  and  wholesome  water,  that 
little  attention  is  paid  by  them  to  either  its 
obtainment  or  preservation  from  contamina- 
tion. Those  who  reside  in  small  towns,  vil- 
lages, the  rural  districts,  newly-settled  coun- 
tries, or  in  camp,  must,  in  self-defence,  exercise 
their  ingenuity  and  powers  of  resource  in  the 
matter  of  water-collecting  and  stowing  for 
use.  There  are  several  sources  from  which 
2^'  a  supply  of  water  may  be  obtained  ;  some  of 
"^  them  so  obvious  as  to  need  little  remark 
here.  Rivers,  lakes,  and  springs,  rainfall, 
and  showers  link  in  one  system  with  the 
waters  of  the  deep  sea.  The  moisture-laden 
clouds,  driven  landwards  by  the  gale,  meet 
and  are  broken  by  the  high  rugged  peaks 
of  some  mountain-chain,  or  pour  out  their 
contents  as  they  sail  onwards.  It  is  at  all 
times  desirable,  when  entering  a  dwelling- 
place,  to  make  proper  provision  for  the  col- 
lection of  rain  water.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  the  different  forms  of  cisterns  and 
reservoirs  in  general  use.  These,  to  be  of 
value,  must  be  furnished  with  a  carefully 
arranged  set  of  tubes  and  water-channels,  so 
placed  as  to  receive  the  water  as  it  flows  from 
the  ridges,  and  convey  it,  without  loss,  to  the 
chamber  placed  for  its  reception.  It  is  some- 
what curious,  notwithstanding  the  importance 
to  be  attached  to  a  well  constructed  rain-water 
system  as  applied  to  buildings,  that  so  little 
care  is  taken  in  fitting  and  adjusting  the  chan- 
nels and  tubes.  The  latter  are  too  commonly 
so  attached  to  the  outsides  of  the  walls,  that 
at  the  least  interruption  to  the  downward 
passage  of  water  they  overflow,  and  saturated 
bricks  and  mortar  are  the  result.  A  variety 
of  causes  are  in  force  to  produce  obstruction 
— dead  leaves,  broken  cement,  and  the  thou- 
sand and  one  nameless  waifs  and  strays  which, 
wind-drifted,  at  length  find  a  lodgment  in 
the  channel,  collect,  and  gather  together  as 
they  are  carried  onward,  until  at  length, 
forming   a   mass,   they  either    fall   into   the 


box  head  of  the  wall  tube  and  stop  the  orifice  at  its 
women,  and  in  those  who  lead  a  somewhat  easy  or  rather  i  bottom,  or  form  a  sort  of  dam  in  the  channel  itself,  which, 
indoor  life,  especially  if  they  take  beer  or  porter,  and  causes  the  water  to  flow  in  a  broad  stream  out,  over, 
have  a  tendency  tc  become  stout.  Such  persons  should  and  probably  ultimately  find  its  way  to  the  ceilings  or 
live  carefully  and  be  chary  of  beer,  and  should  take  paper  hangings  of  apartments.  A  small  perforated 
exercise  in  the  open  air.  When  an  attack  of  sudden  pain 
from  gall  stones  comes  on,  a  doctor  should  be  sent  for. 
Hot  fomentations  to  the  side,  drinks  of  warm  water,  and 
hot  applications  to  the  feet,  should  all  be  used.     If  the 

pain  is  very  severe,  and  a  doctor  cannot  be  had,  ten  drops    each  grate  keeps  back  its  own  share,  and  prevents  gather- 
of  laudanum  may  be  given  to  a  grown-up  person,  and  may    ing  together  by  onward  flow.     An  occasional  cleaning  out 


A  small 
zinc  grating  or  strainer,  placed  at  inter\-als  of  ten 
or  twelve  feet  in  the  channels  at  runways,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  5,  will  tend  greatly  to  prevent  ponding-up,  as 
no  accumulation  of  small   substances  can   take   place — 


352 


THE    HOUSE. 


will  keep  the  grates  in  a  state  of  efficiency.  The  end 
of  autumn,  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  should  be  chosen 
as  a  time  for  a  general  inspection  and  clearance  of  the  ( 
channels.  The  construction  of  the  box  or  funnel  heads  of 
the  main  downfall  tubes  in  common  use  is,  as  a  general 
rule,  very  faulty  in  form.  Fig.  2  shows  a  section  of  the 
ordinary  tube  head,  and  the  manner  in  which  a  collection 
of  leaves,  straw,  sticks,  &c.,  &c.  effectually  and  quickly 
choke  it.  Tapering  rapidly  to  the  escape-hole  at  the 
bottom,  the  impediment  concentrates  itself, 
and  becomes  impacted  by  downward  pres- 
sure of  water.  Fig.  3  shows  a  section  of  a 
form  of  funnel  or  box  head  rendered  free 
from  the  chance  of  being  choked — A  is  a 
piece  of  tube  the  same  diameter  as  the  main 
pipe  B  ;  C  is  a  cone  of  coarse  perforated 
zinc,  soldered  to  the  mouth  of  the  upright 
tube,  like  the  head  of  a  sharp  pointed  pepper- 
dredger.  All  substances  entering  the  box 
•with  water  will  have  a  tendency  to  gravitate 
to  the  bottom,  where  they  will  remain  far 
below  the  holes  in  the  cone.  The  point 
being  sharp  admits  of  no  lodgment ;  and 
as  the  water  sinks  in  the  box,  stray  float- 
ing fragments  of  matter  will  fall  with  it, 
D  shows  where  two  or  three  holes  arc 
made  in  the  tube,  in  order  to  keep 
the  bottom  of  the  box  dry.  by  gradua' 
draining  through  of  any 
matter  which  may  collect 
below  the  holes  of  the 
cone.    Sparrows  are  most 


occasionally  thrown  into  the  newly-made  well  or  hole,  it 
was  carried  to  the  required  depth,  to  reach  the  buried 
supply  of  water.  A  bamboo,  with  a  split  end,  is  not 
unfrequently  used  to  form  a  small  well  ;  thrust  continually 
up  and  down  in  a  hole  made  in  the  surface-soil  for  its 
reception,  it  gathers  together,  between  the  split  up  joints 
of  wood,  such  gravel,  stones,  or  sand  as  may  oppose  its 
downward  progress.  "When  thoroughly  filled,  it  is  lifted 
from  the  hole  and  beaten  until  relieved  of  its  burden. 
Wells  in  sandy  regions  may  be  sunk  by 
first  building  a  circular  wall  of  stones.  The 
well  sinkers  then  enter  the  circle  and  dig 
out  the  sand  within,  until  the  wall  sinks 
to  the  surface  level.  Another  wall  is  then 
built  on  the  first,  and  so  on,  until  by  alter- 
nate building  and  digging  the  required 
depth  is  reached.  This  process,  although 
most  ingenious,  is  extremely  tedious,  Mr. 
J.  L.  Norton,  of  Belle  Sauvage  Yard,  Ludgate- 
hill,  is  the  inventor  of  a  most  ingenious, 
simple,  and  expeditious  method  of  per- 
forating sand,  earth,  gravel,  or  clay  de- 
posits, for  the  purpose  of  reaching  the  water 
locked  up  beneath  them.  Mr.  Norton 
employs  a  number  of  iron  tubes,  which 
fit  one  on  the  other,  much  as  a  fishing- 
rod  is  jointed  together.  The  first  joint 
is  pointed  and  perforated.  It  is  placed 
in  the  arrangement  re- 
presented in  Fig.  4. 
B  B  B  are  three  iron  legs, 
like  those  of  a   telescope 


Fig.  2. 

industrious  collectors  of 
all  sorts  of  odds  and 
ends  ;  and,  therefore,  care 
should  be  taken  to  stop 
carefully  the  line  of  space 
between  the  lower  border  of  the  roof  and  the  edge  of  the 
water  channel,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  gaining  an 
entrance.  Pigeons  are  sad  destroyers  of  rain-water,  which 
is  by  no  means  improved  by  the  addition  of  guano.  It  will 
not  unfrequently  happen,  that  although  no  surface  water  is 
to  be  discovered  on  lands  in  other  respects  desirable  for 
occupation,  an  abundant  store  exists  below  overlaying 
deposits  ;  therefore  it  is  that  the  well-sinker's  aid  becomes 
necessary.  There  ^re  many  methods  by  which  a  well 
may  be  sunk,  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  deposit  to 
be  penetrated,  and  the  depth  to  which  the  sinkings  are 
to  be  carried.  The  simple  shaft,  sunk  in  the  earth  until 
water  is  reached,  has  been  had  recourse  to  from  the  very 
earliest  ages.  Then  the  Chinese,  discovering  that  a  small 
orifice  produced  water  freely,  employed  a  species  of  shallow 
pumping  borer  or  bit,  which,  driven  by  manual  labour 
applied  to  a  long  bamboo  lever,  kept  pecking  at  the  earth, 
until  it  was  filled  through  an  orifice  in  the  bottom. 
When  charged,  it  was  drawn  to  the  surface,  and  its 
contents  cast  out.  and  so  on,  until  hy  the  aid  of  water 


Fig.  3.  . 

Stand  ;  E  E  are  the  two 
puUy  ropes,  which  by 
hand  raise  the  weight 
D  to  the  head  of  the 
arrangement,  when,  on 
being  suddenly  let  go,  it  falls  on  a  sort  of  striking  stop 
C,  which  is  removed  higher  on  the  tube  from  time 
to  time,  as  the  tube  recedes  into  the  earth.  Length 
after  length  is  added  and  driven  home,  until  the  water  is 
reached,  when  the  arrangement  represented  in  Fig.  i  is 
had  recourse  to. 

The  disintegrating  pump  is  firct  made  use  of  to  clear 
away  all  earth,  sand,  &c.,  from  the  perforations  of  the 
tube  point,  when  a  pump  intended  for  constant  use  may 
be  attached. 

In  conclusion  we  must  add  that  old  wells  which  have 
failed  to  yield  may  be  restored  to  their  original  value  by 
treating  them  after  the  method  mentioned,  whereby  the 
pointed  end  of  the  boring  tube  descends  deep  down  in  the 
well,  which  is  brought  directly  up  through  the  perfora- 
tions to  the  point  above. 

There  are  yet  several  sources  from  which  a  supply  of 
water  may  be  obtained,  which  we  leave  uomentionecf ;  the 
consideration  of  them  must  be  reserved  for  our  next 
paper. 


cassp:ll's  household  guide. 


353 


HOUSEHOLD    DECORATIVE  ART. 

X.— MODELLING  IN  CLAY   FOR  AMATEURS  {continued). 

A  Medallion. — We  will  now  turn  to  another  and  quite 
different  branch  of  the  art,  and  show  how  a  medallion 
portrait  may    be   modelled.      Medallions  are  sometimes 


of  clay  an  inch  in  thickness  on  board,  and,  having  scraped 
it  to  a  perfect  plane,  to  use  it  as  a  background.  This 
should  be  prepared  a  day  or  two  before  it  is  >yanted,  that 
time  may  be  allowed  for  it  to  set.  Then  take  the  com- 
passes and  strike  out  a  circle  which  will  be  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  proposed  medallion.     The  size  is,  of  course, 


BUST    TREPARED    FOR    CASTING. 

made  which  show  the  full 
or  three-quarters  face,  and 
are  occasionally  modelled  in 
high  relief  (that  is,  are 
almost  detached  from  the 
background) ;  but  these,  to 
be  at  all  satisfactory,  de- 
mand great  skill  and  know- 
ledge. The  most  simple  and 
generally  pleasing  form  is 
that  shown  in  our  engraving, 
inwhichthehead  is  modelled 
in  profile,  in  low  relief,  on  a 
round  or  oval  background. 
This  is  a  style  of  portrait 
which  is  by  no  means  diffi- 
cult, and  one  which  looks 
well,  if  carefully  modelled 
and  neatly  framed,  in  any 
room  ;  but  some  judgment 
is  required  in  the  hanging, 
for  the  modelling  will  not 
show  properly  in  a  wrong 
light.  As  a  rule,  a  profile- 
medallion  should  be  hung 
with  the  back  of  the  head 
turned  towards  the  window. 
The  first    requisite  will  be 

a  level  substance  for  the  background.  A  smooth  piece 
of  slate  or  plaster  of  Paris  is  sometimes  used,  and  in 
most  respects  answers   well ;   but   as  slate  and   plaster 


MEDALLION.— J. 


REYNOLDS,  ESQ.,   Hl'N.  SEC,  HOME  AND  COLONIAL  SCHOOL 
SOCIETY. 
(ModtlUd  ty  F.  ScarUt  PotUr.) 


'■ — J.  I..  TOOLE,  ESQ.,  COMEr)l.\K. 
{.ModdUd  by  F.  SiaiUl  ror:cr.) 

a  matter  of  taste,  but  frorr. 
seven  to  ten  inches  dia- 
meter is  recommended,  with- 
'  in  which  limits  the  length 
of  the  head  should  be  from 
four  to  five  inches.  Place 
the  "  sitter "  (the  person 
whose  portrait  is  to  be 
taken)  in  such  a  position 
that  his  head  may  be  on 
a  level  with  that  of  the 
modeller,  and  that  the  light 
may  fall  upon  the  side  uf 
the  face  to  be  copied,  rather 
from  the  back.  It  will  be 
found  most  easy  to  work 
from  the  left  side  of  the 
face,  with  the  features  to  the 
left  hand  of  the  spectator, 
as  the  face  of  the  queen  is 
shown  on  the  coins  of  the 
present  reign ;  and  supposing, 
this  side  to  be  chosen,  the 
light  must  fall  upon  the  sitter 
from  the  modeller's  right 
hand.  The  light  on  the  model 
should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  the  same.  While  the 


work  is  going  forward  the  sitter  should  remain  steadily  in 
one  position,  and,  when  necessary,  intervals  may  be  allowed 
for  rest.  The  first  step  will  be  to  take  one  of  the  sharp- 
are  different  both  in  colour  and  texture  from  the  clay,  they  ■  pointed  tools,  and  scratch  on  the  clay  an  outline  of  the 
do  not  admit  of  the  latter  being  blended  into  them  at  the  \  head  and  so  much  of  the  neck  and  bust  as  is  intended  to 
outline  in  a  soft  and  artistic  manner  ;  and,  therefore,  if  a  |  be  shown.  If  the  slate  ground  is  used  this  must  be 
highly  finished  work  is  desired,  it  is  better  to  spread  a  slab    done  with  slate-pencil  ;  if  plaster,  with  charcoal  or  a  soft 

V®L.  I.  '3 


354 


THE    REARING   AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    CHILDREN. 


blacklead.  The  form  as  seen  in  the  sitter  must  then  be 
built  up  in  clay,  in  the  same  manner  as  when  copying  the 
mask,  only  that  in  this  case  constant  attention  must  be  paid 
to  the  outline,  since  on  that  much  of  the  likeness  will  depend. 
The  hair  will  probably  rather  puzzle  the  beginner.  He 
may,  in  the  first  place,  get  the  general  effect  by  using 
the  deeply-serrated  ends  of  the  tool  shown  to  the  left  in 
the  illustration  to  our  first  article.  Afterwards  he  must  take 
the  fine  tool  shown  to  the  right,  and  with  that  divide  into 
masses  as  he  sees  them  in  his  sitter,  and  then  indent  them, 
more  especially  towards  the  ends,  with  curved  lines  ;  by 
the  abruptness  or  easy  curvature  of  which  he  will  be  able 
to  show  the  character  of  the  hair,  whether  crisp  or  flowing. 
This  will  require  some  care  and  delicacy  of  touch.  The 
relief,  or  greatest  height  above  the  background,  should 
not,  in  a  head  of  this  size,  greatly  exceed  half  an  inch. 

A  Bust. —  In  tlris  lesson  we  shall  give  the  method  of 
modelling  a  bust,  which  shall  be  one  of  the  size  of  life  ;  for 
the  greater  includes  the  less,  and  if  the  student  is  able  to 
do  this  he  will  find  no  difficulty  in  making  one  of  smaller 
size.  The  necessary  modelling-stool,  on  which  the  bust 
must  be  worked,  has  already  been  described,  but  a  frame 
will  also  be  required.  Its  bottom  should  be  of  stout 
board,  equal  in  size  with  the  top  of  the  stool.  Into  the 
centre  an  upright  of  wood,  two  inches  square  and  two  feet 
high,  should  be  strongly  morticed,  and  this  again  should 
have  a  cross-arm  four  or  five  inches  in  length  near  its  top. 
This  is  shown  in  Fig.  i,  on  page  353.  Round  this 
the  clay  must  be  built  into  a  rude  resemblance  of  a  bust, 
so  as  to  imbed  the  cross-arm  in  the  centre  of  the  head, 
and  to  allow  the  upright  to  pass  down  the  middle  of  the 
neck.  This  should  be  done  some  three  or  four  days  before 
the  first  sitting,  for  a  considerable  quantity  of  clay — some 
half-hundredweight — will  be  used,  and  that  length  of  time 
will  be  required  to  allow  it  to  set.  Before  the  work  is 
begun,  observe  carefully  what  is  the  characteristic  attitude 
of  the  sitter.  Most  people,  when  at  case,  have  some 
peculiar  habit,  more  or  less  marked,  of  holding  the  head  ; 
leaning  it  forward,  throwing  it  slightly  back,  or  towards  the 
right  shoulder  or  the  left.  If  this  trait  can  be  given  in  the 
bust,  the  likeness  will  be  greatly  increased.  Chantrey, 
whose  busts  are  second  to  none,  was  so  convinced  of  the 
importance  of  this,  that  he  made  a  point  of  inviting  his 
sitters  to  breakfast  before  he  began  work,  that  he  might 
study  them  unobserved.  If  possible,  it  will  be  well  to  work 
in  front  of  a  tolerably  lofty  window,  and  to  darken  the 
lower  half,  that  the  light  may  fall  somewhat  from  above  on 
both  sitter  and  bust.  Place  the  bust  and  sitter  side  by 
side  facing  the  light,  taking  care  that  the  heads  c  f  both, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  modeller,  are  on  the  same  level,  and 
proceed  to  build  up  the  forms  as  in  previous  instances. 
It  is  well  to  rough  out  the  general  proportions  of  the  bust, 
and  to  get  in  the  larger  masses,  before  giving  details.  Give 
the  breadth  of  the  shoulders,  the  depth  of  the  chest,  the 
thickness  of  the  neck,  and  the  length  and  width  of  the  head. 
Measurements  may  be  taken,  whenever  required,  with  the 
callipers,  which  are  merely  a  large  pair  of  compasses  with 
the  points  curved  inwards.  Then  begin  roughly  to  plan 
out  the  features.  At  first  mere  hollows  will  suffice  to  show 
the  eyes  ;  and  digging  in  the  thumb  at  the  proper  places, 
for  the  apertures  of  the  ears  and  corners  of  the  mouth, 
will  indicate  those  features  sufficiently ;  while  a  few  random 
strokes  with  the  tool  will  serve  to  express  the  hair.  Every- 
thing at  first  should  be  treated  in  a  large  and  broad  manner; 
and  even  in  this  stage,  if  the  work  be  done  properly,  some  re- 
semblance will  begin  to  appear.  Next  make  the  outline  of  the 
profile  generally  correct,  and  afterwards  put  in  the  features, 
measuring  their  dimensions  and  proper  positions  with  the 
compasses.  For  some  time  it  v.'ill  be  necessary  to  concen- 
trate, the  chief  attention  on  the  face  ;  when  that  becomes 
satisfactory,  model  the  neck  ;  and  it  will  then  be  desirable 
to  devote  a  sitting  to  the  hair  alone.  As  the  masses  of 
hair  constantly  vary,  and  are  never  the  same  two  successive 


days,  it  is  well  that  the  whole  arrangement  of  hair  on  the 
bust  should  be  modelled  at  once ;  mere  finish  may  be 
given  afterwards.  Another  sitting  may  be  given  to  the 
di-ess.  Hitherto  the  shoulders  have  been  left  roughly 
blocked  out  to  a  rude  resemblance  of  the  human  shape ; 
it  is  not  well  to  clothe  them  till  the  head  is  far  advanced, 
and  the  neck,  so  far  as  regar<fc  form,  finished  ;  but  they 
may  now  be  covered,  cither  with  the  usual  dress  of  the 
sitter,  or  with  a  cloak,  mantle,  or  other  piece  of  conven- 
tional drapery  thrown  loosely  round  them  ;  this  should  be 
copied  carefully  from  the  actual  material.  All  that  now  re- 
mains to  be  done  is  to  bring  the  whole  to  a  good  surface. 
The  face  and  flesh  generally  may  be  treated  as  directed  in 
the  first  lesson.  The  texture  of  the  drapery  will  be  best 
expressed  by  leaving  upon  it  the  marks  of  the  teeth  of  the 
wire-tool,  and  of  the  piece  of  stocking.  The  hair  should 
be  left  rough  from  the  tool  marks.  Whilst  modelling  a 
bust,  make  it  an  object  to  put  in  as  xs\\ich.for7n  as  possible 
while  the  sitter  is  present ;  mere  smoothiftg  may  be  done 
afterwards  ;  remembering  that  (though  in  this  case  ab- 
solute stillness  is  not,  as  in  the  medallion,  necessary) 
sitting  is  tiresome,  and  that  there  are  limits  to  human 
patience.  By  means  of  the  turn-table  on  the  modelling- 
stool  any  side  of  the  bust  can  be  brought  forward  to  be 
worked  upon,  without  change  of  position  on  the  part  of 
the  modeller  ;  the  sitter  must,  however,  be  requested  to 
turn  as  the  bust  is  turned. 

It  is  believed  that  in  the  foregoing  remarks  will  be  found 
all  the  information  needful  to  the  amateur,  not  only  for 
working  out  tlie  examples  chosen,  but  also,  with  slight 
modifications,  for  enabling  him  to  adapt  the  art  to  any  other 
of  the  numerous  purposes  for  which  it  is  fitted.  When 
some  skill  has  once  been  acquired,  objects  on  which  to 
employ  it,  and  appropriate  methods  by  which  to  decorate 
them,  will  readily  occur  to  anyone  of  intelligence  and 
taste.  We  have  now  only  to  treat  of  one  more  process — 
that  of  Casting ;  for  the  clay  model,  it  must  be  remembered, 
is  not  permanent.  It  is  true  that  such  models  as  have  no 
framework  of  wood  or  metal,  and  are  wholly  composed  of 
clay,  are  sometimes  preserved  by  burning,  becoming  what 
are  known  as  terra-cottas  ;  but  to  burn  them  is  a  matter 
of  m"uch  difficulty,  and  can  only  be  done  with  costly  appli- 
ances ;  it  is,  therefore,  beyond  the  reach  of  the  amateur. 
Usually,  if  the  clay  becomes  dry  it  shrinks,  cracks,  and 
crumbles  to  pieces  ;  hence  the  ordinary  method  is  to  keep 
the  model  damp  till  it  can  be  cast  in  plaster  of  Paris.  How 
this  may  be  done  will  be  shown  in  a  future  article. 


THE  REARING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF 
CHILDREN. 
X. — DIETARY  OF  YOUTH  {continued). 
MuTl'QN  and  beef  are  the  highest  and  most  suitable  foiTns 
of  animal  food  ;  but  compositions  in  which  suet,  eggs, 
milk,  and  butter  enter,  come,  also,  under  the  head  of 
animal  food.  In  this  respect,  well-made  puddings  may 
represent  a  meat  meal  in  so  far  as  nourishment  is  con- 
cerned, although  the  nourishment  may  not  be  of  the 
highest  possible  class.  A  good  homely  substitute  for  a 
full  meal  of  meat  will  be  found  in  a  pudding  composed  of 
batter,  made  of  eggs,  milk,  and  flour,  to  which  has  beea 
added  morsels  of  fresh  beefsteak,  stirred  into  the  batter. 
This  pudding,  seasoned  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  care- 
fully baked,  constitutes  a  healthy  and  palatable  meal  for 
a  family  at  comparatively  small  cest.  Again,  a  well-' 
boiled  steak-pudding  is  excellent  fare,  and  suitable  to  the^ 
strong  digestion  of  growing  boys  and  girls.  The  crust  of 
the  pudding  supplies  the  bulk,  combined  with  nourish- 
ment, so  important  at  that  age.  Prime  joints  are 
not  absolutely  necessary  to  secure  ample  nourishment ; 
although,  even  in  point  of  economy,  less  quantity  ofifa  best 
cut  of  meat  satisfies  hunger  more  than  a  'arger  off  inferior 


JASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


355 


portions.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  an  error  to  supply  too 
concentrated  a  kind  of  diet.  If,  when  in  health,  children 
are  invariably  kept  nourished  at  high-pressure  mark,  there 
is  no  resource  for  them  in  store,  when  in  sickness  further 
stimulants  are  needed.  Liver,  hearts,  and  soup  composed 
of  liquor  in  which  meat  has  been  boiled  and  thickened 
with  rice,  vegetables,  and  suet  dumplings  may  be  ad- 
vantageously eaten,  in  turn  with  prime  joints. 

Regularity  of  meals  is  a  matter  of  almost  as  much 
importance  as  the  quality  of  the  food.  Of  whatever  kind 
the  repast  may  be,  a  certain  time  is  required  for  the  work 
of  digestion,  and  a  proper  amount  of  rest  is  needful 
before  the  labour  recommences.  Three  meals  a  day  for 
healthy  persons  are  sufficient,  provided  the  quality  of  the 
food  be  of  a  nutritious  kind.  Children  that  are  continually 
craving  for  food  are  either  imperfectly  nourished  or  they 
are  in  ill-health.  From  four  to  six  hours  is  the  right 
interval  to  observe  between  meals,  according  to  the  age  of 
the  individual.  In  order  to  render  the  above  period  of 
abstinence  endurable,  the  repast  should  be  of  a  varied 
and  substantial  kind.  Breakfast  of  weak  tea  and  baker's 
bread  and  butter,  for  instance,  will  not  suffice  for  a  growing 
child  till  dinner  time — five  hours  afterwards — without  a 
great  deal  of  self-denial.  But  if  good  oatmeal  porridge, 
a  pint  of  bread. and  milk,  or  a  fair  quantity  of  boiled 
bacon  or  eggs,  with  unlimited  bread  and  butter  constitute 
the  meal,  the  promptings  of  a  craving  appetite  should 
be  afterwards  unheeded.  At  dinner,  meat  and  vegetables 
should  form  the  principal  fare,  followed  by  pudding ; 
"Stewed  fruit  and  bread  and  butter,  or  bread  and  jam,  in 
place  of  pudding.  If  soup  be  eaten  instead  of  meat,  a 
good  pudding  should  follow  ;  for  although  ordinary  soup 
may  satisfy  hunger  for  a  time,  it  is  not  the  same  "stay-by" 
as  more  solid  food. 

Tea,  as  a  meal,  is  in  many  families  a  delusion.  Although 
the  refreshing  cup,  accompanied  by  a  slice  or  two  of  bread 
and  butter  or  toast,  may  answer  the  purpose  well  enough 
for  adults  who  have  the  prospect  of  a  supper  before  going 
to  bed,  neither  quality  nor  quantity  is  sufficient  for 
young  people.  Dr.  Grosvenor  Wilson  feelingly  remarks  : 
"  I  have  secured  to  many  a  child  a  reasonable  evening 
meal  by  suggesting  to  the  mother  the  mere  use  of  the 
word  *  supper '  as  the  name  of  the  third  meal."  And 
this  is  precisely  the  change  that  we  would  wish  to  see 
established  in  every  household.  It  is  deplorable  to  thip-k 
of  the  number  of  hours,  craving  little  stomachs  suffer, 
without  food  between  the  time  of  going  to  bed,  say  at 
seven  o'clock,  and  rising  twelve  hours  afterwards,  not 
partaking  of  nourishment  in  the  interval,  under  the 
impression  that  suppers  are  unwholesome. 

A  proper  meal  in  place  of  the  ordinary  "  tea  "  will  be 
found  to  consist  in  some  of  the  following  additions — 
cocoa,  made  with  as  much  milk  as  the  parents  can 
afford  ;  bread  and  butter,  with  or  without  cheese  ;  stewed 
fruit,  hot  in  the  winter,  and  cold  in  the  summer ;  a  milky  rice 
pudding  to  which  finely- shred  beef- suet  has  been  added  ; 
plain  boiled  rice  and  treacle  ;  or,  if  possible,  some  eggs  ; 
cold  boiled  bacon  or  meat.  The  additional  expense  any  of 
the  above  articles  may  appear  to  entail  will  not  be  all  loss. 
Less  need  will  be  felt  for  tonics,  from  the  febrile  maladies 
too  often  occasioned  in  early  lifo  by  children  being  under- 
fed. Another  demand  may  also  cease,  namely,  for  cakes 
and  sweetmeats  "  to  put  under  the  pillow." 

In  addition  to  the  three  meals  a-day  alluded  to,  growing 
boys  and  girls  who  have  lessons  to  prepare  in  the  evening 
require  a  little  light  nourishment  before  going  to  bed.  A 
cup  of  cocoa  and  a  slice  of  bread  act  beneficially  on 
their  constitution  ;  for  we  must  ever  bear  in  mind  that, 
although  still  beneath  a  parent's  roof,  children  under 
tuition  are  actually  engaged  in  the  great  business  of  life, 
and  their  constitutions  require  support  to  meet  the  wear 
and  tear  of  mind  and  body  under  forced  labour  and 
restraint. 


Wine  and  beer  are,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  not 
necessary  for  growing  children.  Plain  water  best  aids 
digestion.  This  beverage  should  not  exceed  in  quantity 
half  a  pint  at  meals,  although  an  unlinrritcd  supply  maybe 
permitted  afterwards.  The  only  cases  where  beer  or  wine 
are  really  needed  are  when  a  depressed  state  of  constitu- 
tion requires  such  stimulants.  As  much  milk  as  can  be 
afforded,  taken  hot  or  cold,  may,  even  in  the  latter  case, 
successfully  replace  alcoholic  beverages. 


HOME   GARDENING. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  {continued). 
The  Dwarf  French  Bean. — This  is  an  annual,  and 
its  constitution  and  habits  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  the  runner,  only  it  has  not  a  running  stem,  neither 
is  it  so  prolific  or  long-bearing  as  the  former.  The 
young  unripe  pods  are  used  as  in  the  former  case  ;  in 
addition  to  which,  while  these  are  quite  young,  and  not 
more  than  an  inch  long  nor  thicker  than  a  straw,  they  are 
greatly  esteemed  for  pickling.  The  varieties  generally 
cultivated  are  the  early  yellow  dwarf,  early  red  speckled, 
early  black  or  negro,  early  white,  Battersea  white,  Canter- 
bury white,  black  speckled,  dun-coloured,  and  large  white 
dwarf.  The  dwarfs  will  bear  sowing  a  little  sooner  than 
the  larger  growing  kinds,  and  will  come  in  somewhat 
earlier.  They  are  more  convenient  to  cultivate  on  a  large 
scale,  and  are  also  considered  by  many  to  be  more  delicate 
in  flavour.  For  the  first  early  crop  sow  the  early  yellow, 
early  black  or  negro,  or  the  early  red  speckled  ;  and  for  a 
rather  later  crop  the  early  white  is  the  best,  and  is  generally 
considered  superior  to  the  others  in  flavour.  The  Canter- 
bury and  Battersea  are  decidedly  the  best  for  main  crops. 
The  dwarf  kidney  bean  does  not  continue  in  bearing  more 
than  three  weeks  or  a  month,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to 
sow  a  successional  crop  or  two  in  order  to  have  a 
continuance  until  the  runners  come  in,  or  for  a  regular 
succession  throughout  the  summer.  Half  a  pint  will  sow 
a  row  eighty  feet  long,  the  beans  being  placed  from  two 
and  a  half  to  three  inches  apart  in  the  drill.  This  bean, 
like  the  runner,  delights  m  a  rich  and  light  soil,  and  for 
early  crops  it  should  be  rather  sandy  and  dry ;  but  for 
later  ones  a  moist  loam  is  more  congenial.  You  should 
commence  sowing  the  various  kinds  of  dwarf  beans  about 
the  first  week  in  April,  provided  the  weather  be  fi«e  and 
open.  The  best  situation  is  a  dry  south  border,  although 
it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  their  well-doing  at  all 
times.  Draw  drills  two  feet  apart  and  an  inch  and  a  half 
or  two  inches  deep,  for  the  smaller  sized  beans,  dropping 
them  into  the  drills  rather  close  together,  in  order  to  allow 
for  a  failure,  which  is  almost  certain  to  happen  at  this 
early  season.  For  main  crops,  other  portions  must  he 
sown  towards  the  end  of  April,  and  in  May  and  June, 
in  order  to  have  a  continual  supply.  For  later  crops  the 
drills  may  be  drawn  two  feet  and  a  half  asunder,  two  inches 
deep,  and  the  beans  be  placed  from  two  to  two  and  a  half 
inches  apart  in  the  rows.  If  a  late  crop  is  desired,  a 
moderate  sowing  should  be  made  about  the  beginning  of 
August.  Crops  sown  late  should,  as  a  rule,  be  favoured 
with  the  best  situation  the  garden  can  afford,  otherwise 
they  will  not  turn  out  to  your  satisfaction.  It  is  not  worth 
the  trouble  to  grow  very  late  crops  of  dwarf  beans,  as  the 
runners,  under  proper  management,  will  continue  bearing 
until  frost  cuts  them  off;  and  that  will,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  be  very  late  in  the  season.  The  beans  for  summer 
sowing  would  be  greatly  accelerated  in  their  germination 
provided  they  were  soaked  in  soft  water  for  six  or  eight 
hours  previous  to  sowing.  As  the  plants  of  different  crops 
advance  in  growth,  hoe  and  stir  the  surface  between  the 
rows,  and  cut  down  all  weeds  as  they  appear,  and  draw  a 
little  eartli  to  the  stems,  which  wiH  tend  very  much  to 
encourage  the  growth  of  the  plants  as  well  as  to  increase 


35^ 


POINT   LACE   WORK. 


the  crop.  The  pods  should  be  gathered  while  young, 
tender,  fleshy,  and  brittle,  as  they  are  then  in  the  greatest 
perfection.  By  clean  gathering  the  crop  will  continue 
longer  in  perfection  than  if  a  superabundant  one  were  left 
to  grow  old  ;  and,  independently  of  this,  you  will  prevent 
the  successive  pods  from  being  robbed  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  their  nourishment  or  support.  A  row  or  two,  or 
more  if  necessary,  should  be  set  apart  for  seed,  taking  care 
not  to  gather  until  they  are  fully  ripened ;  then  pull  up  the 
haulm,  and  lay  it  in  the  sun  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry  ; 
after  which  the  beans  may  be  cleared  out  of  the  pods,  and 
put  away  till  wanted.  It  frequently  happens  that  a 
sufficient  quantity  will  be  found  upon  the  stalks  after  a  crop 
is  over,  and  when  such  is  the  case  dry  them  and  put  them 
away  for  future  use. 

Red  Beet. — This  is  a  biennial  plant,  with  large,  oblong, 
succulent  leaves  of  a  reddish  colour ;  the  roots,  when  at 
their  YuU  size,  are  from  three  to  four  inches  in  diameter, 
and  from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  of  a  deep 
red  colour.  The  flowers  are  of  a  greenish  colour,  and 
make  their  appearance  in  August.  The  roots  are  the  only 
eatable  portion  when  boiled  and  sliced,  either  by  them- 
selves or  in  salads.  They  are  also  used  for  pickling,  and 
occasionally  for  garnishing.  There  are  several  varieties  of 
beet — namely,  Henderson's  pine-apple,  Nutting's  selected, 
Cattell's  dwarf 
blood-red,  and 
Beck's  im- 
proved— all  of 
which  are 
good ;  so  that 
you  cannot 
possibly  make 
a  mistake  in 
selecting  any 
one  of  the  four. 
This  plant  de- 
lights most  in 
a  dry,  light,  and 
a  rather  sandy 
loam,  having  a 
good  depth,  so 
that  there  may 
be  ample  room  for  the  root  to  penetrate  at  will.  It 
is  always  raised  from  seed,  which  should  be  sown 
annually,  either  the  latter  end  of  March  or  the  be- 
ginning of  April.  We  never  sow  earlier  ourselves,  for 
this  reason,  that  we  have  invariably  found  the  early  plants 
run  up  to  stalk,  instead  of  making  good  root.  The 
ground  on  which  the  seed  is  to  be  sown  should  be  well 
manured  and  trenched  the  preceding  year,  in  preference 
to  leaving  it  till  the  time  for  sowing  arrives,  as  ground  so 
recently  manured  invariably  causes  the  roots  to  canker. 
The  ground  should  be  trenched  eighteen  inches  deep,  be- 
fore sowing  for  the  long-rooted  kinds.  The  seed  may 
either  be  sown  in  broad-cast  or  in  drills  a  foot  apart,  but 
we  prefer  the  latter  method  for  two  reasons ;  first,  because 
they  can  be  more  easily  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and,  secondly, 
they  can  be  thinned  with  greater  facility.  Draw  drills  as 
you  would  for  peas  or  beans,  and  drop  the  seeds,  two 
together,  into  the  same,  at  about  a  foot  apart,  and  as  soon 
as  the  plants  are  of  an  age  to  distinguish  the  strongest, 
pull  up  the  weaker,  so  as  to  leave  one  only  standing. 
Presuming  that  they  have  been  sown  broadcast,  as  soon 
as  the  plants  are  about  two  inches  high,  they  must  be 
thinned  out  to  about  twelve  inches  apart  in  every  direction, 
which  will  allow  them  full  room  to  grow  and  swell  to  a  good 
size  by  the  autumn,  at  which  time  they  will  befit  for  use  as 
wanted,  and  will  continue  in  perfection  during  the  winter 
and  spring  following.  However,  we  make  it  a  practice 
to  "  provide  for  a  rainy  day,"  if  we  may  use  the  expres-  | 
sion,  by  pitting  them  up  as  we  would  potatoes.  But  where,  ; 
htwcver,  you  have  not  a  sufficient  quantity  for  such  a 


purpose,  the  roots  may  be  then  taken  up,  trimmed  of  their 
leaves,  and  be  deposited  in  sand,  in  a  shed  or  outhouse  ; 
or,  if  you  prefer  it,  you  may  take  up  a  portion  only  and 
keep  them  under  cover  for  use,  when  hard  frosts  would 
fasten  them  in  the  ground  ;  but  the  remainder  may  be 
still  left  in  the  soil,  to  be  taken  up  as  wanted,  weather 
permitting.  In  February  or  March  the  pitted  roots  may 
require  to  be  looked  at,  in  order  to  check  the  growth,  or 
prevent  their  running,  or  they  will  not  keep  good  till  May 
or  June,  as  they  would  do  if  examined  periodically,  as 
already  observed.  Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  break 
or  injure  their  roots,  as  they  would  then  bleed  much  and 
become  pale-coloured.  For  this  reason,  on  taking  off  the 
leaves,  an  inch  of  the  tops  should  be  left  on  with  the  solid 
root.  In  order  to  save  seed,  a  few  strong  roots  should  be 
selected  and  transplanted  to  some  spot  where  they  will  not 
be  in  danger,  when  in  flower,  of  impregnation  with  any 
inferior  or  different  variety.  A  few  strong  roots  may 
be  left  standing  in  the  row,  which  will  shoot  up  the  second 
year,  when  their  flower-stalks  should  be  tied  to  stakes  to 
prevent  their  being  blown  dov/n. 

White  Beet. — This  is  a  hardy  biennial  plant,  the  leaves 
of  which  are  larger  than  the  red  beet,  and  very  thick  and 
succulent.  It  produces  its  flowers,  which  are  of  a  greenish 
colour,  in  August  and  September.      The  leaves  of  this 

plant  are  the 
V  nly  usable 
i.'arts,  which 
are  boiled  like 
spinach  or  put* 
into  soups. 
The  principal 
\arieties  in  cul- 
tivation are  the 
common  small- 
rooted  green- 
leaved,  the 
common  whi-te 
small  -  rooted, 
;tnd  the  large 
v.hite,  or  the 
2-  F'g-  3-  Swiss.    All  the 

sorts  are  propa- 
gated by  seed,  and  the  soil  for  these  varieties  may  be 
considerably  stronger  and  richer  than  that  for  the  red 
sorts,  but  need  not  be  quite  so  deep.  For  a  bed  con- 
taining fifty-four  square  feet,  one  ounce  of  seed  will  be 
sufficient.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  March,  either 
in  drills,  six  or  eight  inches  apart  for  the  small  sorts, 
and  ten  or  twelve  for  the  larger,  or  broadcast,  and  the 
seeds  raked  in  well.  When  the  plants  are  up  two  inches 
high,  they  must  be  thinned  out  to  from  eight  inches  to  a 
foot  apart,  and  afterwards  kept  clear  of  weeds.  The  seed 
of  this  sort  may  be  saved  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as 
that  recommended  for  the  red. 


POINT   LACE   WORK.— III. 

We  now  give,  as  promised  in  our  last  article,  the  "  Spanish 
Point  Loop,"  forming  a  companion  to  the  "  Trefoil ;"  and 
we  would  advise  its  being  used,  alternately,  with  the 
trefoil,  either  for  a  banner-screen,  a  bracket,  the  border  of 
a  table-cover,  or  a  "  bordure  de  chetnince.^^  If  three  of 
these  Vandykes,  viz.,  one  "  loop,"  one  "  trefoil,"  and  one 
"  loop,"  or  vice  versd,  be  traced  out  on  one  length  of  the 
transparent  linen,  and  tacked  down  firmly  on  thick  twilled 
coloured  calico,  the  piece  of  work,  when  completed,  will 
be  of  the  right  length  for  trimming  a  velvet  banner-screen, 
being  laid  on  the  velvet,  along  the  lower  edge.  The  two 
designs  will  be  found  to  join  perfectly,  and  may  be  con- 
tinued alternately  to  any  required  length,  should  a  table- 
cover,  a  poytiere,  or    any   other   Icng  piece  of  v/ork  be 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


357 


LACK  WOaK.       THE  SPANISH   POIN"^  LOOP. 


358 


ANIMALS   KEPT   FOR   PLEASURE. 


required  ;  the  open  stitches,  given  in  our  last,  may  be 
used  for  the  present  design,  and  arranged  after  the  worker's 
own  taste. 

For  the  "loop,"  in  the  point  of  the  Vandyke,  in  our  pre- 
sent number,  we  should  advise  that  "  a  wheel "  be  worked 
in  its  open  space.     For  this  purpose,  threads  should  be 
stretched  across,  as  in  Fig.  i,  by  taking  the  needle  from 
one  side  of  the  opening  to  the  other,  and  then  sewing 
back  over  the  thread,  until  the  starting-point  is  reached  ; 
the  needle  is   now  taijten   on  a  little    way,  and    another 
thread  is  stretched ;  this  is  continued  until  four  threads 
are  taken  across,  each  being  sewn  over  before  the  next 
one  is  commenced.     After  the  fourth   time,  the  sewing 
again  goes  back  as  far  as  the  centre,  or  the  point  where 
the  lines  intersect,  and,  after  taking  a  stitch  of  overcast 
\o  keep   the  threads   together,  the  spot  is  then  formed 
by  taking  the  needle  under  and  over  the  threads  alter- 
nately until  it  be  of  the  required  size,  when  the  remaining 
half  of  that  thread  should  be  sewn  over,  which  will  bring 
the  needle  to  the  opposite  braid  again  for  fastening.     For 
the  wheel,  fine  thread  should  be  used.     In  some  of  the 
spaces,  which  are  not  very  wide,  the  bars  shown  in  Fig.  2 
may  be  employed  with  much  effect,  and  differ  from  those 
given  at  Fig.  4,  p.  282.     The  thread  is  taken  across  and 
fastened  with  an  overcast  to  the  braid ;  then  sewn  back 
again  over  the  thread,  which  gives  the  appearance  of  a 
twisted  rope.    This  may  be  varied  by  the  same  style  of 
bar  being  worked  lengthwise,  as  in  Fig.  3,  imparting  a 
sort  of  leaf-like  look,  and  contrasting  well  with  some  of 
the   closer  patterns  of  the  open-work.     With  regard  to 
the  size  of  cotton  used,  it  is   almost   impossible  to  par- 
ticularise J  indeed,  the  worker  must  decide  this  for  herself, 
and  try  the  effect  of  different  open  stitches,  until  she  can 
suit  her  own  taste  as  to  the  cotton.  A  great  variety  of  braids, 
for  point-lace  work,  are  now  made ;  and  we  have  seen 
beautiful   patterns    sent    from    Nottingham,   and,    also, 
samples  of  cotton.     We  need  hardly  say  that  the  "  Spanish 
Point- Lace  Cord"  is  to  be  continued  along  the  edge  of 
the  braid  in  this  "Loop"  pattern,  as  in  the  "Trefoil." 
We  hope,  shortly,  to  give  a  design  for  a  border  to  be  laid 
on  the  edge  of  a  square-cut  open  bodice. 


;        ANIMALS   KEPT   FOE.  PLEASURE. 

ly.—THE    DOG:     DISEASES    OF    DOGS    {continued). 

i  Mange. — This  word  is  used  to  denote  almost  every  kind 
of  skin  disease  in  the  dog.  True  mange  is  caused  by  an 
insect ;  but  Mr.  Mayhew  describes  four  other  kinds,  and 
says  he  believes  there  are  many  more. 

In  real  77iange  (which  generally  arises  from  con- 
tagion) the  skin  is  more  or  less  extensively  denuded  of 
hair,  dry  and  scaly,  and  corrugated  (in  ridges).  The 
spirits  are  mosdy  dejected,  with  only  occasional  symptoms 
of  liveliness,  and  the  animal  is  constantly  scratching 
himself,  while  the  heat  of  the  body  is  greater  than  usual, 
and,  as  a  rule,  the  animal  drinks  more  than  when  in 
health. 

Mercurial  ointment  is  commonly  prescribed  by  farriers 
Cff  illiterate  dog-doctors.  It  doubtless  cures  the  mange, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  greatly  injures  the  animal.  A  dog 
never  completely  recovers  from  salivation,  therefore  the 
best  ointment  is  one  composed  of — 

Ointment  of  resin    '\ 

Sublimed  sulphur     [-at  discretion. 

Oil  of  juniper  ) 

Add  as  much  of  the  second  ingredient  to  the  first  as  can 
possibly  be  mixed,  till  the  mass  is  too  stiff  to  add  any 
more,  and  then  thin  down  with  the  third  till  of  a  convenient 
consistency  for  use.  Rub  well  into  the  skin  (smearing  the 
coat  merely  is  ridiculous),  and  wash  off  next  day.  Do 
this  three  times,  which  will  last  a  week.     Then  rest  a 


week  and  repeat  the  process,  which  will  usually  be 
sufficient ;  but  if  the  dog  begins  again  to  sa-atch  itself 
suspiciously,  the  process  must  be  gone  through  again. 

In  another  kind  of  skin  disease  the  hair  falls  off  in 
patches,  which,  as  before,  appear  hard,  scaly,  and  con-u- 
gated,  and  the  itching  is  intense,  but  in  this  kind  seems 
worse  in  the  parts  still  covered  with  hair.  The  treatment 
begins  with  tonic  medicines  for  a  week  or  two,  such  as 
are  given  for  distemper— omitting  quinine  when  liquor 
arsenicalis  is  given,  and  diluted  with  water — this  being 
a  sure  specific.  Give  a  small  dog  half  a  drop  thrice  a  day 
at  first,  a  large  one  two  drops,  and  so  in  proportion  to 
the  size,  each  day  increasing  the  doses  by  half  a  drop,  or 
a  drop,  respectively,  for  the  whole  day*  (not  for  each 
dose).  At  length  the  dog  will  have  a  discharge  from  the 
eyes,  or  they  will  look  bloodshot,  or  he  will  loathe  his 
food,  or  in  some  other  way  show  the  medicine  is  acting, 
when  it  must  be  stopped  for  three  days,  and  then  com- 
menced again  at  half  a  drop  less  than  the  last  dose,  for  fear 
of  overdoing  it,  again  increasing  till  the  dog  is  affected  a 
second  time.  Some  animals  require  very  httle  before 
their  system  is  influenced  ;  others  will  stand  an  enormous 
quantity,  comparatively,  of  the  poison  before  they  show 
any  sign  that  the  medicine  is  acting — in  fact,  require  what 
would  kill  another  dog  of  equal  strength  and  size.  But, 
whatever  be  the  dose  required,  the  medicine  is  infallible, 
and  when  given  cautiously,  as  described,  perfectly  in- 
nocuous.   In  one  to  two  months  the  disease  will  be  cured. 

Over-fed  or  fat  dogs  are  apt  to  contract  another  kind  of 
mange,  which  manifests  itself  by  a  most  offensive  odour 
and  an  enormous  thickening  of  the  skin.  Of  course 
sensation  is  deadened,  and  the  very  hijdest  pinching 
only  gives  the  animal  pleasure.  The  back  often  shows 
more  or  less  bare  places,  but  not  always,  and  the  spirits 
are  dull.  The  cure  consists  in  Avithholding  all  flesh  meat, 
and  confining  the  animal  to  vegetable  diet,  giving  an 
emetic  of  antimonial  wine,  and  then  a  daily  dose  for  three 
or  four  days  of  a  castor-oil  mixture  (such  as  is  given 
hereafter),  followed  by  tonics,  with  a  cold  bath  every 
morning.  Then  apply  daily  some  stimulating  liniment, 
such  as — 

Oil  of  turpentine 2  parts") 

Nut  oil      I  part    l-mix. 

Oil  of  pitch  2  parts  J 

After  a  week  make  it  as  follows  : — 

Oil  of  turpentine i  part  "^ 

Nut  oil      I  part    /     . 

Oil  of  pitch         I  part    f™^' 

Turpentine  i  part  j 

As  the  turpentine  acts  in  reducing  the  thickness  of  the 
skin  it  will  give  acute  pain,  and  the  dog  will  utter  piteous 
cries.  The  quantities  used  may  then  be  somewhat 
lessened  :  but,  in  spite  of  the  animal's  agony,  the  process 
must  be  continued  if  a  cure  be  desired,  though  it  is  a 
question  whether  real  humanity  would  not  rather  order  a 
merciful  execution. 

In  another  kind  of  mange  the  hair  suddenly  falls  off  in 
patches.  "  For  this,"  Mr.  Mayhew  says,  "  no  application 
is  necessary,  if  the  diet  be  attended  to  ;"  but  we  think  the 
application  of  sulphur  ointment  much  facilitates  re-growth. 

In  the  last  kind  of  so-called  mange — which  frequently 
attacks  young  pups — the  hair  nearly  all  falls  off,  till  the 
pup  is  almost  naked,  the  skin  being  covered  with  nearly 
black  patches,  caused  by  effusion  of  blood,  and  large 
pustules  filled  with  matter.  In  grown  dogs,  as  a  rule, 
only  the  back,  neck,  and  head  are  affected,  and  a  cure  is 
certain  with  patience,  but  is  very  tedious  and  expensive. 
In  the  case  of  pups  all  depends  on  the  strength  of  the 

•  As  half  a  drop  a  day  divided  in  three  may  puzzle  the  reader,  we  may 

observe  that  the  liquor  (ordinary  strength)  may  bs  dihued  with  six  times  its 
bulk  of  water.  I'hen  an  increase  of  one  drop  of  the  mixtur-e  to  each  dos§ 
will  be  equivalent  to  only  half  a  drop  of  the  liquor  during  the  whole  day  : 
and  s(?  on. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD  GUIDE. 


339 


animal.  The  treatment  consists  in  opening  the  pustules 
freely,  and  also  puncturing  the  skin  to  let  out  the  dark 
blood,  then  washing  the  skin  with  a  soft  sponge  and  warm 
water,  and  applying  the  following  soothing  ointment  : — 


Camphor,  powdered 
Mercurial  ointment 
Elder  ointment    ... 


I  part. 
I  part, 
I  part. 


The  sponging  and  ointment  are  to  be  repeated  daily, 
and  liquor  arsenicalis  given,  as  already  described,  ana 
with  the  same  precautions,  till  a  cure  be  effected. 

Canker  of  the  Ear  is  one  of  the  commonest  complaints 
of  dogs,  and  we  believe  in  every  case  it  is  caused  by 
foul,  improper,  or  too  high  feeding.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  canker  recognised,  and  known  as  internal  and  external  ; 
but  internal  canker  appears  to  be  the  only  one  which  can 
be  called  a  disease,  the  external  canker — a  canker  of  the 
flap  of  the  ear — being  never  found  unless  in  conjunction 
with  the  internal  complaint,  and  being  evidently  caused 
by  the  creature  continually  shaking  the  head,  or  scratch- 
ing the  ear  from  the  internal  irritation,  till  the  continual 
violence  causes  a  sore,  which  degenerates  into  an  ulcer 
of  more  or  less  extent.  The  treatment  formerly  recom- 
mended was  almost  inoperative,  and  cruel  in  the  extreme. 
The  diseased  parts  are  still  often  cut  away,  without  the 
least  effect,  as  the  internal  irritation  again  causes  the  con- 
tinual shaking  of  the  ear,  which  leads  to  the  disorder. 
For  internal  canker  many  practitioners— and  even  Mr. 
Youatt — prescribe  dressings  which  make  the  poor  dog 
howl  with  agony,  and,  as  this  writer  confesses,  do  not 
seem  to  have  much  success. 

The  first  symptom  of  internal  canker  is  the  animal 
constantly  shaking  the  head  or  scratching  the  ear.  In 
worse,  or  more  developed  cases,  there  is  a  blackish  dis- 
charge visible  within  the  ear,  with  a  smell  which  Mr. 
Mayhew  compares  to  decayed  cheese.  The  remedy  is 
vegetable  diet  (in  nearly  every  case  of  canker  there  has 
been  too  much  of  flesh  meat),  and  a  dressing  composed 
of  equal  parts  of  extract  of  lead  and  water.  This  is  to  be 
carefully  applied  by  two  persons,  one  holding  the  dog's 
head  in  one  hand,  and  having  the  root  of  the  ear  in  the 
hollow  between  the  first  finger  and  thumb  of  the  other. 
The  assistant  then  pours  the  dressing  (half  a  teaspoonful 
to  a  teaspoonful)  into  the  ear,  when  the  person  who  holds 
the  dog  closes  the  ear  and  works  it  with  his  fingers,  that 
the  liquid  may  penetrate  thoroughly.  This  dressing  is 
soothing  in  its  character,  and  gives  no  pain.  As  the  lead 
solution  makes  a  mark  wherever  it  touches  the  clothes,  a 
coarse  apron  should  be  worn,  and  when  both  ears  are 
done  the  creature  should  be  suddenly  thrown  to  a 
distance,  that  he  may  not  splash  any  on  the  operator's 
garments.     The  dressing  is  to  be  used  three  times  a  day. 

External  canker  being  different  in  its  nature,  and  due 
to  mechanical  causes,  needs  different  treatment.  The 
first  thing  is  to  get  a  cap  of  linen  or  calico,  and  tie  over 
the  creature's  head  and  ears,  to  prevent  further  irritation 
by  shaking  or  scratching ;  and  the  only  application 
needed  will  be  the  soothing  mercuriaU'camphor  ointment 
prescribed  above  for  one  of  the  varieties  of  mange. 

If  the  shaking  of  the  ear  has  produced  actual  abscesses 
— as  it  sometimes  will — within  the  flap,  the  treatment  is 
the  same  in  principle.  The  sac  must  be  slit  thoroughly 
open,  a  small  pledget  of  lint,  soaked  in  the  extract  of  lead 
solution,  kept  in  it  for  a  day  or  two,  when  the  wearing  of 
the  cap — to  prevent  further  irritation  until  the  internal 
canker  be  removed  and  the  animal  no  longer  shakes  its 
head — will  complete  the  cure. 

The  dog  is  also  sometimes  subject  to  malignant  cancer 
in  various  parts,  analogous  to  the  same  dreaded  human 
disease.  No  cure  of  such  cases  seems  possible,  though 
they  may  sometimes  be  so  alleviated  by  a  skilled  prac- 
titioner tbat  the  animal's  life  may  be  spared.  Sometimes 
excision  may  be  effectual  at  an  early  stage. 


DOMESTIC  MEDICINE. 

BRONCHITIS. 
This  disease  is  one  that  it  behoves  to  describe  carefully, 
because  it  is  a  good  deal  before  the  public,  and  really  is 
one  of  the  most  fatal  diseases  that  human  nature  has  ta 
contend  with  in  this  climate.  The  large  mortality  of  our 
winter  weeks  is  chiefly  due  to  this  cause.  In  very  cold 
winters  the  mortality  will  go  up  to  numbers  which  are 
n;ore  suggestive  of  plagues  than  anything  else.  Medical 
men  have  long  known  that  cold  was  a  very  deadly  thing. 
Dr.  Hcberden,  at  the  end  of  last  century,  showed'  that  a 
cold  winter  was  almost  twice  as  fatal  as  a  mild  one  ;  and 
the  diseases  which  the  cold  causes  are  of  the  nature  we 
are  about  to  describe — bronchitis,  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  &:c.  The  facts  of  Dr.  Heberden's  paper,  which  was 
published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  were  very 
striking  and  instructive.  He  compared  the  number  of 
deaths  which  took  place  in  London  in  January,  1795,  with 
the  number  that  occurred  in  January,  1796.  The  January, 
1795,  was  a  very  severe  month,  and  that  of  1796  was  a 
very  mild  month.  Now  let  the  reader  mark  the  facts 
which  are  thus  stated  by  Sir  Thomas  Watson,  in  his 
Lectures.  "  Of  these  two  successive  winters  one  was  the 
coldest,  and  the  other  the  warmest,  of  which  any  regular 
record  had  been  kept  in  this  countiy.  In  the  month  of 
January,  1795,  the  thermometer,  upon  an  average,  stood 
at  23*^  in  the  morning,  and  at  29.4''  in  the  afternoon — 
always,  you  will  observe,  below  the  freezing-point.  In  the 
same  month,  in  1796,  it  stood  at  43.5*?  in  the  morning, 
and  at  50°  in  the  afternoon — always  much  above  the 
freezing-point.  The  average  difference  in  the  two  months 
was  more  than  20°.  In  the  five  weeks,  beginning  upon 
January,  1795,  there  were  2,823  deaths.  In  the  five 
weeks  beginning  upon  January,  1796,  there  were  only 
1,471.  The  difference  (1,352)  is  enormous.  The  mortality 
in  the  former  year  was  nearly  double  that  in  the  latter." 
The  mortality  to  old  people  was  very  striking.  In  the 
January  of  1795  there  were  in  London  717  deaths  of 
persons  above  sixty  years  old,  while  in  January,  1796, 
there  were  only  153  such  deaths,  or  scarcely  more  than 
one-fifth  of  the  former  number.  Note  further — what  is  ta 
the  point  for  our  present,  purpose — that  deaths  from 
diseases  of  the  chest  were  very  fatal  in  the  severe  month, 
and  very  slightly  so  in  the  mild  one.  The  deaths  from 
what  they  called  asthma — which,  doubtless,  were  for  the 
most  part  deaths  from  bronchitis,  were  249  in  January, 
1795,  ^rid  only  29  in  January,  1796.  The  deaths  from 
what  they  called  then  consumption — which  would  include 
many  from  bronchitis — were  825  in  1795  and  342  in  1796. 

But  since  then  there  has  been  a  uniform  experience  of 
the  mortality  of  cold  winters,  and  yet  there  is  a  commoa 
notion  abroad  that  cold  is  a  healthy  thing.  Some  people 
come  up  to  you  on  a  day  in  which  you  can  scarcely  keep 
warmth  in  you  and  say,  "What  afine  healthy  day  this  is!" 
And  there  is  a  proverb  which  embodies  the  same  notion, 
that  "  A  green  yule  makes  a  fat  churchyard." 

There  should  be  no  mistake  about  the  deadliness  of 
cold.  There  may  be  a  great  deal  of  sickness  in  mild, 
muggy  winters,  but  there  will  be  less  death  ;  and  it 
should  be  said  that  cold  and  cholera  are  not  ver>'  unlike 
each  other  in  their  power  to  kill.  It  is  true  that  it  is 
chiefly  the  old  and  the  young  and  the  weakly  that  die 
from  cold,  but  these  are  just  the  classes  that  die  from 
anything.  The  weather  that  kills  them  is  deadly  weather, 
and  should  be  guarded  against.  As  we  have  said,  a*ie  of 
the  great  diseases  by  which  the  old  and  the  young  and 
the  weakly  are  cut  off  in  winter  is 

Bronchitis. — We  have  already  described  the  disease  as 
it  affects  children  ;  but  it  is  entitled  to  another  notice,  as 
affecting  grown-up  and  old  people.  A  very  bad  cold  in 
the  chest  generally  means  more  or  less  of  bronchitis — that 
is  to  say,  o*"  inflammation  of  the  tubes  which  <r,o  from  the 


l6o 


A   FEW   WORDS   ABOUT   DYEING. 


windpipe  to  the  lungs  and  carry  the  air  to  these  organs, 
and  he  is  a  very  healthy  person  that  is  not  more  or  less 
liable  to  this  complaint  in  this  climate.  In  most  people 
this  only  occurs  occasionally,  and  at  long  intervals.  In 
some  people  it  is  almost  a  habit^  and  all  through  the 
winter  they  cough  and  wheeze  and  spit,  and  breathe  very 
badly.  They  may  go  on  this  way  for  years  or  for  a  life- 
time. Winter  and  spring  are  their  times  of  danger,  and 
they  should  look  upon  these  seasons  as  not  friendly,  and 
take  corresponding  precautions. 

SymptojHS. — As  we  have  said,  the  symptoms  of  bron- 
chitis, roughly  speaking,  are  cough,  wheezing,  spitting,  and 
short  breathing.  The  cough  is  generally  a  severe  tearing 
or  choking  sort  of  cough.  Perhaps  it  comes  on  in  fits  of 
coughing,  which  are  apt  to  be  worst  at  nights.  The 
wheezing  noise  in  breathing,  too,  is  apt  to  be  worst  at 
nights.  The  expectoration  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of 
thick  yellow  phlegm,  which  is  occasionally  tinged  with 
blood.  There  is  more  or  less  shortness  of  breath.  This 
set  of  symptoms  often  exists  without  much  inconvenience 
to  the  patient.  But  if  there  is  any  fever  or  heat  of  skin 
added  to  them  ;  if  they  have  come  on  sharply  after  a 
shivering ;  and  if  there  is  much  pain  in  any  part  of  the 
chest,  either  sides  or  front  of  it ;  then  the  attack  is  severe, 
and  should  have  every  attention,  including  the  advice  of  a 
medical  man.  The  case  is  more  serious  still,  if  the  patient 
is  advanced  in  years,  for  it  is  found  that  very  little  bron- 
chitis, occasionally,  is  enough  to  put  life  in  great  risk.  The 
common  case  of  bronchitis  is  one  more  or  less  chronic  or 
habitual,  not  jeopardising  life.  It  is  astonishing  hew 
many  people  have  every  winter  a  considerable  amount 
of  bronchitis,  which,  with  a  little  care  and  rest,  and 
perhaps  warmth  in  bed  and  medical  attention,  gets  better, 
and  lets  them  go  about  their  duties  again.  Even  the 
acute  cases  of  bronchitis,  generally  speaking,  occur  in 
those  who  are  more  or  less  accustomed  to  the  chronic 
form  of  the  disease.  In  all  cases  the  disease  is  a 
weakening  one,  and  even  in  acute  and  severe  cases  there 
is  an  early  ne^d  for  support. 


•  A    FEW    WORDS    ABOUT    DYEING. 

Soiled  or  faded  articles  of  dress  or  household  wear  may 
frequently  be  again  rendered  serviceable  by  dyeing  ;  and 
although  the  larger  ones  must,  from  the  trouble  and  care 
involved,  necessarily  be  sent  to  the  professed  dyer,  the 
smaller  ones  may  often  be  dyed  to  advantage  at  home, 
and  some  saving  of  money  and  vexatious  delay  effected, 
and  more  especially  in  the  colonies  or  in  the  country, 
where  dyers  are  not  easily  reached.  It  appears  desirable, 
therefore,  that  we  should  say  a  few  words  on  the  subject 
of  dyeing,  and  more  especially  on  that  branch  of  it  which 
may  be  of  practical  use  to  our  readers. 

The  art  of  dyeing  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  a  long  and 
interesting  essay  might  be  written  on  its  history.  For 
instance,  kermes,  a  dyeing  stuff  still  in  use,  can  be  clearly 
traced  backwards  through  the  middle  ages  to  ancient 
Rome  and  thence  to  Greece,  where  it  was  employed  to 
colour  the  scarlet  cloaks  of  the  rich  Athenians.  The  poor 
Athenians,  whose  average  income  was  fourpence-halfpenny 
per  da\-,  wore  undyed  cloaks  which  were  washed  some- 
times, but  not  too  frequently.  The  Greeks  in  their  turn 
derived  kermes  from  the  Asiatics.  Much  might  be  said, 
if  it  were  to  our  present  purpose,  about  the  famous  Tyrian 
purple  ;  but  we  shall  only  remark  with  regard  to  it,  that 
it  was  probably  prized  by  the  ancients  much  more  on 
account  of  the  absence  of  other  good  dyes  than  its  own 
intrinsic  merits,  as  compared  with  those  of  our  time.  The 
art  of  preparing  it  is  by  no  means  lost,  and  the  shell-fish 
which  furnished  the  purple  pigment  still  abounds,  but  we 
have  better  colours,  and  no  one  finds  it  worth  the  trouble 
of  making. 


The  superiority  of  modern  to  ancient  dyeing,  is  chiefly 
to  be  attributed  to  three  causes:  to  the  introduction  of 
alum  as  a  mordant  (a  term  we  shall  explain  by-and-by)  ;  to 
the  discovery  of  America  with  its  valuable  dye-stuffs — 
cochineal,  logwood,  and  many  others  ;  and  to  the  re- 
searches of  modern  chemistry,  which  have  brought  into 
use  many  new  substances,  and  more  notably  the  aniline 
dyes. 

If  we  avoid  entering  upon  scientific  details,  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  textile  fabrics  are  made  to  take  up  and 
retain  colour,  may  be  explained  in  a  few  words.  There 
exists  but  little  affinity  between  the  fibres  of  which  cloth 
is  composed,  and  the  ordinary  dyeing  matters.  Conse- 
quently, although  the  cloth  will  take  up  colour,  unless 
some  means  are  used  to  fix  it,  it  will  wash  out.  The 
fixing  is  done  by  using  what  is  called  a  mordant.  Now, 
a  mordant  is  some  substance  which  has  an  affinity  for 
both  cloth  and  colour  ;  the  ordinary  mordants  are  alum, 
oxide  of  tin,  protoxide  of  lead,  infusion  of  nutgalls,  and 
some  others.  For  instance,  the  red  colour  given  to 
cotton  by  madder  could  not  be  fixed  unless  the  cloth  were 
previously  steeped  in  a  solution  of  alum.  The  cotton 
cloth  has  the  property  of  combining  with,  and  retaining  a 
portion  of  the  alum.  The  red  colouring  principle  of  the 
madder  has  also  an  affinity  for  the  alum  and  combines 
with  it,  and  thus  indirectly  the  combination  of  the  cloth 
and  colour  is  effected.  Some  mordants,  more  especially 
alum,  have  also  the  property  of  rendering  the  colours 
more  brilliant. 

It  is  found  that  some  kinds  of  material  are  more  easily 
combined  with  the  colouring  matter  than  others.  Silk  is 
most  easily  dyed,  and  takes  the  finest  colours.  Next  in 
order  is  wool.  The  woody  fibres  of  cotton  and  linen  are 
the  most  difficult  to  dye. 

But  while  science  improved  the  art  of  dyeing,  by  dis- 
covering its  principles  and  adding  to  its  list  of  materials, 
it  rendered  its  domestic  practice  more  difficult.  While 
the  art  was  simple,  it  had  been  almost  as  common  an 
accomplishment  as  spinning  ;  when  it  had  become  com- 
plex this  could  no  longer  be  the  case.  Recently,  however, 
the  tendency  of  science  has  been  in  the  other  direction, 
and  has  again  made  it  simple  and  generally  available. 

As  early  as  1826,  it  was  discovered  that  in  the  waste 
formed  in  the  manufacture  of  coal-gas  there  existed, 
among  others,  a  substance  which  was  named  aniline. 
About  1858,  it  was  found  that,  under  different  kinds  of 
chemical  treatment,  this  would  yield  a  variety  of  brilliant 
colours,  which  were  turned  to  practical  account  as  dyes. 
From  their  beauty  some  of  them  soon  became  fashionable 
and  popular ;  the  best-known  of  the  class  are  magenta 
and  mauve.  Many  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
have  since  been  introduced,  and  it  is  found  that  they 
have  so  great  an  affinity  for  the  cloth,  that  the  use  of 
mordants  may  be  dispensed  with. 

By  the  use  of  these  dyes  the  dirtiness  and  the  difficulty 
of  home-dyeing  are  done  away  with.  The  work  may  be 
done  with  a  certainty  of  success,  and  without  so  much  as 
soiling  the  fingers.  The  form  in  which  they  may  most 
readily  be  procured  is  that  of  "  Judson's  Simple  Dyes  for 
the  People,"  as  prepared  by  Messrs.  Judson  and  Son, 
Southwark  Street,  London.  Their  preparations  may  be 
bought  at  any  chemist's,  at  6d.  a  bottle,  and  give  a  con- 
siderable variety  of  colours,  mostly  of  great  delicacy  and 
brilliancy.  The  colours  sold  are  :  magenta,  mauve,  violet, 
puce,  purple,  canary,  cerise,  scarlet,  orange,  blue,  pink, 
green,  crimson,  brown,  black,  lavender,  slate,  and  grey; 
and  different  shades  of  these  colours  may  be  formed  by 
using  a  greater  or  lesser  proportion  of  water.  The 
method  of  using  them  is  as  follows  : — 

For  ordinary  small  articles,  such  as  ribbons,  feathers, 
&c.  Into  an  earthen  basin  pour  two  or  four  quarts  ol 
boiling  water.  Into  this  throw  the  articles  to  soak  for  a 
minute  or  two,  then  lift  them  out  with  a  piece  of  clean 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


36r 


stick,  and  pour  in  a  little  ol  the  dye.  The  quantity  must 
depend  upon  the  shade  required.  The  novice  will  do 
well  rather  to  put  too  little  than  too  much,  as  more  can  be 
added  afterwards,  if  needed.  The  articles  must  never  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  basin  while  the  fluid  is  poured 
in.  As  soon  as  the  dye  is  mixed  with  the  water  the 
goods  must  be  put  in  and 
stirred  briskly  with  a 
pi«ce  of  stick  in  each 
hand,  that  the  colour 
may  be  equally  dis- 
tributed. For  most 
goods,  from  five  to  fifteen 
minutes'  immersion  will 
be  sufficient  ;  if  a  deep 
shade  is  required,  or  if  it 
is  desired  to  utilise  the 
whole  of  the  colouring 
matter,  they  may  be 
allowed  to  remain  longer ; 
and  so  great  is  the  affinity 
of  the  dye  for  the  fabric,  that 
the  whole  will  be  absorbed  and 
the  water  rendered  colourless. 
There  is,  therefore,  no  reason 
for  using  a  small  quantity 
of  water  on  the  ground  of 
economy  of  dye.  The  colour 
will  not  be  lost  in  the  larger 
quantity,  and  the  goods  should 
have  abundant  room  to  ex- 
pand. When  the  goods  are  of 
a  sufficiently  deep  shade,  re- 
move them  from  the  water  with 
the  stick,  and  hang  to  dry. 
Till  they  are  thoroughly  dried 
the  full  beauty  of  the  colour 
will  not  be  seen.  If  desired,  a 
little  starch  may  be  added  to 
the  dye.  Before  silk  or  ribbons 
are  immersed  they  should  be 
laid  on  a  board  and  well 
brushed  with  soap  and  water  to 
clean  them  and  takeout  creases. 

The  aniline,  like  other  dyes, 
are  found  to  have  a  greater 
affinity  for  silk  than  for  woollen 
fabrics,  and  for  woollen  than 
cotton  or  linen  ;  nevertheless, 
most  of  the  colours  answer  well 
with  cotton  goods.  The  ma- 
genta is  the  most  powerful  as 
well  as  the  most  beautiful.  A 
si.xpenny  bottle  of  this  (about 
two  tablespoonfuls)  is  suffi- 
cient to  dye  twenty  yards  of 
bonnet  ribbon,  or  a  much 
larger  quantity,  to  the  fainter 
shade,  rose  pink.  Hitherto 
the  least  satisfactory  has 
been  the  black,  which  has 
not  been  considered  equal 
to  the  ordinary  black  dyes  ; 
but  within  the  last  few 
weeks  improvements  have 
been  made  which  render  it 
available  for  silk.  In  woollen  or  cotton  it  is  still  im- 
perfect. For  dyeing  black  a  longer  immersion  is  necessary 
than  for  bright  colours,  and  it  is  even  well  to  boil  the 
goods  in  the  dye. 

There  is  nothing  disagreeable  in  the  use  of  these  dyes  : 
the  process  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  pretty  and  interesting 
one. 


IlilPl^lliiiil^?^'^"!'^-'!?^-: 


'•■S-  3 


ODDS    AND    ENDS. 

Mantel-shelves. — A  good  mantel-shelf  is  improved  by  a 
velvet  hanging,  and  a  bad  one  is  rendered  endurable.  For 
this  purpose  measure  the  shelf,  and  get  a  shelf-board,  or 
plank  of  wood,  two  feet  longer  than  your  mantel-shelf,  and 

half  as  wide  again.     It  is 
cheapest    to    make    two 
together  if  you  wish  to 
cover  them  with  velvet, 
because    one    length    of 
velvet    sphts   down   and 
covers  two.  Cloth  makes 
an  excellent   cover,  and 
keeps   its    colour  longer 
than  cotton  velvet.    Cot- 
ton velvet  costs  is.  6d. 
or   2s.  a  yard  ;  Utrecht 
velvet  about  7s.    or  8s.  ; 
cloth    7s.,    but    it   is   so 
wide  that  a  quarter  of  a 
yard  generally  covers  a  shelf. 
Cotton  velvet   is   only  three- 
quarters  of  a  yard  wide,  and 
must    be   bought    the   whole 
length.      Strain   it    over    the 
plank    of   wood,    and    fasten 
down  with  tacks ;   then  add  a 
valance  notched  out  all  round 
to  back  the  fringe  you  intend 
to  use.     Or  a  piece  of  double 
tammy   may  be  used  where 
Utrecht  velvet   or  expensive 
cloth  is  adopted.      Over   this 
arrange  the  fringe,  which  costs 
from    I  id.  a  yard,  with  star- 
headed    gilt    nails    at    7d.    a 
dozen.     A  handsome  hanging 
may  be    edged    with    a   fine 
worsted    fringe   of  the    same 
colour    as    the    velvet,    over 
which  a  tassel  fringe  of  yellow 
silk  is  laid.    The  mantel-hang- 
ing always  matches  the  win- 
dow-curtains, and  the  carpet 
and  other  appointments  of  the 
room  should,  if  possible,  corre- 
spond.   A  brass   double-eyed 
crank   is  nailed  to  the  board 
first  by  one  hole,   and  after- 
wards by  another  hole  ser\'es 
to   fix    it   to   the  wall.      Any 
ironmonger  will  furnish  this, 
and  anybody  can  put  up  the 
board   so   furnished.      Fig.    i 
represents  a  plain  mantle- 
board  ;     Fig.    2    a   curved 
one    with    an    ornamental 
fringe. 

Fenders. — We  have  seen 
some  fenders  constructed 
of  velvet  that  were  very 
elegan-t  indeed.  They  were 
made  by  the  master  of 
the  house,  and  had,  be- 
sides giving  a  superior  air 
to  the  room,  the  merit  of  costing  little,  giving  no 
labour  to  keep  clean,  and  not  spoiling.  The  grates  of 
the  drawing-room  were  ver>'  handsome.  The  hearth- 
stone was  as  dazzling  as  whitening  or  pipe-clay,  instead 
of  hearthstone,  could  make  it  The  fender  left  the  whole 
of  this  beautifully  white  stone  clear  :  the  inner  edge  of 
the  fender  just  bordered  over  the  hearthstone.      This  was 


362 


CHOOSING    A   TRADE. 


partly  the  reason  of  its  stylish  appearance,  and  was 
obviously  designed  to  prevent  any  b-irning  coal  alighting 
on  the  velvet.  A  frame  of  wood  was  hrst  made  to  set  flat 
round  three  sides  of  the  hearth  ;  it  was  about  eight  inches 
or  a  foot  wide  ;  over  this,  arches  of  wood  were  placed  at 
close  intervals,  a  lath  from  end  to  end  supporting  the 
arches.  A  canvas  was  then  fastened  over  this  by  tacks  ; 
on  the  top  was  a  little  padding  of  flock  or  wadding, 
then  a  second  canvas.  Lastly,  the  velvet  was  stretched 
across,  the  side  pieces  first  and  the  front  pieces  after 
them,  the  oblique  join  at  the  corner  neatly  and  imper- 
ceptibly folded  in.  The  velvet  was  well  secured  down  l)y 
tacks.  Round  both  edges  were  placed  handsome  gilt 
star-headed  nails.     (See  Figs.  3  and  4.) 

Curtaiiis. — There  are  some  things  in  which  it  is  well 
to  economise,  and  some  things  in  which  a  little  expendi- 
ture is  wiser.  Curtains  arc  well  worth  all  they"  cost.  It  is 
a  good  plan  to  buy  curtains  at  sales.  All  kinds  of  damask, 
moreen,  and  rep  will,  for  wear  and  effect,  be  preferable 
to  chintz.  Chintz  in  London  soon  gathers  dirt,  and  often 
needs  cleaning.  A  damask  is  the  most  serviceable  of  all 
things  of  this  kind.  Poor  materials,  half  cotton  and  per- 
vious to  light  and  draught,  are  by  no  means  comfortable, 
and  may  be  described  as  merely  "  better  than  nothing." 
Good  green  damask  cannot  be  purchased  under  3s. 
or  3s.  6d.  per  yard  ;  red  is  dearer.  But  an  excellent 
stout  kind  of  curtain,  very  general  in  Paris,  has  lately 
been  introduced,  at  about  2s.  a  yard.  It  wears  well, 
looks  well,  and  needs  no  trimming.  It  is  stripsd  horizon- 
tally in  white,  scarlet,  black,  and  yellow,  on  a  green,  red, 
or  blue  ground.  The  name  is  Timbuctoo.  The  width 
double.  A  friend  of  ours — her  means  being  small — 
purchased  some  old  curtains  second-hand.  Hopeless 
enough  they  looked,  so  grimed  with  the  smoky  dust  of 
central  London  that  the  black  came  off  on  the  fingers 
that  touched  them.  Nevertheless,  she  felt  that  they  were 
still  rich  in  substance,  as  the  thickness  and  closeness  of 
the  worsted — they  were  damask — showed  her.  They  were 
therefore  bought  cheap,  unpicked,  and  cleaned,  and  soon 
after  came  home  as  handsome  and  fine  as  new  ones. 
Every  bedroom  window  ought  to  have  a  good  pair  of 
thick  curtains,  which  can  be  readily  drawn  in  windy  and 
cold  weather.  And,  if  possible,  in  winter  the  same  in- 
dulgence should  be  extended  across  all  folding-doors.  If 
the  curtains  are  shabby-looking,  place  them  on  the  wrong 
side  of  the  partition  ;  but  better  shabby  curtains  than 
none  at  all.  An  iron  rod  can  be  procured  at  threepence 
per  foot,  and  it  may  be  fastened  to  the  wall  by  large 
hooked  nails,  sold  at  a  penny  each.  Ordinary  curtain 
rings  furnish  the  rod,  and  hooks  may  be  sewn  to  the 
curtains,  or  the  curtains  sewn  to  the  rings.  Where 
a  better  appearance  is  desired,  and  can  be  afforcjed, 
mahogany  poles  can  be  purchased  for  a  small  cost  ;  but 
the  purchaser  should  ascertain  that  the  rings  run  easily 
on  the  cornice,  as  many  of  the  cheap  ones  seem  designed 
rather  for  sale  than  use.  Any  lady  can  easily  fix  up 
cornice  brackets,  which  can  be  purchased  separately  at 
the  ironmonger's  ;  but  the  large  hooked  nails  for  holding 
iron  rods  require  more  strength  to  hammer  into  a  wall 
than  a  woman  usually  possesses. 

Stays. — If  the  fair  reader  of  these  pages  for  the  house- 
hold complains  of  a  sense  of  heat  and  pain  after  meals, 
the  pain  being  acute  and  darting  through  the  bowels,  and 
occasionally  up  to  her  chest ;  if  she  suffers  from  occa- 
sional palpitations  and  difficulty  of  breathing  ;  if  a  head- 
ache often  troubles  her,  usually  settling  in  one  temple, 
and  she  finds  herself  worse  after  any  unusual  exertion  ; 
if  a  Ipttle  walking  makes  her  limbs  ache,  and  induces  a 
feeling  of  weariness  ;  if  her  feet  often  get  numbed,  or 
what  is  commonly  called  "asleep  ;"  if  fits  of  melancholy 
are  frequent  and  unaccountable,  and  she  bursts  into  tears 
without  knowing  why  ;  if  the  spine  is  sore  and  tender  to 
the  touch,  and  the  whole  frame  appears  enervated,  let  her 


remember  that  such  symptoms  are  commonly  traceable 
to  the  prevalent  system  of  tight-lacing. 

Hints  for  the  Household  Uses  of  Lead. — Lead  plays  so 
common  a  part  as  a  covering  for  roofs,  &c.,  that  a  few 
hints  on  the  subject  will  not  be  out  of  place  in  the 
Household  Guide.  M.  Detain  has  recently  pointed 
out,  in  a  foreign  contemporary,  that  when  lead  comes 
in  contact  with  damp  plaster — as  pipes  often  do — it  is 
rapidly  deteriorated  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of 
sulphate  of  lead,  a  most  energetic  oxidising  agent. 
Again,  in  damp  cellars  saltpetre  is  often  to  be  found, 
which  also  attacks  lead  very  powerfully.  The  prolonged 
contact  of  lead  with  another  metal  leads  to  its  destruction 
by  the  electrical  action  which  is  set  up.  M.  Detain  quotes 
a  case  which  came  under  his  personal  inspection.  The 
roof  of  a  bathing  establishment  was  covered  with  copper, 
but  at  one  point  lead  was  used  in  contact  with  the 
former  metal.  After  a  time  the  roof  began  to  leak,  and 
a  workman  being  called  in,  the  roof  was  found  com- 
pletely oxidised  ;  it  had  kept  its  form,  but  on  being 
touched  it  crumbled  into  powder.  The  lead  was  likev/ise 
in  contact  with  an  oak  plank,  and  its  destruction  was  due 
to  three  causes  :  contact  with  the  damp  wood,  the  action 
of  the  vapour  of  water,  and  electrical  action.  New  lead 
is,  moreover,  subject  to  the  attacks  of  certain  insects, 
which  gnaw  very  minute  orifices  in  it ;  but  old  lead  is,  it 
seems,  not  liable  to  their  attacks. 

Broker^  Furnittire. — Never  buy  furniture  at  a  broker's, 
unless  you  are  judge  enough  to  understand  thoroughly 
what  constitutes  good  workmanship,  in  which  case  you  are 
of  course  right  to  get  the  best  bargain  you  can  ;  but  if  you 
have  not  this  knowledge,  and  have  no  friend  whose  advice 
you  can  take,  go  to  a  respectable  dealer,  and  by  paying 
ready  money  you  will  get  a  good  article  at  as  reasonable 
a  rate  as  the  material,  workman's  labour,  and  just  profit 
will  allow. 

Cleaning  Plate. — Plate  that  is  to  be  laid  aside  any 
time  after  use  should  be  rubbed  with  a  little  spirits  of 
ammonia  and  water,  afterwards  rinsed  in  plain  water, 
to  destroy  the  corroding  effects  of  any  salt  that  may  be 
left  on  the  surface.  Silver  salt-cellars,  cruet-frames,  and 
mustard-pots  require  especial  care  in  this  respect. 

Feather  Mats. — Exceedingly  handsome  mats  for  drawing- 
room  doors,  under  a  piano,  for  drawing-room  windows,  or 
as  hearthrugs,  can  be  made  of  game  and  poultry  feathers. 
These  should  be  sewn  on  unbleached  or  grey  linen, 
of  good  quality,  as  close  as  possible,  i-n  layers.  The  mat 
must  either  be  entirely  of  the  feathers  of  corresponding 
colour,  or  of  one  colour  bordered  by  another,  or  in 
patterns.  Thus  a  white  and  drake's-neck  green  medallion, 
in  a  device  of  the  two  colours,  may  be  mounted  on  a 
ground  of  partridge-feathers,  and  have  a  border  of  white 
duck-and-drake's-neck  green  blended  in  a  pattern. 


CHOOSING    A    TRADE. 

WATCHMAKING  {continued). 
The  earliest  kinds  of  clocks,  which  were  certainly  made 
as  far  back  as  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century,  consisted 
of  a  small,  toothed  wheel,  or  "  pinion,"  fastened  to  an 
axle  with  square  end,  so  that  a  key  could  be  fitted  on  it 
with  which  to  turn  it.  The  teeth  of  this  "  pinion  "  operated 
on  another  and  larger  toothed  wheel  fastened  to  a  barrel, 
or  roller,  round  which  a  string  or  chain,  with  a  weight  at 
the  end,  could  be  wound  by  the  action  of  the  key  on  the 
spindle  of  the  first  wheel.  In  order  to  prevent  the  cord  or 
chain  from  unwinding  as  fast  as  it  was  wound,  because  of 
the  weight  at  the  end,  a  third  wheel  with  cogs,  called  a 
"  ratchet,"  acted,  by  means  of  a  click  or  movable  lever,  on 
a  still  larger  wheel  at  the  other  end  of  the  barrel.  When 
the  weight  was  wound  up,  however,  it  began  at  once  to 
drag  the  barrel  round  as  it  descended,  and  so  turned  both 


CASSELUS   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


363 


the  large  wheels  as  well  as  another,  which  moved  the 
hands  of  the  clock  on  the  dial-plutc.  The  question  was 
therefore,  first,  how  to  prevent  its  going  down  all  at  once 
with  a  run,  and  secondly,  how  to  make  it  go  down  not 
only  slowly,  but  at  about  the  same  pace,  so  as  to  measure 
off  the  time  of  its  unwinding  into  degrees  representing 
portions  of  a  day  or  an  hour.  For  this  purpose  another 
wheel  was  added,  also  with  teeth,  but  instead  of  being  a 
flat  wheel,  it  was  a  strip  of  metal  beat  into  a  broad  hoop 
and  having  teeth  at  one  of  its  edges — in  fact,  a  saw-blade 
bent  into  a  wheel.  This  wheel  was  also  set  in  motion  by 
the  barrel  turned  by  the  weight,  but  close  to  it  was  placed 
an  upright  spindle  fitted  with  two  projecting  blades  or  pieces 
of  metal,  called  "  pallets,"  each  of  which  fitted  in  between 
two  of  the  teeth  of  the  saw-like  wheel.  Every  tim-e  the 
wheel  caught  one  of  these  pallets  its  motion  was  retarded, 
and  though  by  the  turning  of  the  spindle  it  threw  off  the 
obstacle,  that  same  motion  also  turned  a  heavy  balance 
fitted  to  the  top  of  the  spindle,  which  had  the  effect  of 
bringing  the  second  pallet  round  to  catch  the  next  tooth 
of  the  saw.  So  the  wheel  went  jogging  round  at  a  slow 
and  even  pace,  and  at  every  jog  the  balance  went  regularly 
backward  and  forward,  just  as  the  pendulum  of  a  modern 
clock,  and  the  balance-wheel  of  a  watch  now  goes  tick- 
ticking  till  the  cord  or  the  chain  has  run  out  its  length. 
Of  course,  both  clocks  and  watches  have  now  attained 
such  an  exact  regularity  of  movement,  that  there  is  no 
comparison  between  the  clock  mentioned  by  Chaucer  and 
that  in  the  great  tower  at  Westminster,  any  more  than 
there  is  much  resemblance  between  the  Nuremberg 
watches,  that  were,  from  their  shape,  called  "  eggs,"  and 
used  to  hang  like  weights  to  a  chain  round  the  necks  of 
their  wearers  ;  but  the  principle  of  motion  is  the  same. 
A  watch  differs  from  a  clock  in  its  having  a  vibrating 
wheel  instead  of  a  vibrating  pendulum  ;  and,  as  in  a 
clock,  gravity  is  always  pulling  the  pendulum  down  to  the 
bottom  of  its  arc,  which  is  its  natural  place  of  rest,  but 
does  not  fix  it  there,  because  the  momentum  acquired 
during  its  fall  from  one  side,  carries  it  up  to  an  equal 
height  on  the  other — so  in  a  watch,  a  spring  surrounding 
the  axis  of  the  balance-wheel  is  always  pulling  this  to- 
wards a  middle  position  of  rest,  but  does  not  fix  it  there, 
because  the  momentum  acquired  during  its  approach  to 
the  middle  position  from  either  side,  carries  it  just  as  far 
past  on  the  other  side,  and  the  spring  has  to  begin  its 
work  again.  The  balance-wheel  at  each  vibration  allows 
one  tooth  of  the  adjoining  wheel  to  pass  as  the  pendulum 
does  in  a  clock,  ?nA  the  record  of  the  beats  is  preserved 
by  the  wheel  which  follows.  A  mainspring  is  used  to 
keep  up  the  motion  of  a  watch  instead  of  the  weight  used 
in  a  clock ;  and  as  a  spring  acts  equally  well,  whatever 
be  its  position,  a  watch  keeps  time,  though  carried  in  a 
pocket  or  in  a  moving  ship.  In  winding-up  a  watch,  one 
turn  of  the  axle  on  which  we  fix  the  key  is  so  multiplied 
by  the  train  of  wheels,  as  to  make  it  equal  to  about  400 
turns  or  beats  of  the  balance-wheel,  and  thus  only  a  few 
turns  of  the  key  gives  motion  for  about  twenty-four  or 
thirty  hours. 

In  watches,  as  well  as  in  clocks,  the  wheel  which  re- 
tards the  running  down  of  the  mechanism  is  called  the 
"  escapement "  wheel,  and  it  is  by  various  improvements 
in  that  portion  of  watches  called  the ''  escapement,"  that  the 
mechanism  has  been  brought  to  its  present  perfection. 
The  object  has,  of  course,  been  to  remove  the  friction  of 
the  wheel  in  working,  and  to  adjust  the  various  parts  that 
the  escapement  may  move  with  perfect  ease,  regularity, 
and  freedom.  The  spiral  springs  for  escapements  are  of 
two  kinds — the  ordinary  one  being  in  one  place,  while 
another  kind,  used  principally  for  chronometers,  resem- 
bling a  wire  wrapped  round  a  cylinder.  Just  as  in  a 
clock,  the  rate  of  going  is  regulated  by  the  pendulum,  so 
in  the  watch  it  is  regulated  by  the  spring,  by  altering  the 
point  at  which  it  begins  to  bend.    Almost  all  watches  are 


now  "jewelled"— that  is,  in  order  to  remove  friction,  and 
render  the  working  as  easy  and  smooth  as  possible,  the 
pivots  and  turning  points  of  the  wheels,  &c.,  are  formed 
of  small,  hard,  and  almost  indestructible  precious  stones, 
while  in  the  best  watches  the  pallets  of  the  "  escapement  " 
are  also  made  of  jewels.  The  tools  used  by  the  watch- 
maker require  great  care  in  handling,  because  of  the 
fineness  of  the  work,  and  they  consist  principally  of  a  metal 
turning-lathe,  a  hand-vice,  pliers,  several  fine  files,  drills, 
broaches,  "  sliding-tools,"  for  adjusting  the  works,  screw- 
drivers, nippers,  tweezers,  callipers  for  measurement,  and 
some  other  more  common  implements. 

Our  next  paper  under  this  head  will  be  on  Working  in 
Metals. 


INMATES  OF  THE  HOUSE.— DOMESTIC. 

VI.— THE   LADY'S-MAID. 

The  duties  of  a  lady's-maid  towards  her  mistress  being 
of  a  purely  personal  nature,  propriety  of  demeanour  and 
a  well-informed  mind  are  requisite  qualities.  The  strictly 
technical  knowledge  required  in  the  situation  may  be  learnt 
in  various  ways  ;  but  no  teaching  will  convey  the  delicate 
tact  which  proceeds  from  a  pure  mind,  and  the  high  sense 
of  integrity  which  should  characterise  the  slightest  action 
where  the  interests  and  feelings  of  an  employer  are  con- 
cerned. 

Gentlewomen  of  refined  education  appreciate  the  latter 
qualities  in  a  personal  attendant  far  beyond  consummate 
knowledge  of  certain  arts  and  adornments.  They  are  sen- 
sible that  a  first-rate  milliner  or  hairdresser  can  supply 
some  deficiencies  on  the  part  of  their  maids,  but  they 
feel  that  no  amount  of  lessons  can  teach  a  confidential 
servant  when  to  speak  and  when  to  be  silent,  when  to 
expose  the  faults  of  fellow-servants  or  to  make  excuses. 
Unfortunately,  some  ladies'-maids  consider  that  they 
display  zeal  for  their  mistresses'  welfare  by  detecting  and 
commenting  on  the  shortcomings  of  other  domestics.  By 
so  doing  they  create  a  great  deal  of  preventable  unhap- 
piness.  If  faults  exist — and  provided  it  is  not  the  lady's- 
maid's  duty  to  report  them  to  her  mistress — the  discreet 
plan  is  to  wait  till  an  opinion  is  asked  for.  If  a  lady 
has  confidence  in  the  sense  and  honesty  of  her  maid, 
she  will  not  fail  to  appeal  to  her  judgment  whenever 
household  difficulties  occur.  On  such  occasions  plain 
speaking  is  an  imperative  duty,  at  whatever  cost  of  the 
opinion  of  fellow-servants. 

Another  temptation  to  steer  clear  of  is  the  offer  of  gra- 
tuities and  presents  on  the  part  of  tradesmen  who  deal  in 
articles  of  doubtful  excellence. 

It  is  very  important  that  a  lady's-maid  should  know 
something  of  the  nature  of  the  eosmeligut;s  a.nd  contrivances 
which  fashion  is  ceaselessly  thrusting  upon  public  notice. 
Many  articles  in  vogue  may  be  perfectly  harmless,  whilst 
others,  although  effective  in  their  operation  for  awhile, 
may  ultimately  destroy  the  organ  they  may  have  been 
applied  to.  Here  our  Toilette  articles  will  prove  service- 
able. 

In  large  establishments  the  position  of  a  lady's-maid  is 
considered  to  be  sometimes  exposed  to  annoyances  from 
the  unwelcome  attentions  of  men-servants.  In  woll- 
regulated  households  these  intrusions  do  not  take  place, 
unless  with  the  lady's-maid's  consent.  Except  at  meals, 
she  seldom  has  occasion  to  leave  the  apartments  assigned 
to  her  own  and  her  »iistress's  use.  In  modesty  of  be- 
haviour, and  in  cordiality  of  manner  towards  ever>'one  in 
the  servants'  hall,  she  will  find  her  chief  safeguards  against 
any  approach  to  undue  familiarity. 

Visiting  with  her  mistress  at  other  people's  houses  is 
liable  to  cause  inconvenience,  without  a  lady's-maid  makes 
up  her  mind  to  regard  herself  somewhat  in  the  light  of  a 
guest.      Most  persons  find   something  they  do  not  like 


3<54 


COOKING. 


Avhen  staying  in  even  the  most  hospitable  mansions.  But 
well-bred  people  cheerfully  conform  to  the  rules  of  the 
household  where  they  are  visiting,  and  it  is  very  annoying 
to  employers  when  their  servants  cannot  do  the  same. 
Whenever  real  grounds  for  complaint  exist,  it  is  better  for 
the  lady's-maid  to  speak  to  her  mistress  on  the  subject, 
who,  on  her  part,  will  refer  the  matter  to  the  lady  of  the 
house. 

Honesty  is  of  course  an  indispensable  quality  in  one  who 
has  the  charge  of  articles  of  value.  A  lady's-maid's  fidelity 
in  this  respect  should  be  beyond  suspicion.  She  had  bet- 
ter be  scrupulously  saving  of  things  not  likely  to  be  asked 
for,  than  to  make  away  with  them  because  they  are  worth- 
less. When  old  dresses  and  odds  and  ends  of  all  kinds 
have  inconveniently  accumulated — as  they  sometimes  do 
from  oversight — the  lady's-maid  should  ask  her  mistress 
what  her  wishes  are  with  regard  to  the  disposal  of  them. 
Even  when  ladies  agree  to  give  their  maids  cast-off  dresses 
as  perquisites,  this  understanding  is  expected  to  be  in 
force. 

With  regard  to  the  disposal  of  such  articles,  the  best 
plan  is  for  the  lady's-maid  to  sell  them  to  friends  of  her 
own  acquaintance,  or  to  part  with  them  by  some  other 
private  means.  By  this  mode  she  is  likely  to  get  a  better 
price,  and  to  be  less  exposed  to  temptation  from  offers  for 
things  of,  perchance,  a  more  costly  nature  than  would 
fairly  come  into  her  possession.  As  a  general  rule,  ladies 
do  not  like  to  see  their  maids  dressed  in  the  clothes  they 
themselves  have  worn — except  in  wearing  a  black  or  a 
dark-coloured  silk — the  difference  in  the  social  scale  of 
mistress  and  maid  renders  this  unpleasing. 

The  dress  of  a  lady's-maid  should  be  studiously  neat, 
although  tasteful.  She  should  wear  nothing  likely  to  spoil 
or  impede  her  in  her  various  duties— above  all  things  she 
should  cultivate  personal  cleanhness  as  her  chief  charm 
and  adornment. 

The  duties  of  a  lady's-maid  are  so  numerous  that  it  is 
difficult,  in  a  limited  space,  to  particularise  them.  Some 
knowledge  of  dress-making  is  generally  considered  in- 
dispensable, also  of  millinery  and  hair-dressing.  Novel- 
ties in  these  arts  may  be  learnt  by  taking  lessons  from 
time  to  time  of  persons  who  make  the  giving  instruction 
of  the  kind  their  means  of  livelihood.  When  taking  such 
lessons  the  lady's-maid  should  learn  from  her  teacher 
the  best  style  to  suit  "her  mistress,  in  the  view  of  being 
successful  in  her  work — the  same  head-dress,  for  instancJe, 
will  not  become  all  persons  equally  well  ;  and  it  makes  a 
great  difference  if  a  lady  be  short  and  stout,  or  tall  and 
thin,  whether  one  style  of  costume  or  another  is  suitable. 
As  far  as  her  means  extend,  a  lady's-maid  should  discover 
what  style  of  dress  ladies  of  high  birth,  reputed  to  have 
good  taste  in  dress,  are  wearing  at  a  season  when  her 
mistress  is  choosing  her  attire.  The  several  ladies  of  the 
royal  family  of  England  are  an  instance  of  the  excellent 
tact  sensible  people  display  in  avoiding  all  unbecoming 
exaggerations  of  fashion,  whilst  they  adhere  sufficiently  to 
the  prevailing  mode  to  avoid  the  opposite  error  of  being 
eccentric. 

The  arrangement  of  her  mistress's  room  devolves  on 
the  lady's-maid,  but  in  very  few  cases  is  she  required  to 
do  more  than  dust  the  room.  She  is,  however,  responsible 
for  the  manner  in  which  the  housemaid  does  the  work  of 
cleaning,  &c. 

Order  in  putting  things  aside  is  indispensable.  What-« 
ever  articles  are  likely  to  be  wanted  for  dressing,  or  any 
other  purpose,  should  be  at  hand  at  a  moment's  notice. 

Although  the  lady's-maid's  duties  do  not  usually  require 
her  to  be  a  very  early  riser,  it  is  desirable  that  she  should 
be  up  some  time  before  her  mistress  is  likely  to  want  her, 
in  order  to  get  any  work  done  likely  to  soil  her  hands  or 
dress.  The  washing  of  fine  things,  laces,  &c.,  generally 
falls  to  the  lady's-maid  share  of  work,  and  the  earlier  this 
is  done  in  the  day  the  better.     The  numberless  works  of 


cleaning,  scouring,  and  dyeing,  that  an  experienced  maid 
has  to  perform,  should  all  be  undertaken  before  her 
mistress  has  risen.  By  this  means  interruptions  are 
obviated,  and  good  temper  preserved.  Any  time  that  is 
thus  spared  coald  be  devoted,  in  leisure  hours,  to  reading 
and  improvement  of  the  mind. 

The  economy  of  her  mistress's  wardrobe  is  a  great  test 
of  a  lady's-maid's  skill.  Whether  she  has  the  perquisite 
of  cast-off  dresses  or  not,  it  is  her  duty  to  suggest  any 
saving  that  may  be  made  by  "turning"  or  "altering" 
gowns,  &c.  A  servant  that  is  apt  at  these  suggestions 
deserves  better  wages  than  one  who  is  not  so  skilled,  and 
may  reasonably  expect  the  fullest  remuneration  for  her 
services. 
The  preservation  of  clothes  is  a  matter  that  a  lad/s- 
I  maid  should  understand,  as  well  as  their  restoration — for 
instance,  the  elaborate  dresses  of  the  present  day  cannot 
be  .folded  up  and  laid  in  drawers  without  detriment  to 
their  beauty.  Dresses  in  wear  should  be  hung  up 
separately  in  a  clothes-closet,  or  wardrobe,  each  dress  in 
a  separate  bag  made  of  brown  holland.  The  bag  should 
be,  at  the  very  least,  half  a  yard  longer  than  the  dress,  to 
prevent  dust  from  penetrating  through  the  opening.  Any- 
loose  trimmings  that  may  be  laid  aside  flat  should  be 
removed. 

White  satin  shoes  and  boots  should  be  put  aside  in 
separate  bags,  having  been  previously  folded  in  blue 
paper. 

Furs  should  be  well  dried  before  a  fire,  and  thoroughly 
shaken  before  they  are  put  away.  The  box  containing 
them  should  also  be  previously  dried  and  brushed  out. 
A  celebrated  furrier  says  that,  "  Furs,  when  put  away  after 
winter  use,  should  be  closely  packed  in  linen  or  brown 
paper  to  preserve  them  from  moth,  having  been  previously 
well  beaten  with  a  small  cane  and  carefully  combed 
through  ;  this  process  should  be  repeated  at  least  once 
a  month,  and  may  be  relied  on  as  effectual."  Strong 
aromatic  odours  are  useful  for  preventing  the  attack  of 
moths  ;  but  without  the  above  precautions  their  use  may 
prove  ineffectual. 

Laces  not  in  wear  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  in 
several  waters  from  all  traces  of  starch.  They  should 
then  be  dried  in  the  sun  if  possible,  and  afterwards  put 
away  in  bags  made  of  blue  paper. 

Unpicked  dresses  should  not  be  folded,  hut  each  width 
of  the  material  should  be  separately  wound  on  a  roller. 
Skirts  that  are  not  likely  to  be  worn  for  a  time  should  be 
taken  out  of  the  band  and  laid  flat.  In  folding  all  plain 
skirts  begin  at  the  bottom,  and  divide  the  skirt  into  four 
equal  folds  commencing  at  the  middle  of  the  back  width  ; 
then  divide  the  skirt  in  cross  folds,  according  to  the 
size  desired,  taking  care  to  pass  the  hand  between  each 
division  to  avoid  "corner  creases."  Some  hours  before 
dresses  that  have  been  laid  aside  are  worn,  they  should 
be  shaken  well  out,  and  hung  before  a  fire. 

Woollen  materials  require  much  the  same  treatment  as 
furs  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  moth  and  mould. 

Linen  and  calico  garments  should  be  rough  dried  before 
they  are  laid  aside.  It  is  also  essential  that  they  be 
thoroughly  free  from  damp. 

All  materials  of  clothing  not  in  constant  use  require  to 
be  periodically  aired.  A  dry  sunshiny  day  is  best  for. 
this  purpose. 


COOKING. 

RIVER  FISH  {continue^. 
Eel  Roasted  in  the  Ashes. — This  can  only  be  done 
where  wood  is  burnt  upon  the  hearth.  Take  a  fine  eel, 
flay  and  empty  it,  cut  off  the  head,  and  throw  it  into  salt 
and  water  for  an  hour.  Take  it  out,  wipe  it  dry  ;  roll  it 
flat  into  a  spiral  with  the  big  end  in  the  middle.  You  can 
keep  it  in  that  shape  by  running  a  long  thin  skewer,  of 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


365 


wood  or  iron,  through  it.  Dust  it  on  both  sides  with 
pepper  and  salt.  Lay  it  in  the  middle  of  a  large  sheet 
of  white  paper,  buttered  or  oiled.  Sprinkle  over  it  a  little 
chopped  parsley,  with  a  small  admixture  of  chervil  or 
fennel,  if  not  objected  to.  Fold  it  neatly  and  closely  in 
the  paper,  and  then  fold  the  parcel  so  made  in  another 
sheet  of  buttered  paper.  Sweep  clean  from  ashes  a  portion 
of  the  hearthstone  where  it  is  hot.  Lay  your  wrapped-up 
eel  there,  and  shovel  hot  ashes  over  it  till  it  is  completely 
covered.  It  will  take  about  half  an  hour  to  do,  but  the 
time  will  be  regulated  by  the  heat  of  the  ashes.  When 
done,  remove  the  outside  paper,  and  dish  it,  still  wrapped 
in  the  inner  one,  and  accompanied  by  piquant  sauce, 
Tartar  sauce,  or  Robert  sauce,  which  we  give. 

Tartar  Sauce. — Into  a  large  bowl  put  a  small  quantity 
each  of  parsley,  chervil,  tarragon,  and  chives  or  green 
onions,  all  chopped  very  fine  ;  also  a  little  mustard,  a  few 
chopped  capers,  pepper,  salt,  and  cayenne,  with  two  raw 
yolks  of  egg,  or  the  same  quantity  of  stiff  calPs-foot  jelly 
melted.  Add  a  good  tablespoonful  of  tarragon  vinegar, 
and  mix  all  well  together.  Then  comes  the  process  which 
tests  your  skill ;  namely,  to  add,  drop  by  drop,  olive  oil 
with  one  hand  while  you  keep  continuously  stirring  and 
mixing  with  the  other,  until  the  result  is  a  thick,  yellow, 
creamy  sauce,  sharp  and  pungent,  although  smooth,  with 
the  chopped  herbs  and  pickles  equally  distributed  through- 
out its  substance.  Gherkins  or  nasturtium-buds  may  be 
substituted  for  capers.  This  sauce  is  beet  not  made  until 
immediately  before  it  is  wanted. 

Sauce  Robert. — Chop  onions,  and  brown  them  in  butter  ; 
add  a  little  ilour  ;  fry  a  minute  or  two  longer  ;  dilute  with 
broth  and  a  decided  dash  of  vinegar.  Let  it  reduce,  by 
simmering,  to  the  proper  thickness  ;  season  with  pepper, 
salt,  and  a  little  mustard.  This  sauce,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  in  contemporary  cookery,  should  be  passed 
through  a  strainer  for  grand  occasions.  It  is  an  excellent 
accompaniment  to  boiled  meats  in  general,  as  well  as  for 
warming  up  slices  of  any  cold  meat  next  day. 

Tartar  Eels,  or  a  la  Tartare. — Skin  and  empty  your 
eels  ;  cut  them  into  two-inch  lengths  ;  let  them  lie  half- 
an-hour  in  salt  and  water.  Boil  them  enough,  but  not  too 
much,  in  broth  with  a  glass  of  red  wine  in  it.  So  prepared, 
they  may  be  set  aside  in  store.  When  wanted,  dip  each 
piece  separately  into  oiled  butter  or  beat-up  ^^g ;  roll 
them  in  bread  crumbs  or  grated  biscuit.  Broil  over  a 
clear  fire  till  they  are  nicely  browned  outside  and  heated 
through.  Spread  a  layer  of  the  above  Tartar  sauce  in  the 
middle  of  a  cold  dish,  and  serve  the  broiled  eel  upon  the 
sauce. 

Mayonnaise  of  Eel. — Take  a  fine  eel,  weighing  two  or 
three  pounds  at  least.  Skin  and  empty  it ;  cut  it  into 
two-inch  lengths  ;  let  it  lie  half-an-hour  in  salt  and  water, 
to  cleanse  ;  rinse  the  pieces,  and  let  them  drain.  Then 
pot  them  in  vinegar  and  water  with  spice,  in  a  patd  dish, 
as  directed  in  another  paper.  Their  liquor,  when 
cold,  ought  to  form  a  jelly  around  them.  To  make 
it  stiffer,  you  may  dissolve  some  isinglass  or  stiff  calf's- 
foot  jelly  in  the  water  to  be  mixed  with  the  vinegar  before 
pouring  it  over  the  eel  in  the  pat^-dish.  In  the  middle  of 
a  dish  comparatively  small  (this  is  a  kitchen  gem,  not  a 
substantial  joint)  pack  together,  as  closely  as  you  can,  as 
many  pieces  of  cold  potted  eel  as  you  expect  guests,  with 
two  or  three  pieces  over,  in  case  of  love  at  first  taste. 
Pour  over  these  {mask  them,  is  the  kitchen  phrase) 
as  much  Mayonnaise  sauce  as  will  completely  hide  them. 
Over  the  sauce  lay  a  net-work  of  strips  of  anchovy  or 
uncooked  red-herring,  exactly  as  you  would  decorate  an 
open  lay-tart  with  strips  of  paste.  Into  each  mesh  of  the 
net-work  put  a  single  caper,  and  surround  the  bottom  of 
the  heap  with  a  necklace  of  capers.  You  may  further 
garnish  with  a  few  olives  peeled  from  their  kernels, 
gherkins,  picked  shrimps,  or  any  thing  else  that  is  savoury, 
pretty,  and  pictupesque.     It  is  entirely  a  work  of  imagi- 


nation and  taste.  Surround  the  pile  with  the  hearts  of 
cabbage-lettuces  cut  in  quarters,  and  leaning  against  it, 
like  buttresses  supporting  an  edifice.  Outside  the  whole, 
at  the  foot  of  the  lettuces,  lay  six  or  eight  spoonful-lumps 
of  the  savoury  jelly  from  the  potted  eel. 

Approved  Mayonnaises  are  also  made,  with  little 
variation,  with  cold  salmon,  turbot,  lobster,  roast  fowl,  &c., 
for  their  basis. 

Mayonnaise  Sauce. — Take  one  or  more  raw  yolks  of 
egg,  according  to  the  quantity  of  sauce  required.  With  a 
wooden  spoon  mix  in,  in  small  quantity,  one-third  tarragon 
vinegar  and  two-thirds  common  vinegar,  salt,  pepper,  and 
a  little  made  mustard.  When  those  are  well  combmed,  add, 
little  by  little,  almost  drop  by  drop,  with  one  hand,  good 
eating  oil,  and,  with  the  other  hand,  keep  incessantly 
stirring  round  and  round.  In  this  case,  there  is  no 
escaping  the  oil ;  substitutes  are  unavailing.  No  oil,  no 
Mayonnaise  sauce  worthy  of  the  name.  By  stirring  and 
dropping  in  oil,  it  will  be  worked  up  to  the  proper  thick- 
ness, which  should  be  somewhat  more  than  that  of  very 
good  cream.  If  it  oils,  add  a  little  vinegar,  stir  away,  and 
it  will  come  right  again.  Taste,  to  be  sure  that  it  is 
neither  too  pungent  nor  too  insipid.  If  too  thick,  dilute 
with  a  little  water,  still  stirring  till  all  is  smooth.  For  the 
composition  of  a  Mayonnaise,  if  the  preceding  directions 
are  not  sufficiently  clear,  see  and  eat  one.  Having  pulled 
one  to  pieces,  you  will,  without  difficulty,  put  another 
together.  There  is  great  room  for  whim  and  fancy. 
Nicely  done,  it  is  an  elegant  dish,  well  worth  the  trouble 
it  gives. 

Grey  Mullet,  a  summer  fish,  caught  at  the  mouths  of 
rivers  and  some  way  up  them,  has  its  friends  and  its 
enemies.  We  ourselves  belong  to  the  former,  and  should 
never  think  of  shutting  our  door  in  the  face  of  a  fresh  and 
fine  specimen.  It  may  be  cooked,  if  middle-sized,  in  any 
of  the  ways  directed  for  mackerel ;  and,  like  that  fish. 
Calls  for  sauce  relieved  by  a  moderate  dose  of  acid.  A 
large  grey  mullet  (from  four  to  five  pounds  and  upwards) 
is  excellent  boiled  in  water,  vinegar,  and  salt,  and 
accompanied  by 

Shrimp  Sauce. — Boil  the  shrimps  in  plain  salt  and  water, 
without  bay-leaf,  spice,  or  other  condiment.  Set  before  you 
a  bowl  of  fresh-boiled  shrimps,  and  two  small  empty  bowls 
between  it  and  you.  As  you  pick  the  shrimps,  put  the 
heads  and  the  shells  into  one  of  these,  and  the  flesh  of  the 
shrimps  into  the  other.  When  you  have  enough  picked 
shrimp-meat,  boil  the  heads  and  shells  in  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water,  until  their  flavour  and  essence  is  all 
extracted.  A  quarter  of  an  hour  or  twenty  minutes  will 
do  this.  Strain  through  a  common  cullender  ;  let  it  stand 
and  settle,  and  then  pour  off  the  clear  liquor.  Use  the 
decoction  of  shrimp-shells,  instead  of  water,  to  make 
enough  melted  butter  to  fill  your  sauce-boat  more  than 
half  full.  Throw  your  picked  shrimps  into  that  melted 
butter  ;  let  it  stand  on  one  side  until  they  are  well  warmed 
through,  and  then  serve  in  a  heated  sauce-boat. 
Whether  prawns,  pink  shrimps,  or  brown  shrimps  are 
used,  the  sauce  will  have  a  natural  tint  that  will  please  the 
eye,  without  the  addition  of  artificial  colouring,  as  archovy ; 
and  if  the  shrimps  have  been  properly  boiled,  not  a  grain 
of  salt  will  be  needed. 

Whitebait.— 1\i\s  (see  illustration,  p.  366),  the  smallest 
of  the  herring  genus,  is  a  sea  fish,  though  caught  in  rivers. 
Mr.  Garrell  demonstrated  that  it  was  not  the  young  of 
any  Clupea,  but  an  independent  species.  It  had  been 
referred,  amongst  others,  for  its  parentage,  to  the  shad, 
one  of  the  poorest  fishes  that  swim  in  the  sea  :  but  now 
takes  rank  by  its  own  style  and  title.  Whitebait  is 
one  of  the  fishes  which  a  cook  has  to  dress  either 
very  often  during  the  season  (from  April  to  September) 
or  very  seldom — which  is  not  surpnsing,  if — which  is 
disputed — it  has  not  hitherto  been  observed  elsewhere 
than  in  the  Thames,  and  will  only  bear  transport  packed 


366 


THE    TOILETTE. 


in  ice.  In  the  fornier  case,  the  cook  will  be  set  up 
with  every  needful  appliance  ;  plenty  of  frying-fat,  deep 
frying  pans,  and  wire  baskets  or  wire-work  ladles,  for 
plunging  the  fish  in  the  hot  fat  and  taking  them  out. 
Do  not  handle  the  fish  ;  but,  after  draining,  toss  and 
shake  them  in  a  napkin  with  plenty  of  flour,  to  make  as 
much  of  it  as  possible  adhere  to  them.     Then  plunge 


them  in  fat  of  the  proper  temperature,  tested  by  putting 
in  bits  of  crumb  of  bread.  In  from  one  to  two  minutes 
the  fish  will  be  fried.  Let  them  drain  a  moment  in  the 
bJisket  or  fish-ladle  ;  then  pile  them  on  a  dish  covered 
with  a  napkin.  Serve  scalding  hot,  accompanied  by 
brown  bread  and  butter  and  a  lemon  to  squeeze  over 
them. 

The  fry  of  several  species  of  fish  are  treated  as  white- 
bait ;  and,  if  not  too  large,  are  very  passable. 


THE    TOILETTE. 


III.— DISORDERS  OF  THE  HAIR,  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT. 

Hair  Washes. — We  would  again  say  that  all  strong 
spirit  applications  in  the  end  do  harm,  by  disordering  the 
cuticle  of  the  scalp,  and  by  removing  to  some  extent  the 
natural  fatty  matter  which  is  necessary  to  the  protection 
of  the  head.  We  give  the  forms  for  the  making  of  a  few 
harmless  washes,  which  may  be  used  by  those  who  prefer 
them  to  pomades  and  oils. 

Rosemary  Wash. 
Take  two  ounces  of  rosemary  tips,  add  boiling  water  a 
pint,  and  let  the  former  infuse  awhile.     When  cold,  add 
an  ounce  or  two  of  best  Jamaica  rum,  and  the  liquid  is  fit 
for  use. 

Cooling  Wash. 

Dilute  acetic  acid        ... \  ounce. 

Spirits  of  rosemary     ...         i  ounce. 

Glycerine  ...         ...         ...         ...   i  drachm. 

Eau-de-Cologne  2  ounces. 

Rose  water       ...         ...         ...         ...  4  ounces. 

Mix. 

Ammonia  Wash. 

Strong  solution  of  ammonia 60  drops. 

Rose  water       6  ounces. 

Mix. 

Detergent  Lotion. 

Honey 2  ounces. 

Borax    ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  i  ounce. 

Camphor  60  grains. 

Spirits  of  wine I  ounce. 

Soft  water        15  ounces. 

Oil  of  rosemary  15  drops. 

Mix,  for  use. 

We  now  proceed  to  treat  of  topics  in  which  an  especial 
interest  will  be  felt  by  the  gentler  sex.  The  w-ay  in 
which  we  should  behave  towards  the  hair,  so  as  to  keep 
it  in  a  state  of  health  and  to  prevent  its  becoming  deranged 
in  structure  and  vigour,  has  been  noticed.  It  now  remains 
for  us  to  sketch  the  principal  diseases  to  which  it  is  liable, 
the  causes  of  those  derangements  from  a  healthy  standard, 
and  the  means  to  be  adopted  to  rectify  them.  The  com- 
monest alterations  noticed  in  the  hair  have  reference  to  the 
presence  of  hair  in  places  from  which  it  should  be  absent ; 
to  changes  in  the  amount  of  hair,  in  its  colour,  in  its  rate 


of  growth,  and  in  its  structure  and  appearance,  and  to 
diseases  by  which  it  is  rendered  more  brittle  or  dryer  than 
usual. 

Hair  in  Unusual  Situations,  or  Superfluous  Hatr. — 
Cases  are  on  record  in  which  the  hair  is  found  on  a  large 
extent  of  surface  not  usually  so  ornamented  ;  and  this 
condition  of  things  may  be  congenital,  or  it  may  come  on 
as  the  result  of  disease  ;  but  the  latter  occurrence  is  very 
rare.  A  curious  case  is  recorded  by  Ollivier,  in  which  a 
young  lady,  vi'ith  a  remarkably  white  skin  and  a  magni- 
ficent head  of  jet  black  hair,  while  recovering  from  an 
attack  of  severe  illness,  became  covered  over  with  a  short 
hairy  coat.  This  growth  of  hair  began  as  a  kind  of  goose- 
skin  ;  the  whole  of  the  follicles  of  the  skin  became  promi- 
nent, and  raised  into  little  pimples ;  in  a  few  days  little 
black  points  protruded  from  them,  and  at  the  end  of  a 
month  every  part  of  the  body,  except  the  palms  of  the 
hands  and  the  soles  of  the  feet,  was  covered  over  with 
hairs,  which  grew  eventually  to  the  length  of  an  inch  or 
so.  Now  we  might  multiply  instances,  but  it  would  serve 
no  useful  purpose.  In  all  cases  where  hair  makes  its  ap- 
pearance in  large  quantities  over  a  considerable  area,  little 
can  be  done  to  remedy  the  defect.  We  must  confine  our 
attention  to  those  instances  in  which  the  appearance  of 
hair  in  an  unusual  situation  is  confined  to  a  very  limited 
spot.  Such  abnormal  formations  are  found  in  what  are 
known  as  hairy  warts  or  moles,  in  the  development  of  hairy 
patches  after  blisters,  or  the  application  of  irritants  to 
the  skin,  and  on  the  upper  lips  and  chins  of  women  of 
advanced  periods  of  life,  or  in  young  women  even  who 
are  out  of  health.  There  are  several  ways  of  getting  rid 
of  these  disagreeables,  chiefly,  however,  by  the  use  of 
depilatories.  These  remedies,  however,  require  to  be  used 
with  the  greatest  caution,  lest  they  injure  the  healthy  skin, 
as  well  as  destroy  the  hair,  in  virtue  of  their  caustic  pro- 
perties. Moles  and  hairy  skin  may  be  cut  out  by  the  sur- 
geon, or  be  destroyed  by  the  application  of  strong  acids  ; 
for  by  these  means  the  deep  parts  of  the  skin,  where  the 
roots  of  the  hairs  are;situated,  are  destroyed.  Depilatories 
do  not  annihilate  the  roots  of  the  hairs  unless  severely 
applied,  but  eat  away  the  hair ;  hence  they  do,  as  the  rule, 
no  more  than  the  razor,  which  is  the  best  thing  to  trust  to, 
with  the  subsequent  application  of  a  suitable  cosmetic,  in 
the  majority  of  cases.  It  is  of  no  use  to  pluck  out  the 
hairs,  so  far  as  a  permanent  removal  of  the  offenders  is 
concerned,  because  the  hairs  will  certainly  reappear. 
But,  however,  we  will  name  one  or  two  of  the  more  com- 
mon depilatories  in  use  for  the  purpose  of  getting  rid 
of  superfluous  hairs.  For  centuries  lime  and  orpiment 
(sulphuret  of  arsenic)  have  entered  into  the  composi- 
tion of  some  depilatories.  In  other  of  the  depilatories 
arsenic  and  quick-lime  are  intermixed.  We  do  not  think 
it  advisable  to  give  our  readers  the  recipe  for  any  one 
of  the  arsenical  depilatories,  but  will  mention  here  some 
containing  lime,  and  those  which  are  least  dangerous 
to  use. 

Boudefs  Depilatory. 

Crystallised  hydro-sulphate  of  soda    ...    3  parts. 

Quick-lime  10  parts. 

Mix. 

When  applied,  this  is  to  be  mixed  with  a  little  water,  and 
applied  to  the  skin.  After  it  has  remained  on  for  a  few 
minutes — about  three  is  enough — it  should  be  scraped  off 
with  a  wooden  knife  or  spatula. 

Chinese  Depilatory. 

Quick-lime       8  ounces. 

Pearlash  i  ounce. 

Flowers  of  sulphur     ...         ...         ...  i  ounce. 

All  to  be  rubbed  together  into  a  fine  powder,  and  to  be 
kept  in  a  well-stoppered  bottle.  When  applied,  mix  with 
a  little  water,  and  wash  off  when  it  has  dried  on. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


367 


Spelasco's  Depilatory. 

Freshly-prepared  sulphuret  of  calcium     r  ounce. 

Ouick-lime         i  ounce. 

Mix,  and  apply  as  the  Chinese  Depilatory. 

Casenave's  Depilatory,  or  the  Pomade  Epilatoire  of  the 
French. 


Quick-lime 
Carbonate  of  soda 
Lard  


Mix. 


1  part. 

2  parts. 
8  parts. 


This  preparation  is  applied  in  the  form  of  an  ointment, 
several  times  if  necessary. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  is  a  remedy  for  super- 
fluous hairs  that  is  regarded  as  perhaps  the  best,  and 
certainly  the  most  harmless  of  all  yet  mentioned.  It  is 
Redwood's  depilatory,  and  is  made  by  mixing  powdered 
starch  with  a  strong  solution  of  sulphuret  of  barium.  But 
the  depilatory  is  to  be  applied  directly  it  is  prepared. 
After  being  left  on  for  a  few  minutes,  it  is  to  be  scraped  off 
with  the  back  of  a  knife. 

Now  these  depilatories  which  we  have  mentioned,  and 
others  in  use  by  barbers  and  hair-doctors,  are  scarcely  fit 
to  be  employed  against  "  moustaches."  We  commend,  as 
we  said  before,  the  razor  and  some  cosmetic  for  those  cases, 
if  the  presence  of  hair  is  offensive.  But  these  depila- 
tories are  available  for  the  destruction  of  hairy  moles  and 
the  growth  of  hair  on  the  surface  of  the  body  generally 
in  small  amounts.  Let  us  repeat  that  they  should  be  used 
with  caution,  and  be  applied  to  the  hair  which  it  is  desir- 
able to  remove,  and  not  smeared  too  freely  over  the  skin 
so  as  to  damage  it. 

Before  leaving  this  subject,  we  may  refer  to  a  very 
erroneous  idea,  that  it  is  possible  to  restrain  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  hair  over  the  forehead  of  the  young,  by 
dragging  back  the  hair  over  the  head  from  the  front. 
This  is  quite  erroneous.  The  disposition  of  the  hair  has 
no  influence  whatever  upon  the  springing  up  of  new  hair. 
Whilst  it  is  quite  right  to  keep  the  hair  from  hanging 
down  over  a  child's  head,  mothers  should  not,  from  a 
belief  that  it  will  prevent  new  hair  springing  up  on  the 
forehead,  drag  the  front  hair  of  their  children  too  markedly 
backward,  because  the  strain  upon  the  hair  will  tend  to 
injure  its  connection  with  the  skin  on  the  hair  follicles. 

Changes  in  the  Colour  of  the  Hair,  includitig  Blanching 
and  Greyness. — These  changes  in  the  colour  of  the  hair 
may  arise  from  many  different  causes,  and  be  of  varied 
nature  themselves.  We  shall  only  deal  with  the  more 
common  alteratione,  especially  the  tendency  often  exhi- 
bited to  premature  greynass,  which  so  frequently  wounds 
the  personal  vanity  of  men  and  women.  The  colour  of 
the  hair  is  due  to  the  scattering  amongst  its  fibres  of  a 
fine  deposit  of  pigment  in  minute  granules,  and  also  to 
difference  in  the  chemical  constitution  of  the  hair  itself. 
Something  also  is  due  to  the  amount  of  air  contained  in 
the  shaft  of  the  hair.  Now  it  can  be  readily  understood 
that  the  production  of  pigment  is  greatly  influenced  by 
the  state  of  the  general  health  ;  it  may  be  very  deficient 
where  the  powers  are  exhausted,  and  we  find  after  severe 
illnesses  and  in  old  age  that  the  hair  loses  its  colour. 
Deficiency  of  colouring  matter  may  likewise  be  congenital, 
as  in  the  albino,  and  this  deficiency  of  colouring  matter 
may  be  exhibited  likewise  not  only  over  the  whole  hairy 
parts  of  the  body,  but  also  in  certain  localised  spots,  and 
we  may  then  have  a  white  tuft  in  amongst  a  black  head 
of  hair.  These  more  uncommon  cases  we  do  not  intend 
to  deal  with,  but  we  shall  speak  of  the  instances  of  every- 
day occurrence  in  which  there  is  a  loss  of  colour.  Let  us 
get  rid  of  cases  of  whitening  after  severe  disease,  by 
observing  that  these  should  be  at  once  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  physician,  for  strong  internal  tonics  are  greatly 
needed  to  bring  back  the  vital  powers  to  their  proper 


status,  when  the  colour  of  the  hair  will  return.  These 
cases  are  not  uncommon.  The  instances  in  which  the 
reader  will  be  most  interested  arc  those  in  which  the  hair 
is  naturally  of  a  good,  and  it  may  be  beautiful  black  hue, 
but  in  which  it  gradually  assumes  a  greyish  tint.  Now^ 
the  loss  of  colour  may  be  absolute,  then  we  have  blanch- 
ing ;  or  it  may  be  relative,  and  then  we  have  premature 
greyness.  Peopk  affected  by  this  la.:tcr  form,  say  they 
are  getting  bald  before  their  time.  Now,  in  regard  to  the 
whiteness  of  old  age,  we  have  nothing  to  say  in  the  way 
of  advice  as  to  the  means  to  be  taken  to  restore  the  lost 
colour.  The  change  can  only  be  concealed  by  dyes,  and 
of  these  we  shall  speak  presently.  There  remains  for 
notice,  then,  the  large  class  of  cases  in  which  the  hair  gets 
prematurely  grey,  and  it  is  here  that  the  results  of  emo- 
tional nervous  debility  in  altering  the  supply  of  pigment,  ; 
in  changing  the  chemical  composition  of  the  colouring  ^ 
matter,  and  in  leading  to  the  generation  of  air  in  the  hair 
shaft,  which  is  probably  the  cause  of  sudden  whitening  or 
blanching,  are  most  visible.  In  order  to  show  how  worry, 
mental  distress,  and  anxiety,  may  lead  to  change  in  the 
colour  of  the  hair,  we  might  relate  many  anecdotes — 
those  relating  to  Marie  Antoinette,  Sir  Thomas  More, 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and  others,  are  well  known.  Let  us 
premise  that  the  sudden  blanching  of  the  hair,  and  the 
gradual  occurrence  of  greyness  are,  after  all,  only  differ- 
ences of  degree  rather  than  of  kind,  only  that  in  one  case 
the  change  is  immediate  and  in  the  other  gradual.  Byron 
illustrated  great  truths  in  the  "  Prisoner  of  Chillon,"  when 
he  wrote — 

"My  hair  is  grey,  but  not  with  years, 

Nor  grew  it  white 

In  a  single  night, 
As  men's  have  grown  from  sudden  fears." 

He  distinguished  the  gradual  greyish  from  slow  and  pro- 
tracted nervous  exhaustion,  or  excitement  which  is  always 
followed  by  exhaustion  ;  and  secondly,  the  effect  of  a 
violent  and  sudden  shock  upon  the  nervous  system,  pro- 
ducing in  a  few  hours  what  it  takes  years  to  induce  under 
other  circumstances. 

Moreau,  a  distinguished  French  physician,  writes,  "  I 
once  knew  an  aged  man  for  whom  snow-white  hair  and  a 
countenance  deeply  marked  by  the  furrows  of  care,  inspired 
the  respect  which  we  owe  to  age  and  misfortune."  "  My 
hair,"  said  he,  "  was  as  thou  seest  it  now  long  before  the 
latter  season  of  my  life.  More  energetic  in  their  effects 
than  assiduous  toil  and  lingering  years,  grief  and  despair 
at  the  loss  of  a  wife  most  tenderly  loved,  whitened  my 
locks  in  a  single  night.  I  was  not  thirty  years  of  age. 
Judge  then  the  force  of  my  sufferings.  I  still  bear  them 
in  frightful  remembrance."  One  more  illustration  shall 
suffice  on  this  point.  The  sexton  of  St.  Joseph's  Cathedral, 
Vienna,  being  a  man  of  extraordinary  nerve  and  boldness, 
was  accustomed  to  stand  on  the  pinnacle  of  the  tower, 
whenever  the  emperor  made  a  grand  entry  to  the  city,  and 
wave  a  flag  as  the  pageant  passed  by.  Wlien,  however, 
Leopold,  who  had  just  been  chosen  emperor  at  Frankfort,  was 
about  to  enter  the  city,  the  loyal  sexton,  still  anxious  to  be 
true  to  the  old  custom,  but  finding  that  years  had  told 
against  his  nerve,  declared  that  any  one  who  would  take 
his  place  successfully  should  win  his  daughter.  Gabriel 
Petersheim,  who  was  disliked  by  the  sexton,  but  beloved 
of  his  daughter,  at  once  accepted  tlie  offer,  to  the  disgust 
of  the  sexton,  who  then  arranged  with  two  villains  to  close 
the  trap-door  of  the  upper  stairway  while  Gabriel  was 
above,  thinking  that  as  the  emperor  was  to  enter  towards 
evening,  no  one  need  be  the  wiser,  and  the  lad  muat  cer- 
tainly fall  before  morning.  The  two  accomplices  did  their 
foul  work,  and  their  intended  victim,  finding  his  way  down 
again  barred,  was  confronted  with  the  alternative  of  cling- 
ing to  the  slender  spire,  through  a  cold  wintrj-  night,  with 
his  feet  resting  on  a  surface  hardly  ten  inches  in  circum- 
ference, or  of  precipitating  himself  to  the  pavement  at 


368 


WAGES   AND    INCOME   TABLE. 


once,  and  thus  ending  the  matter.  Gabriel  was  a  youth  of 
firm  will  and  hardy  constitution  ;  he  clung  to  the  cold 
column  till  morning.  But  the  story  goes  that  his  rescuers 
were  amazed  to  observe  that  his  curling  locks  were  white  as 
snow  ;  his  wonted  rosy  cheeks  were  yellow  and  wrinkled  ; 
and  his  eyes,  before  so  bright,  were  now  sunken  and  dim. 
One  night  of  horror  had  placed  him  forty  years  nearer 
his  grave.  These  anecdotes  may  illustrate,  as  before 
observed,  on  a  large  scale  what  is  generally  going  on  in 
men  and  women  as  the  result  of  anxiety  and  mental  dis- 
tress and  tension.  The  writer  has  seen  many  instances  in 
which  persons  have  become  more  grey  than  at  others, 
particularly  when  over-worked,  or  harassed  by  business,  or 
after  illness  connected  with  nervous  debility. 

The  proper  treatment  of  the  more  common  instances  of 
greyness,  the  result  of  nervous  debility,  is  the  administra- 
tion of  internal  tonics.  Nothing  is  better  than  a  course  of 
arsOTiic  or  steel,  but  these  must  be  taken  under  the  advice 
of  a  medical  man.  In  our  next  article  on  this  subject 
we  shall  do  all  that  we  can  undertake  to  do  here — namely, 
to  give  a  sketch  of  the  various  dyes  of  the  least  harmful 
nature,  which  our  readers  may  try,  if  they  will,  for  the 
concealment  of  advancing  greyness. 


MAKING    SEALING-WAX. 

I.  Common  Hard  Red  Sealing-wax. — Take  of  rosin 
six  ounces,  and  powder  it ;  add  four  ounces  of  red  lead  ; 
two  ounces  of  vermilion,  or  less,  if  expense  is  objected 
to  ;  and  the  same  of  shellac  reduced  to  powder.  Mix 
all  these  carefully,  and  melt  them  over  a  slow  fire. 
When  thoroughly  incorporated,  and  while  fused,  work  it 


into  sticks  of  any  size  required.  The  vermilion  is  some- 
times left  out  altogether,  and,  for  very  common  wax,  the 
shellac  also. 

2.  Common  Hard  Black  Sealing-wax. — This  is  made 
in  exactly  the  same  way,  only  ivory-black  is  used  instead 
of  red  lead  and  vermilion. 

3.  Hard  Green  Sealing-wax. — The  process  is  the  same 
as  before,  only  for  the  colouring  matter  finely-powdered 
verdigris  is  used. 

4.  Hard  Blue  Sealing-wax. — This  is  made  as  above, 
only  the  colouring  ingredient  is  verditer,  or  smalt,  or  a 
mixture  of  the  two,  according  to  the  shade  wished  for. 

5.  Hard  Yellow  Sealing-wax. — The  process  is  the  one 
already  described.  The  colour  may  be  given  by  means 
of  massicot,  or  other  yellow  pigment,  as  chrome. 

6.  Hard  Purple  Sealing-wax. — This  is  made  in  the 
same  way,  but  the  purple  is  produced  by  a  mixture  of 
vermilion  and  smalt,  in  any  proportions  desired. 

In  all  cases  the  incorporation  of  the  materials  must 
be  effected  with  caution  in  an  open  copper  pan.  After 
cooling  a  little,  the  wax  should  be  formed  into  sticks 
by  rolling  the  pieces  with  a  piece  of  polished  wood  upon 
a  warm  slab  of  marble.  It  may,  however,  be  poured  "out, 
and  cast  in  moulds  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

Variegated  sealing-wax  is  made  by  melting  several 
kinds  separately,  and  mixing  them  when  partially  cooled. 

SeaHng-wax  with  gold  speckles  is  made  with  an  ad- 
dition of  gold -coloured  mica  spangles,  talc,  or  other 
matters,  after  taking  it  from  the  fire. 

Sealing-wax  is  scented  in  different  ways,  one  being  to 
stir  in  y^jyth  part  of  balsam  of  Peru. 

Sealing-wax  is  better  made  with  Venice  turpentine  than 
with  rosin. 


WAGES  AND  INCOME  TABLE. 


Per  Day. 

Working 
Day  (six 
to  week). 

Week. 

Lunar 
Month. 

Calendar  :  Year  of  52 
Month     j       -weeks. 

Year.       } 

I 

Day. 

Working 
Day  (six 
to  week). 

Week. 

Lunar 
Month. 

Calendar 
Month. 

Year  of  52 
weeks. 

Year. 

£,     S.    d. 

£. 

s.    d. 

£ 

J. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£  s. 

d. 

£  s.   d.ljC 

X.    d. 

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d. 

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£    s. 

d. 

£ 

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0 

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0 

CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


369 


THE   REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF 
CHILDREN. 

XI.— CLOTHING  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SIX  YEARS  (C07ttinued). 

In  winter  weather,  Garibaldi  Suits  for  girls  arc  very  com- 
fortable. Black  alpaca  looks  neat  and  wears  well,  and 
is  pretty  when  trimmed  with  bright  green  worsted  braid. 
To  cut  a  Garibaldi  bodice,  take  the  pattern  like  Fig.  1 1 
(page  333),  cutting  it  high,  but  instead  of  sloping  from  A  to  c, 


together  a  little  way  in  on  the  right  side.  Then  reverse 
them,  fold  them,  and  run  them  again  a  little  way  in,  so 
that  no  raw  edges  show  either  side.  Pipe  the  neck,  and 
instead  of  hemming  it  down  run  on  a  ribbon  and  run  it 
down,  because  alpaca  is  rough  and  chafes  the  neck.  Pipe 
the  armholes. 

For  the  Sleeves,  measure  the  full  length  of  the  child's 
arm  ;  allow  a  good  inch  over.  A  fair  width  for  a  bishop 
sleeve  is  about  thirteen  inches  and  a  half  for  turnings. 
Unite  this  with  a  mantua-maker's  seam.     Slope  the  top  by 


Fig.  4. 


Fio.  13- 


.6. 

Fig.  3. 

\ 

/ 

?= 

K'-^'^^ 

Fig.  I. 

-V, 

Fig.  30. 


Fig.  a. 


Fig.  14. 
A 


C^i— = 

DA 

e[ 


Fig.  19. 


Fig.  II. 


keep  it  as  wide  at  the  waist  as  at  the  arms,  by  the  dotted 
line  K,  and  also  level  from  K  to  L.  Take  the  pattern 
thus  in  paper.  The  two  fronts  of  the  Garibaldi  are  not 
cut  together.  Take  a  width  of  the  alpaca  as  long  as  the 
body  pattern ;  fold  a  hem  for  the  front,  and  tack  it.  Tack 
as  many  tucks  as  you  wish,  down  from  I  to  G  and  H  to  A. 
Then  lay  the  pattern  upon  it,  pin  it  down,  and  cut  it. 
Both  fronts  are  cut  alike.  The  backs  are  in  one,  and  the 
tucks  must  also  be  tacked  in  them  first.  Be  sure  that 
one  of  the  tucks  comes  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  back. 
Run  stripes  of  coloured  braid  between  the  tucks.  Make 
button-holes  up  the  front,  and  sew  on  buttons.  Make 
mantua-makers'  seams  at  the  sides  and  shoulders. 

Mantua-makeri  Seams  are  done  by  running  the  pieces 

VOL.  L 


6 

Fig.  IS. 

rounding  it  in  the  way  shown  in  the  illustrations  of 
paletots  which  appear  on  this  page.  Slope  the  wTist 
away  slightly  towards  the  inside  of  the  wrist  about  an 
inch,  with  a  straight  cut.  There  is  rather  a  large  armhole 
to  a  Garibaldi.  Put  in  the  sleeve  plain  with  a  mantua- 
maker's  seam.  Pleat  the  wrist  into  a  band  to  button,  usiog 
small  pleats  turned  one  way — from  the  wearer.  Gather 
or  pleat  the  waist  of  the  body  into  a  band  that  buttons 
easily.  To  this  band  sew  the  pleats  of  the  skirt,  which 
may  be  trimmed  with  plain  rows  of  green  worsted  braid. 
When  children  wear  frocks  with  high  bodies,  or  Gari- 
baldis, a  high  petticoat  body  should  be  worn.  The  piece 
calico  will  come  in  excellently  for  this.  It  maybe  cut  and 
made  precisely  like  the  GaribaUH  already  described,  or  it 

34 


37<-'> 


THE   REARING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF   CHILDREN. 


may  be  sloped  under  the  arms  from  A  to  C,  Fig.  1 1  (p.  333), 
as  a  regular  body.  The  mantua-makers'  seams  are  the  best. 
Pipe  the  waist  and  hem  it  down.  Then  cut  a  basque,  like 
Fig.  I.  The  pattern  need  only  be  half  the  size  of  the 
dotted  line.  From  A  to  A  it  must  measure  half  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  waist,  and  it  is  curved.  It  slopes  out 
from  A  to  B,  so  as  to  sit  well  over  the  hip.  Fig.  i  shows 
the  entire  piece  for  the  back.  Two  half  pieces  for  the 
fronts  must  be  joined  to  those  from  A  to  B  by  stitching. 
Hem  all  round  except  the  waist.  Stitch  that  to  the  waist 
of  the  body  along  the  piping.  Add  long  sleeves,  a  small 
bishop  shape,  and  set  in  cuffs  to  slip  over  the  hand.  Fig. 
2  shows  this  body  completed.  If  a  high  washing-body 
like  this  is  not  worn  under  a  high  body,  the  dye  of  the  body 
stains  the  child's  skin,  and  the  dress  itself  is  damaged 
with  perspiration. 

Out-door  Jacket  for  a  Child  Six  Years  old  {in  white 
piquS),  Fig.  3. — The  fronts  are  cut  out  in  separate  pieces, 
like  Fig.  4,  measuring  thirteen  inches  from  A  to  B,  seven  and 
a-half  from  C  to  D,  six  and  a-half  from  E  to  F.  The  centre 
piece  of  the  back  is  cut  like  Fig.  5,  fourteen  inches  from  A 
to  B,  ten  and  a-half  from  c  to  D,  nine  from  E  to  F,  two  inches 
from  G  to  H,  and  two  and  a-half  from  i  to  J.  There  are  two 
side-pieces  joined  to  the  back,  K  to  F,  and  L  to  J,  stitched 
together  on  the  wrong  side.  The  side-piece  is  tacked  to  the 
centre-piece  and  stitched,  holding  it  uppermost,  from  K  to  L. 
The  side-pieces  measure  five  and  a-half  from  L  to  M,  and 
two  and  a-half  from  N  to  O ;  seven  long  from  O  to  M,  ten 
long  from  K  to  L.  When  the  side-pieces  are  stitched  on, 
one  each  side,  the  back  is  complete.  Join  each  front  by 
stitching  it  from  down  the  side  under  the  arm  from  E  to  P, 
(Fig.  4),  and  the  back  from  O  to  M  (Fig.  5),  holding  the  front 
uppermost.  Stitch  the  shoulders  together,  keeping'the  front 
uppermost.  In  the  measurement  of  this  jacket,  no  al- 
lowance is  made  for  turnings  in,  which  are  only  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  wide.  A  muslin  piping  is  tacked  on  all  round 
the  edge,  but  not  hemmed  down  at  all.  The  embroidered 
edge  is  then  tacked  to  the  piping  easily,  and  the  whole 
stitched  all  round.  The  hem  is  not  turned  down  at  all, 
but  overcast  and  left.  It  is  only  a  half-quarter  of  an  inch 
wide.  The  neck  is  piped  and  trimmed  the  same  way, 
the  embroidery  turned  down  on  it  like  a  narrow  collar. 
The  coat-sleeve  (Fig.  6)  measures  sixteen  inches  on  the 
curve  from  A  to  B,  eleven  from  c  to  D,  four  inches  from 
D  to  B,  and  3ix  from  C  to  A.  The  'two  pieces  are  cut 
alike,  except  at  the  top,  where  the  front  of  the  sleeve 
is  rounded,  according  to  the  dotted  line  from  C  to  A. 
The  sleeves  are  stitched  together  and  stitched  into 
the  armholes.  The  seam  at  the  top  of  the  sleeve  is  half 
an  inch  further  back  than  the  shoulder  seam  and  the 
rounded  part  of  the  top  of  the  sleeve,  E  in  Fig.  6,  to  the 
front  of  the  jacket.  Cut  a  half-cuff,  like  Fig.  7,  by  the 
lower  end  of  the  sleeve,  pipe  and  trim  the  top  with  em- 
broidery, stitch  it  to  the  edge  of  the  sleeve,  turn  it  over, 
tack  it  down,  before  the  two  pieces  of  the  sleeve  are  joined 
together.  It  is  laid  on  that  side  of  the  sleeve  which  has  the 
rounded  top.  It  is  a  pretty  addition  to  braid  the  jacket  and 
cuff,  like  Fig.  8,  with  white  cotton  braid.  The  same  pattern 
is  suitable  for  cloth,  bound  round  the  edge  with  military 
braid,  and  with  a  row  of  the  braid  laid  on  straight  round  it. 

To  get  the  pattern,  first  draw  it  on  paper,  and  measure 
it  to  the  right  number  of  inches,  thus  :  Take  the  length  of  the 
back  14  inches,  measure  this  on  paper,  make  a  dot  at  each 
end,  and  draw  a  line  between.  Then  take  the  width  across 
the  shoulders  \o\  inches.  Only  half  the  pattern  of  the  back 
is  wanted,  therefore  measure  55  inchesfrom  the  one  side  of 
the  first  line,  2\  inches  down  it.  Four  inches  down  it,  mea- 
sure \\  inches  the  same  way,  making  a  dot.  These  are  the 
dotted  lines  shown  in  Fig.  5  at  D  and  F.  Three  inches  from 
the  bottom,  it  measures  one  inch  at  H.  It  will  now  be  easy 
to  draw  a  line  for  the  shape  of  the  jacket  from  dot  to  dot 
marked  on  the  paper. 

The  stay-bodies,  flannels,  and  white  petticoats  for  boys 


and  girls  at  this  early  age  are  cut  alike,  therefore 
the  directions  we  have  already  given  will  suffice  for 
both.  The  shirt  for  a  boy  has  been  described.  The  girl's 
chemise  is  but  similar  to  those  worn  by  children  of  four 
years  old,  and  already  illustrated,  but  of  course  rather 
larger.  The  white  piqud  jacket  we  have  described  can  be 
worn  either  by  a  boy  or  girl,  and  also  can  be  made  in  silk, 
velveteen,  cloth,  velvet,  or  of  any  fancy  material  en  suite 
with  the  frock.  The  patterns  for  the  low  frock  body  and 
the  high  body  are  equally  useful  for  boys  who  wear  frocks 
at  that  age  ;  but  their  bodies  are  not  sloped  in  the  side 
seams.  Garibaldi  bodies  are  not  suitable  for  boys.  Boys' 
bodies  are  always  cut  straight  at  the  waist,  and  not 
sloped.  They  may  have  a  single  tuck  in  the  skirt  to  let 
down,  but  are  not  made  with  fancy  tucks.  Neither  are 
the  skirts  or  bodies  trimmed  in  any  way  unless  with  a  welt 
straight  down  the  front  and  large  buttons  in  it,  or  a 
slanting  trimming  brought  from  the  left  shoulder  in  an 
oblique  line  to  the  edge  of  the  skirt  on  the  right  side. 
This  may  be  a  mitred  welt  with  buttons,  a  braid  trimming, 
or  an  embroidered  muslin  (Fig.  9).  Coat  sleeves,  such  as 
are  made  for  the  paletot,  suit  boys  best.  Their  high  bodies 
are  piped  with  the  same  material,  and  square  and  loose  at 
the  waist.  The  cuffs  of  the  sleeves  do  not  button,  but 
slip  over  the  hand.  The  skirts  are  shorter  than  girls,  but 
quite  as  full.  At  the  waist  they  are  set  into  a  number  of 
fine,  regular,  equal  box  pleats,  turning  one  way  all  round 
.the  waist.  Our  next  description  will  be  of  a  knicker- 
bocker  suit  for  a  boy. 

Tunic  for  a  Little  Boy  of  Six,  with  or  without  Knicker- 
bockers.— We  will  suppose  this  made  in  speckled  brown 
tweed,  but  plaid  or  any  fancy  material  may  be  used.  The 
skirt  takes  two  widths,  seventeen  inches  long.  Stitch 
these  together.  Take  six  inches  off  one  of  the  breadths, 
before  joining,  to  bring  the  front  seam  a  little  on  one 
side.  At  the  back,  do  not  run  the  seam  all  the  way 
up,  but  leave  six  and  a-half  inches  open.  Hem  one 
side  quite  narrow,  and  the  other  half  an  inch  wide.  Pass 
the  wide  seam  over  the  narrow,  and  stitch  it  across  the 
skirt,  where  the  division  commences.  Make  a  hem  at  the 
bottom,  two  and  a  quarter  inches  wide.  Over  this  put  a 
row  of  brown  military  braid,  half  an  inch  deep.  Lay  half 
the  skirt  on  the  table,  and  the  braid  with  it  ;  slightly  turn 
the  braid  down,  then  tack  it.  Tack  the  other  half  also, 
and  lastly  hem  it  neatly  at  both  edges.  It  must  be  put  on 
quite  easily,  neither  full  nor  dragged.  To  form  the  band,  cut 
down  the  stuff,  not  across,  twenty-five  inches  long,  and 
either  four  wide,  or  in  two  pieces,  each  two  and  arhalf, 
and  joined.  The  skirt  is  set  at  the  waist  in  a  number  of 
inch  and  a-half  deep  pleats,  all  turning  one  way,  and  over- 
laying one  another  rather  better  than  half  an  inch.  They 
go  the  same  way  all  round.  One  edge  of  the  band  is  set 
on  to  this;  it  is  then  turned  over, doubled, hemmed  down, 
the  ends  sewn,  and  a  couple  of  hooks  and  eyes  set  on. 
(See  Fig.  10.) 

With  this  a  Waistcoat  is  worn,  of  the  same  material. 
From  A  to  B,  in  Fig.  11,  is  twelve  inches  ;  the  neck,  five 
and  a-half  in  the  curve  ;  the  hne  above  the  armhole,  H 
to  F,  six  and  a-half;  below  the  armhole,  I  to  G,  seven 
and  a-half ;  at  the  waist,  D  to  C,  seven  and  a-half ;  E  to 
F,  three  ;  and  G  to  C,  six  inches.  The  back  can  be  made 
of  double  grey  lining,  or  lining  hned  with  flannel,  or  of 
jean.  The  back  (Fig.  12)  measures  twelve  inches  from 
K  to  L ;  from  L  to  M,  six  inches  ;  at  the  line  under  the 
arms,  N  to  O,  six  inches ;  at  the  line  between  the  shoulders, 
P  to  Q,  five.  Two  pieces  of  tweed  are  cut  like  Figs.  13  and  14. 
Take  these  to  line  the  front  of  the  jacket,  turning  the 
edge  down  over  the  right  side.  Join  fronts  and  backs  of 
the  waistcoat.  With  jean  or  hning  line  the  rest  of  the 
front,  putting  the  edge  of  the  jean  over  the  tweed.  Hem 
it  on,  the  seams  having  been  run  first,  and  the  seams 
turned  inside.  The  back  is  also  lined.  Double-stitch  the 
cloth  fronts  all  round  the  edge  and  neck  the  eighth  of 


cassell's  household  guide. 


an  inch  from  the  edge.  Place  at  the  extreme  edge,  but 
not  beyond,  a  military  braid  like  that  on  the  skirt. 
Make  six  button-holes  one  side,  and  put  buttons  on  the 
other.  At  the  back,  two  broad  straps  and  a  buckle  arc 
put  on.  The  strap  is  sewn  to  the  back  before  the  sides 
are  seamed,  to  give  it  strength.  It  is  also  stitched  all 
round.  (See  Fig.  12.)  This  is  used  to  draw  the  waistcoat 
to  the  figure.     It  is  made  of  double  jean. 

Over  the  waistcoat  a  Jacket  is  worn.  From  A  to  B  (Fig. 
15),  is  14^  inches  ;  the"  line  above  the  shoulders,  E  to  F, 
13  inches ;  the  line  below  the  shoulders,  G  to  H,  1 1  inches  ; 
and  from  c  to  D  6^  inches.  It  may  be  seen  that  the  back 
is  in  three  pieces.  The  sides  measure  8  inches  under  the 
arms,  H  to  l,  and  3  inches  wide,  from  D  to  I,  being,  with 
the  exception  of  the  curve  at  top,  straight.  The  shoulders, 
J  to  F,  measure  si  inches.  Fig.  16  represents  the  front. 
The  front  measures  above  the  arm,  A  to  B,  8^  inches  ; 
below  the  arm,  c  to  D,  8^  inches  ;  and  where  the  pocket 
is,  E  to  F,  7*  inches.  The  pocket  is  sewn  in  before  the 
jacket  is  lined.  The  jacket  is  faced  down  each  side  of 
the  front  with  tweed  3  inches  wide,  put  on  as  the  waist- 
coat is  faced,  only  that  was  not  quite  2  inches  wide. 
Shape  it  like  Fig.  16.  The  dotted  line  in  Fig.  16  shows 
how  it  is  used.  Cut  it  by  the  jacket  pattern  first  in  paper. 
Stitch  the  seams  of  the  coat  together  before  lining  it. 
Stitch  the  lining,  which  is  of  a  thin  jean,  together,  and 
lay  it  on  and  line  it  as  described  for  the  girls'  paletots. 
The  pocket  comes  between  the  jacket  and  the  lining. 

The  inner  side  of  the  Sleeve  is  a  straight  piece 
(Fig.  17),  and  measures  12  inches  long,  from  A  to  B  ;  the 
curve  at  the  back,  from  c  to  D,  15  inches.  Both  pieces 
are  alike,  except  in  the  curve  at  the  top,  from  A  to  C. 
Line,  and  put  them  in  like  the  paletot  sleeves.  Run  a 
military  braid  all  round  the  extreme  edge  of  the  jacket 
and  pocket,  and  neck.  Trim  the  sleeve  like  it.  The 
pocket  of  this  jacket,  be  it  noticed,  is  inserted  between 
the  tweed  and  lining. 

Over  this  a  Coat  is  worn,  in  tweed,  like  Fig.  18.  For  the 
back,  A  to  B,  16  inches.  The  line  at  C  is  12  inches  right 
across ;  at  D,  15  inches  ;  at  E,  18  inches.  A  little  bit  is 
sloped  off  at  each  side  below  E,  from  E  to  F,  and  left 
open  at  the  seam.  The  shoulder,  x  to  C,  5  inches,  and 
D  to  F,  9  inches.  For  the  front  (Fig.  19)  measure 
9J  inches,  G  to  H  ;    11   inches  from  I  to  J,  and  H  to  K 

15  inches.     Round  the  entire  neck  125  inches.     Round 
off  the  comer,  K,  to  match  the  back  (Fig.  19). 

The  sleeves  are  the  same  shape  as  the  jacket  sleeves, 

16  inches  in  the  curve,  c  to  D;  11  inches  on  the  straight 
side,  A  to  B  ;  4J  inches  across  the  wrist,  B  to  D;  6  at  the 
top,  A  to  c.  A  false  piece  of  the  tweed  is  tacked  on  the 
coat  from  N  to  ^r,  covering  the  point  (at  h)  and  all 
(Fig.  19).  It  is  laid  on  with  a  raw  edge  on  the  right  side, 
and  stitched  ;  neatly  turned  in  and  hemmed  on  the  wrong 
side  at  the  inner  edge.  Cord  the  fronts  at  the  shoulders 
and  side  seams,  and  then  stitch  them  to  the  back.  Cut 
two  pieces  for  the  coHar,  12  inches  long  and  2\  inches 
wide  (see  Fig.  20).  Join  one  to  the  neck,  and  then  join 
both,  the  seams  inwards,  at  the  neck.  Turn  them,  to 
meet  upright,  like  x  X  in  Fig.  18  and  O  in  Fig.  19  ;  tack 
them  together,  leaving  the  raw  edges.  Turn  up  the  edge 
of  the  jacket  all  round,  on  the  right  side,  and  tack  it. 
The  seams  are  left  open  a  little  way  at  the  bottom.  Put 
a  braid  all  round  up  the  open  part  of  the  seams,  covering 
the  raw  edges  turned  over,  and  run  a  braid  round  the 
collar  and  the  inside  of  the  pointed  piece  which  turns 
over  at  the  dotted  lines  from  O  to  P  (Fig.  19).  The  pocket 
is  made  of  one  piece  of  tweed  and  one  of  lining,  run 
together,  turned  the  other  side  over,  and  stitched,  the 
tweed  outside  and  a  little  larger  than  the  lining,  so  that 
after  both  are  joined  with  raw  edges  on  the  right  side  of 
the  coajt  the  pocket  can  be  stitched  by  the  tweed  side  a 
little  above  the  hole,  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  at  Q 
(Fig.  19)  ;  a  sort  of  fold  is  made  in  the  tweed  of  the  pocket 


371^ 

to  do  this.  The  dotted  line  shows  the  shape  of  the 
pocket.  Braid  laid  round  the  pocket-hole  covers  the 
raw  edges.  The  armholc  is  corded  round,  and  the 
sleeve  inserted  in  the  usual  manner,  the  seam  an  inch 
behind  the  shoulder  seam.  Braid  straight  round  the  cuff, 
three  inches  up  it.  There  are  three  wooden  buttons  and 
three  button-holes,  seen  in  Fig.  19,  on  both  sides.  Put  on 
the  braid  strongly  on  both  edges,  inside  and  out,  from 
o  to  K,  including  the  point.  The  cord  is  run  with 
the  tweed  itself  turned  over  it,  not  a  piping,  x  X,  in 
Fig.  18,  and  o,  in  Fig.  19,  show  the  collar,  which  is  after- 
wards put  on  as  above  directed.  The  point  O  to  P  in 
Fig.  19  is  double.  A  piece  of  tweed  the  shape  of  Fig.  21  is 
cut  for  the  lining,  bound  in  at  the  edges,  but  left  loose 
from  O  to  P  (Fig,  19). 


THE   DRESSING   OF  DINNER-TABLES,  &c. 

Three  modes  of  laying  out  a  dinner-table  are  practised 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  old  English  way,  in  which 
the  tablecloth  is  removed  after  the  cheese  and  the  dessert 
are  set  on  the  bare  mahogany  ;  the  French  way,  in  which 
the  table-cloth  remains  to  the  last  ;  and  the  Russian  way, 
in  which  the  dessert  is  set  on  the  table  at  the  time  of 
laying  it  out,  and  remains  permanently  tliere  throughout 
the  meal.  This  last  arrangement,  the  Diner  a  la  Russe^ 
is  growing  in  favour,  in  consequence  of  its  elegance  and 
its  economy  both  of  expense  and  trouble.  An  objection 
to  it  is  that  it  cannot  always  be  carried  out  on  a  very 
small  table  and  in  a  small  dining-room.  It  is  admirably 
adapted  for  large  dinner-parties,  official  banquets,  public 
festive  meetings,  and  tables  d  hole ;  but  is  not  always 
suited  for  a  snug  party  dining  together,  either  in  public 
or  private,  at  a  table  of  modest  dimensions,  around  and 
outside  which  elbow-room  is  scanty. 

One  fault  of  the  old  English  dinner  was  the  immense 
multiplicity  of  dishes  which  every  dinner-giver  was  obliged 
to  produce.  In  the  olden  time,  the  table,  at  each  succes- 
sive course,  had  to  be  covered  with  a  set  number  of  dishes, 
which  served  for  ornament  rather  than  for  use,  as  it  was 
impossible  to  taste  one-third  of  them.  It  was  hard  work 
for  a  family  to  have  to  eat  their  way  out  of  the  leavings  of 
a  dinner-party.  The  mistake  of  overloading  the  bill  of 
fare  is  much  easier  to  avoid  now  than  it  was  forty  or  fifty 
years  ago.  English  dinners,  since  that  time,  have  passed 
through  a  series  of  radical  reforms.  The  leader  of  the 
movement  may  be  assumed  to  be  the  late  police  magis- 
trate. Walker,  who,  in  his  "  Original,"  strongly  urged  that 
it  was  possible  to  dine  well  off  a  very  few  dishes.  The  book, 
which  contains  both  instruction  and  amusement,  is  still 
well  worth  referring  to.  The  modem  fashions — of  substi- 
tuting the  white  table-cloth  for  the  brown  mahogany  at 
dessert  ;  of  decorating  the  table  with  the  dessert  and 
with  flowers  from  the  beginning  ;  and  of  carving  joints  at 
side-tables  and  handing  the  dishes  round — greatly  relieve 
the  dinner-giver  of  the  temptation  to  display  ostentatiou* 
masses  of  fish  or  meat. 

Another  fault  was  the  break  and  the  disturbance  caused 
by  the  removal  of  the  cloth  after  cheese  and  the  setting 
on  the  dessert.  Conversation  was  intcrrup(ted ;  arvd  the 
thread  of  pleasant  discourse,  once  broken,  is  hard  to  be 
mended  smoothly  and  neatly.  The  host  and  hostess 
were  on  thorns  lest  each  dish  of  fruit  should  miss  its 
place  or  fail  to  find  its  appointed  partner  opposite.  Much 
of  the  interruption  caused  by  such  changes  is  avoided 
by  the  French  and  Russian  plans. 

With  the  white  cloth,  before  the  dessert  is  attacked,  a 
sweep  round  with  the  crumb-brush  is  rapidly  performed. 
The  cloth  will  be  kept  still  more  spotless  for  dessert,  if  the 
portion  of  it  occupied  by  the  plates  only  is  coverod  with 
napkins,  to  be  removed  at  the  close  of  dinner,  leaving  the 
1  under-cloth  itself  unsullied  white.     Of  course,  none  of  the 


37: 


THE    HOUSEHOLD  MECHANIC. 


standing  dishes  of  the  dessert  must  set  foot  upon  these 
temporary  napkins. 

According  to  either  mode,  the  plate  of  each  guest  is 
flanked  with  at  least  three  glasses  ;  a  tumbler,  beaker, 
or  beer-glass,  for  malt  liquor  or  wine  and  water  ;  a  large 
or  claret  wine-glass  ;  and  a  smaller  or  port  and  sherry- 
glass.  All  these  are  now  made  of  luxurious  forms  and 
materials.  A  champagne-glass,  when  that  wine  is  given, 
completes  the  goodly  quatermon.  The  dinner-service, 
porcelain  or  China,  will  depend  on  taste  and  means.  A 
•plated  dinner-service,  though  costly  at  the  outset,  has  the 
advantage  of  never  being  broken.  We  once  knew  a  plated 
dinner-service  which  was  calculated,  after  a  course  of 
years,  to  have  more  than  paid  for  itself  by  avoiding 
breakage.  On  each  guest's  plate,  or  beside  it,  there  is,  of 
course,  a  dinner-napkin.  In  a  modest  French  establish- 
ment, a  table  laid  without  a  napkin  for  each  person  would 
be' considered  as  incomplete  as  a  bed  without  sheets  would 
be  here.  Napkins  are  things  to  be  taken  for  granted, 
about  the  presence  of  which  there  is  no  question.  They 
jnay  be  folded  according  to  fancy,  placed  on  the  plate  with 
a  roll  of  bread  inside,  or  stuck  in  a  fan-shape  into  the 
beer-glass  ;  but  some  prefer  them  laid  on  the  plate,  or 
table,  with  no  manipulation. 

As  we  shall  devote  a  separate  article  to  this  portion  of 
our  subject,  we  refrain  from  entering  into  it  more  fully 
in  our  present  paper. 

At  dessert,  a  coloured  finger-glass  to  each  guest>  purple, 
green,  pink,  or  blue — by  alternating  colours  you  get  a  pleas- 
ing effect  on  the  white  cloth — is  a  good  old  custom.  These 
glasses  arc  not  merely  a  pretty  ornamental  addition,  but 
they  are  really  useful.  However  neatly  a  person  may  eat, 
sugarysweets  and  juicy  fruits  will  leave  atrace  on  the  finger- 
tips :  not  to  mention  asparagus,  smelts,  peach  or  apple 
fritters,  or  gingerbread  cakes,  if  handled  when  eaten,  which 
is  perfectly  orthodox.  Shrimps  and  other  crustaceans, 
which  also  are  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  the  finger 
and  thumb,  betray  the  presence  of  saline  elements.  Now, 
it  is  uncomfortable,  to  say  the  least,  for  a  young  lady  to 
draw  on  kid  gloves,  or  sit  down  to  the  piano  with  clammy 
fingers.  A  finger-glass  remedies  the  inconvenience.  The 
hand  may  be  dipped,  the  napkin  slightly  wetted  and  ap- 
plied to  the  lips  ;  and  that  is  all,  according  to  otir  code  of 
etiquette.  A  refinement  is  to  supply  the  finger-glasses 
with  tepid  water,  mixed  with  eau-de-Cologne. 

One  marked  feature  in  the  English  and  foreign  styles 
of  dining  is  the  place  respectively  oc-cupied  by  cheese. 
With  us,  it  is  the  bouquet,  or  finishing-touch  of  the  dinner 
• — Continentals  make  it  the  pearl  of  the  dessert.  The 
fourteenth  of  Brillat-Savarin's  twenty  aphorisms  is,  "  Vn 
dessert  sans  fromage  est  tine  belle  a  qu'il  manque  un 
CEtl" — "  A  dessert  without  cheese  is  a  beautiful  woman 
who  has  lost  an  eye.''  Cheese  appears,  at  dessert,  not 
entire,  like  our  Stiltons  and  Cottenhams,  wrapped  in  their 
snow-white  napkin,  but  in  slices,  or  portions,  covered  by 
bell-glasses  ;  because  some  of  them,  as  Rochfort,  Brie, 
and  MaroUes  cheeses  smell  so  strong  as  scarcely  to  be 
pleasant  to  impressionable  noses. 

In  the  Russian  mode,  almost  all  the  carving  is  done  at 
a  side-table.  A  dish  is  placed  on  the  table  for  a  few 
moments  to  be  looked  at  while  its  predecessor  is  being 
eaten,  and  then  removed,  to  be  dissected  and  distributed. 
Nevertheless,  at  private  dinners  an  amiable  hostess  will 
take  the  opportunity  of  serving  the  soup  herself  to  each 
guest  by  way  of  welcome.  And  when  the  carving  is 
done  at  side-tables,  and  the  viands  sent  round,  the  lord  or 
lady  of  the  feast  should  distribute  at  least  some  one  dish 
with  their  own  hands  (which  was  Talleyrand's  constant 
practice)  as  a  graceful  proof  of  their  hospitable  intentions, 
and  to  save  their  dinner  from  bearing  too  great  a  resem- 
blance to  a  table  d'hote.  As  only  one  dish  is  brought  for- 
ward at  a  time,  each  guest  is  furnished  with  a  bill  of  fare, 
to  take,  or  wait  for,  what  he  likes  best.     The  hors  d'oeuvres 


— radishes,  pickles,  olives,  shrimps,  sardines,  anchovies, 
sliced  ham,  tongue,  or  sausage,  &c.  &c. — are  disposed  up 
and  down  the  table,  adding  to  its  ornamentation,  to  be 
taken  at  will  in  the  intervals  of  serving.  A  waiter  is 
ready  at  hand  with  salad,  for  those  v,'ho  choose  to  eat  it 
with  their  roast. 

A  French  dinner  may  be  served  either  in  courses;  or  all 
set  on  the  table  at  once,  the  hot  things  on  chafing-dishes  ; 
or  in  successive  dishes,  as  just  described.  The  last  is  the 
most  common  modern  practice,  especially  for  small  friendly 
entertainments.  The  cook,  not  being  distracted  by  having 
to  send  up  a  multiplicity  of  things  at  once,  is  able  to  give 
her  undivided  attention  to  the  finishing  off  of  every  indi- 
vidual dish.  Nevertheless,  the  simultaneous  plan  of  serv- 
ing has  a  simplicity  of  grace  and  welcome,  especially  in 
summer,  when  things  do  not  speedily  get  cold.  As  a 
sample,  we  give  the  following  bill  of  fare  for  a  family  dinner, 
the  dessert  being  on  the  table  from  the  commencement : — 

Dessert  b,  laRtisse.       Strawberries  and  Cream.       Cherries. 
Biscuits.      Cheese.      Mixed  Sweets,  &c. 

COURSES. 

Vermicelli  Soup.     Madeira. 
Fowl  Stewed  in  Rice.     St.  Emillon  Claret- 
Braised  Leg  of  Mutton.     Samphire  Sauce.     Burgundy. 
Sweetbreads  (White).     Dutch  Sauce.     Green  Peas.     Sauteme. 
Roast  Loin  of  Beef.     Salad.     SL  Estiphe  Claret. 
Little  Custards  in  Pots,  flavoured  with  Cura^oa. 
Dessert.     BagnoUes.     Champagne. 

CofTee.  Liqueurs. 
Peaches,  apricots,  apples,  pears,  and  other  choice  fruits 
of  like  dimensions,  look  well,  laid  each  on  a  vine-Jeaf  with 
its  side  upraised,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  partition  between 
each  fruit.  If  you  have  flowers  upon  the  table,  take  care 
that  they  be  in  vessels  of  a  shape  not  liable  to  be  upset. 


THE     HOUSEHOLD     MECHANIC. 

GARDEN  FURNITURE  AND  DECORATIONS. 

Garden  Chairs,  Seats,  and  Tables. — It  is  our  inten- 
tion in  these  articles  to  show  how  garden  furniture  may 
be  constructed  with  some  degree  of  taste,  and  be  made 
to  harmonise  with  the  general  surroundings  of  the 
place  wherein  it  may  be  situated.  We  shall  treat  of  rustic 
chairs,  garden  seats,  and  tables,  and  shall  commence 
by  showing  how  the  ordinary  square  furniture  commonly 
in  use  may  be  rendered  more  suitable  in  appearance 
and  effect,  without  entire  reconstruction. 

In  the  first  place,  some  few  tools  will  be  required. 
These  are  mostly  such  as  we  have  described  in  other 
articles  belonging  to  this  section  of  our  work,  and  arc 
usually  to  be  found  in  every  household.  In  their  absence 
however,  the  amateur  would  do  well  to  provide  himself 
with  a  cheap  set  of  good  tools,  such  as  the  Messrs. 
Moseley,  of  Broad  Street,  Bloomsbury,  sell  under  the 
name  of  the  Household  Tool-box.  The  first  tool  required 
is  a  short,  stout-bladed  hand-saw,  such  as  is  ordinarily 
used  for  rougher  work.  This  should  be  kept  very  sharp, 
and  be  "  set "  wide — that  is  to  say,  so  that  the  cut  made 
by  its  means  is  very  much  wider  than  the  thickness  of  the 
blade  itself.  This  is  important ;  because,  unless  this  be 
attended  to,  in  cutting  wet  wood,  such  as  the  branches 
of  trees,  the  grain  closes  up  very  quickly,  and  will  speedily 
fix  the  saw,  and  occasion  its  breakage.  A  hammer  of 
medium  size,  and  a  wooden  mallet,  will  also  be  necessary. 
Besides  these,  a  couple  of  strong  chisels  should  be  provided 
— one  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  width,  and  one  of  an  inch. 
Gimlets  and  bradawls,  of  various  sizes,  and  a  few  wrought- 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


373 


iron  nails,  will  nearly  complete  the  number  of  appliances 
absolutely  in  requisition.  If,  however,  extended  operations 
be  contemplated,  a  few  more  articles  may  be  needed,  of 
which  the  most  useful  will  be  a  "  stock  "  or  "  brace,"  and 
a  few  "  centre-bits,"  of  various  sizes,  from  one  inch  to  one 
and  a  half  inch  in  width.  Somx;  wrought  brads,  of  about 
one  inch  in  length  (or,  better  still,  if  for  outdoor  unpainted 
work,  some  copper  ones)  will  be  found  exceedingly  useful 
for  securing  the  more  delicate  parts  of  the  work. 

The  above-mentioned  tools  having  been  provided,  it 
will  be  well  for  the  amateur  to  select  an 
old  kitchen  chair  upon  which  to  com- 
mence operations,  as  it  will  be  much  easier 
for  him  to  decorate  a  frame  already  put 
together  than  to  construct  the  frame  itself. 
A  good  square,  old-fashioned  chair  will 
be  the  best  to  begin  with — one  similar  to 
that,  part  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  i,  will 
do  capitally. 

Now  collect  a  quantity  of  small  branches 
of  trees,  of  about  one  inch  in  diameter.  These  may  be 
of  various  sorts,  or  altogether  of  one  kind,  according  to 
tast-e.  If  the  colour  and  texture  of  the  bark  is  varied, 
many  very  pretty  effects  may  be  produced  by  working 
them  into  patterns ;  but,  perhaps,  it  will  be  best  for  the 
beginner  to  limit  himself 
to  one,  until  he  has  ac- 
quired some  little  skill  in 
the  use  of  the  tools.  The 
next  operation  is  to  cut 
off  the  selected  branches 
into  lengths  of  about  eight 
inches.  If  the  bark  of 
the  wood  selected  be 
thin,  and  tolerably  smooth, 
this  may  be  done  with  a 
sharp  hatchet  or  large 
knife  ;  but  a  saw  is  always 
the  safest.  When  a  good 
quantity  is  thus  provided, 
of  suitable  length  and 
thickness,  these  will  require  splitting  longitudinally,  in  the 
manner  shown  in  the  sketch  (Fig.  2,  b)  ;  or,  if  the  wood 
be  of  larger  diameter  than  one  inch,  it  may  be  split 
into  several  portions,  as  at  A.  A  good  sharp,  heavy 
knife  will  be  found  the  most  useful  implement  for  this 
purpose.  If  the  wood 
be  freshly  cut  from  the 
tree,  it  will  work  very 
easily ;  but  if  not,  it 
should  be  well  soaked 
in  water  over  night. 
The  next  thing  will 
be  to  trim  up  all  the 
best  pieces  cut  with  a 
sharp  knife,  taking 
especial  care  to  remove 
all  the  sharp  knots 
formed  where  the 
smaller  shoots  have 
grown  from  the  branch, 

as  these  would  be  very  liable  to  tear  the  dress  of  the  person 
using  the  chair  when  finished. 

All  the  material  being  thus  provided,  the  actual  de- 
coration may  now  be  proceeded  with.  The  lower  rail  of 
the  chair,  marked  A  in  Fig.  i,  will  be  a  convenient  start- 
ing-point ;  and  having  determined  whether  the  branches 
shall  be  placed  in  right  lines  or  obliquely  (as  shown  in 
the  diagram),  the  wood  may  be  cut  off  to  the  required 
lengtli,  and  bradded  on  to  the  frame  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

Some  little  care  will  be  required  in  fitting  the  branches 
together  so  as  to  leave  no  intervening  spaces  through 
which  the  frame  may  be  seen ;  but  if  the  wood  be  green. 


i'ig.  4- 


or  wet,  it  can  easily  be  forced  up  quite  close  enough  for 
the  purpose  ;  and  any  little  projecting  portions  preventing 
this  may  be  removed  with  the  knife,  taking  care  not  to 
remove  the  bark  where  it  would  be  seen.  Each  piece  of 
wood  should  be  carefully  bored  with  the  bradawl,  and 
secured  at  both  ends.  If  it  be  desired  to  disguise  the 
original  lines  and  shape  of  the  chair,  the  ends  of  the 
split  branches  may  be  allowed  to  remain  below  the  rail, 
as  shown  in  the  dotted  lines  of  Fig.  i,  and  cut  to  the 
required  shape,  after  they  are  fixed,  by  means  of  a 
narrow  saw,  called  a  turning-saw. 

When  the  rails  are  covered  as  above 
described,  the  legs  of  the  chair  may  be 
operated  upon  in  like  manner,  except  that 
'  the  wood  will  require  cutting  to  a  some- 
what different  form,  in  order  to  meet  at  the 
external  edges.  The  form  of  joint  at  these 
points  will  be  that  technically  known  as 
2.  "mitreing."      Each    piece   is    cut   to    an 

angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  as  shown  at 
Fig.  4 ;  and  the  ends  thus  cut,  being  brought  toget'her, 
form  an  unbroken  line.  In  work  such  as  that  we  are 
describing,  no  very  great  accuracy  of  fitting  is  necessary, 
and  the  mitres  may  easily  be  cut  with  a  knife  or  chisel 
The   best   plan  will    be  to  cut    one   piece    to   a   rough 

approximation  of  the  re- 
quired angle,  and  secure 
it  temporarily  with  a 
brad,  while  the  other 
parts  are  fitted  thereto  ; 
wheh  all  may  be  secured. 
The  legs  being  finished, 
the  seat  and  back  of  the 
chair  may  be  proceeded 
with.  These  may  be 
covered  with  strips  of 
wood  in  one  length,  if 
required ;  but  a  much 
more  pretty  effect  will  be 
produced  if  they  are 
worked  as  shown  in  Figs. 
5  and  6.  For  the  seat,  the  best  plan  will  be  to  round 
the  ends  off,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7  ;  but  for  the  back,  it  will 
look  better  to  mitre  the  ends  into  the  pieces  used  for 
covering  the  edges. 
When  the  whole  of  the  chair  is  covered,  the  work  may 

be  varnished  with  one 
or  two  coats  of  the 
best  '•'  oak  varnish." 
But  before  this  is  done, 
the  wood  should  be 
allowed  to  become 
thoroughly  dry ;  and 
this  operation,  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  is 
only  suitable  for  work 
executed  with  smooth- 
barked  woods,  which 
have  some  natural 
colour  and  gloss. 
A  very  pleasing  use 
rnay  be  made  of  what  are  called  oak  batii^lcs,  that  is,  the 
smaller  branches  of  the  oak.  They  are  procured  without 
bark,  which  has  been  removed  for  the  purposes  of  the 
tanners.  They  are  grotesque  in  form,  and  when  varnished 
make  very  pretty  rustic  work ;  but  their  shapes  are  too 
eccentric  to  permit  them  to  be  used  in  geometrical  or  any 
intricate  patterns ;  nor  can  they  be  split,  the  wood  being 
too  hard  and  knotted.  They  are  best  adapted  for 
ornamental  fences,  arches,  or  trellis-\vv)rk,  to  be  covered 
with  creepers,  or  the  backs,  legs,  and  arms  of  the  more 
rustic  of  rustic  chains.  When  this  first  work  is  finished,  the 
tyro  may  safely  proceed  to  larger  and  more  intricate  worL 


Fig.  6. 


Fig-  3- 


374 


ANIMALS    KEPT   FOR   PLEASURE   AND    PROFIT. 


ANIMALS   KEPT  FOR  PLEASURE  AND 
PROFIT.— THE   HORSE. 

BREEDING  AND  BREAKING. 
Sire  and  Dam. — In  commencing  this  part  of  our  sub- 
ject, it  will  be  well  to  state  at  starting  that,  with  two  excep- 
tions, breeding  is  not  a  paying  concern.  The  two  excep- 
tions are  those  whose  limits  do  not  extend  beyond  two 
certain  classes  of  persons — the  racing  man  and  the 
farmer.  Breeding  racehorses  may  pay,  and  under  some 
modifications  it  has  paid  very  largely  of  late  years.  There 
'  is  now  some  stagnation  in  the  market,  which  arises  from 
J  causes  into  which  we  need  not  go  yet.  The  other  is  the 
agricultural  or  cart-horse,  which  pays  because  he  is  cheap 
to  rear,  and  earns  his  own  living  at  an  early  period  of  his 
existence.  In  this  respect  he  is  like  the  racehorse,  which 
begins  to  work  at  two  years  old,  though  up  to  that  point 
he '  is  a  very  costly  and  uncertain  luxury.  Our  present 
business  is  not  with  either  of  these  in  particular,  but  with 
those  general  principles  of  breeding  and  rearing  which 
pertain  to  the  more  ordinary  kinds  of  horses.  These 
■principles  will  be  found  generally  applicable,  with  differ- 
ences which  may  be  pointed  out  as  we  proceed.  We 
begin,  then,  with  the  choice  of  sire  and  dam,  although  we 
might  go  back  one  generation,  if  it  were  practicable, 
because  the  qualities  of  horses  sometimes  lie  dormant  for 
one  generation,  and  as  assuredly  come  out  in  the  next.  It 
is  something  like  gout  in  the  human  species,  which  is  sub- 
ject to  the  same  intermission.  But  this  is  not  often  prac- 
ticable. It  is  not  always  in  private  stables,  except  in  the 
case  of  thoroughbred  stock,  that  the  breeder  knows  the 
pedigree  of  his  mare,  or  the  qualities  of  her  sire  and  dam. 
In  fact,  it  is  very  seldom  that  he  does  so. 

Hereditary  Ailments. — Never  breed  from  a  sire  or  dam 
which  you  know  to  be  unsound  or  of  bad  constitution.  If 
you  do  so  with  your  eyes  open,  you  know  the  risk  you  run. 
There  is  scarcely  an  infirmity  to  which  horses  are  liable 
which  is  not  hereditary.  Curbs,  spavin,  bad  feet,  broken 
wind,  roaring,  blindness — all  these  ills  and  many  more 
will  descend  from  parents  to  progeny,  as  well  as  conforma- 
tion and  general  weakness  of  constitution.  Where  even, 
as  in  the  case  of  roaring,  the  disease  is  the  immediate 
result  of  bronchitis  or  influenza,  or  bad  management, 
beware  lest  the  offspring  inherit  a  tendency  to  the  infirmity 
which  has  previously  existed  in  the  parents.  Some  have 
even  gone  the  length  of  saying  that  the  results  of  accidents 
and  hard  work  may  be  transmitted.  We  are  writing  from 
experience,  and  nothing  that  we  have  ever  seen  justifies 
that  statement.  Horse-breeding  is  so  interesting  an  occu- 
pation, that  many  men  enter  upon  it  only  because  they 
have  a  paddock  and  a  horse  and,  above  all  things,  a 
favourite  old  mare.  Now  it  is  this  love  for  the  old  mare 
that  spoils  it  all.  The  stallions  are  usually  selected  for  this 
service  with  reference  to  their  constitutional  and  formal 
excellence,  but  there  is  not  a  corresponding  care  in  the 
selection  of  the  mare.  The  one  is  of  quite  iis  much  con- 
sequence as  the  other.  There  is  a  great  falling-off  in 
hacks,  hunters,  and  harness  horses,  in  comparing  supply 
with  demand,  and  some  of  the  fault  consists  in  the  defects 
of  the  half-bred  mares. 

Of  the  sire,  we  should  regard  above  all  things  his  com- 
I  pactness  of  form,  his  combination  of  power  with  quality,  his 
obliquity  of  shoulder,  and  depth  of  "  barrel."  The  external 
form  it  most  frequently  transmitted  from  him.  There  is  no 
necessity  for  great  size  ;  indeed,  for  general  purposes  of 
saddle  or  harness,  it  should  be  avoided.  The  modern  sys- 
tem of  racing  has  sent  more  indifferent  horses  into  the 
provinces  than  formerly,  and  therefore  some  knowledge 
of  their  performances  on  the  turf,  and  of  their  ante- 
cedents as  to  pedigree,  constitution,  and  soundness  is  ne- 
cessary, and  some  judgment  must  be  exercised  wheri  you 
k7tow  what  you  wish  to  breed.  The  selection  of  the  mare 
is  even  more  difficult.     She  should  be  long  in  carcase,  with 


roomy  back  ribs,  and  yet  low  on  the  leg.  She  is  apt  to 
transmit  her  moral  qualities,  so  that  weakness  of  constitu- 
tion, irritability,  and  tendency  to  vice  should  be  avoided. 
The  foal  will  also  inherit  probably  her  paces,  her  endurance, 
and  courage,  all  which  should  be  looked  to.  An  endeavour, 
too,  should  be  made  to  counteract  defects  in  the  one  by  vir- 
tues in  the  other  ;  but  we  do  not  advise  violent  contrasts, 
which  are  sure  to  spoil  the  virtues  of  both.  To  give  de- 
cided advice  on  this  point  is  impossible,  and  argues  an 
impertinent  superiority  to  natural  claims.  The  fact  is 
that  the  foal  inherits  from  both  parents  form,  constitu- 
tion, disease,  and  moral  qualities.  It  is  impossible  to 
separate  them  entirely,  or  to  assign  them  universally,  and 
there  are  hundreds  of  contradictory  proofs  which  our  own 
experience  supplies. 

0/  Age. — The  old  mare,  again,  is  a  source  of  much 
mischief.  It  is  no  great  advantage  that  horse  or  mare 
should  have  seen  their  best  days,  though  unfortunately  it 
is  too  often  the  case.  Hence  many  disappointments. 
The  produce  will  be  better  than  that  of  those  that  never 
were  good,  but  not  half  so  good  as  they  might  have  been, 
had  they  been  begotten  a  few  years  earlier.  There  are 
plenty  of  proofs  of  this  among  racehorses  which  have 
been  run  off  their  legs  early  in  life  ;  the  offspring  fre- 
quently inherits  the  weakness  of  a  decaying  constitution. 
A  mare  cati  be  bred  from  at  three  or  four  years  old,  but 
it  is  far  better  to  postpone  it.  It  should  not  be  tried  later 
than  her  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  year,  though  there  are 
plenty  of  instances  to  the  contrary,  especially  among  the 
slower  breeds  of  horses.  The  sire  is  at  his  best  from  eight 
to  twelve. 

Management  of  mare  and  foal  goes  a  great  way  to- 
wards the  success  of  this  undertaking.  Lf  the  mare  be 
sent  to  the  horse  about  May,  she  will  throw  her  foal  in 
the  April  following — an  excellent  time  for  reaping  the 
benefit  of  the  succulent  young  grasses.  It  is  far  better  for 
her  that  she  should  be  worked  regularly  and  well  fed  ;  and 
this  in  a  moderate  degree  may  be  continued  up  to  the  very 
time  of  foaling.  We  ourselves  inadvertently  rode  a  mare 
with  the  Pytchley  to  within  a  month  of  her  time  without 
any  misadventure,  though  we  do  not,  of  course,  recom- 
mend such  violent  exertion.  Too  much  cannot  be  said  in 
favour  of  good  nourishment,  which  is  a  preventive  to  many 
possible  ills,  especially  to  that  of  slipping  or  slinking  the 
foal.  This  may  happen  about  the  fifth  month  of  gestation,, 
and  when  it  has  once  happened  it  is  very  likely  to  hap- 
pen again.  After  foaling,  she  should  be  provided  with 
good  pasture  in  q,  well-warmed  spot,  with  every  accommo- 
dation in  the  way  of  shelter.  She  should  be  fed  with 
corn  night  and  morning,  exclusively  of  her  grass.  Economy 
at  this  time  is  a  fital  error.  You  may  wean  the  iodX 
when  he  is  five  or  six  months  old,  and  he  cannot  be  too 
well  fed,  if  you  expect  him  to  be  of  any  use.  Whether  he 
will  pay  for  feeding  is  a  question  :  there  is  none  about  his 
paying  for  starving. 

At  this  time,  if  he  be  a  colt  foal,  the  operation  which 
converts  him  into  a  gelding  should  take  place.  It  must 
be  ranked  under  those  operations  .which  are  always 
entrusted  to  professional  hands.  There  have  been  two 
or  three  methods  of  performing  this,  and  it  need  not 
here  be  further  enlarged  upon.  If  the  colt  be  small 
and  mean  in  his  crest  or  fore  hand  generally,  it  may  be 
postponed  with  advantage  a  month  or  two  longer,  but 
usually  this  will  be  found  to  be  the  proper  period  for  its 
performance. 

Handling  the  foal  should  commence  at  a  very  early 
period.  The  more  he  is  accustomed  to  the  voice  and  hand 
of  man,  the  less  will  be  the  difficulty  of  actual  breaking. 
For  this  purpose  a  headstall  should  be  put  upon  him, 
which  may  be  well  done  at  the  time  of  weaning.  Take 
care  that  it  be  not  too  loose,  as,  in  the  scratching  of  his 
ear  with  his  hind  foot,  or  any  one  of  the  numerous  tricks 
he  plays  in  rolling  or  lying  down,  he  will  possibly  get  his 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


37$ 


foot  inside  it,  and  seriously  injure  himself.  Everything 
that  is  done  to  him  now  should  bo  done  with  the  greatest 
kindness,  and  the  more  gradual  approaches  are  made  to 
him  the  better.  He  should  never  be  entrusted  to  a  man  of 
bad  temper  ;  permanent  ill  may  be  wrought  in  a  moment, 
tor  a  horse's  memory  in  such  matters  is  very  tenacious. 
Colts  are  by  nature  exceedingly  mischievous,  and  play 
should  be  avoided,  as  it  is  liable  to  result  in  tricks  which 
may  give  great  trouble  to  cure. 

Feeding. — After  separation  from  the  dam,  the  foal  should 
in  a  short  time  be  turned  agai*"  into  a  paddock,  and  at 
six  months  old  his  teeth  wili  oe  strong  enough  to  nip 
the  short  grass.  As  there  may  be  not  a  sufficiency  of 
this,  let  him  have  bruised  oats  twice  a  day,  and  boiled 
bran  and  carrots.  Up  to  the  age  of  two  years,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  overfeed  on  dry  food  ;  after  that,  unless  the  exercise 
and  food  go  hand  in  hand,  inflammation  is  likely  to  go  to 


in  those  large  establishments  which  wc  do  not  here  con- 
template. The  principles  and  method  we  shall  give  will 
be  therefore  the  plainest,  and  such  as  will  enable  the  owner 
to  overlook  the  process  rather  than  personally  to  interlere 
in  it. 

The  first  point  is  a  good  mouth  ;  and,  supposing  the 
horse  to  have  been  constantly  handled,  accustomed  to  the 
headstall,  and  to  have  been  led  about,  it  will  not  be  difficult 
to  bit  him.  The  bit  used  should  be  perfectly  plain  and 
smooth — not  too  large— and  incapable  of  hurting  jhe 
mouth.  It  is  usual  to  attach  to  it  some  keys  or  rings  for 
the  colt  to  play  with.  We  prefer  ourselves  that  this 
smooth  bit  should  be  curved,  forming  a  segment,  and  not 
straight,  as  has  been  hitherto  frequently  adopted.  The 
main  object  js  that  the  mouth  should  not  be  hurt,  and 
that  the  bearing,  when  reins  are  attached,  should  be  equal 
on  both  sides  of  the  mouth.     The  surcingle  and  crupper 


COLT  PREPARED  FOR  "  LOUNGING.' 


the  eyes  or  to  the  feet.  Wherever  the  foal  is  turned  out, 
care  should  be  taken  that  it  can  have  shelter  as  well  as 
food  ;  the  fences  surrounding  the  paddock,  of  what  kind 
soever,  should  be  free  from  rough  nails,  splinters,  or  such 
things  as  can  tear  or  lacerate  the  foal,  which  is  sure  to 
gallop  about.  For  the  same  reason,  there  should  be  no 
holes  in  the  ground.  That  the  paddock  should  be  level 
is  not  so  desirable,  as  the  young  things  learn  to  use  their 
legs  and  muscles  with  greater  freedom  on  inequalities. 
Horses  will  go  out  of  their  sheds  in  all  weathers  ;  but, 
when  you  can  do  so,  prevent  them  from  cold,  and  espe- 
cially from  cold  rain.  Warmth  is  a  great  assistance  to 
food  in  obtaining  symmetry  and  size. 

Breaking  to  Saddle. — This  process,  having  been  begun 
by  early  handling,  will  be  exceedingly  gradual — the  more 
so  the  better.  The  actual  lessons  to  be  taught  should  begin 
when  the  colt  is  from  eighteen  months  to  two  years  old  ; 
there  is  no  greater  mistake  than  postponing  this.  He 
gets  strength  and  docility  at  the  same  time.  For  a 
person  utterly  inexperienced  in  these  matters,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  apply  to  a  professional  breaker,  as  few  grooms 
can  be  trusted  to  go  through  the  whole  process,  excepting 


should  be  put  on.  After  two  or  three  days,  the  reins  may 
be  fastened  loosely  to  the  surcingle  or  girth  ;  they  should 
be  tightened  daily  very  gradually,  so  that  the  colt,  in  en- 
deavouring to  shirk  the  bit,  will  bend  his  neck.  This  is  an 
essential  in  all  horses,  and  none  are  pleasant  to  ride  or  drive, 
and  not  often  safe,  which  have  not  been  taught  to  bend  to 
the  rein.  After  he  has  been  led  about,  and  has  become 
accustomed  to  this,  portions  of  harness,  and  the  dumb- 
jockey — i.e.,  the  two  pieces  of  crossed  wood  which  repre- 
sent the  rider — should  be  placed  upon  his  back.  Some 
have  tried  bags  weighted  with  sand,  and  tied  down  so  as 
to  represent  the  legs  of  the  horseman,  to  which  he  soon 
becomes  habituated.  After  this  he  will  not  fear  the  saddle, 
but  will  allow  it  to  be  put  upon  his  back  and  the  stirrups 
to  dangle  below.  The  weight  that  will  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  him  at  first  mounting  must  be  very  gradual  indeed  ; 
and,  although  a  fight  usually  takes  place — not  imme- 
diately, but  soon  afterwards — if  the  horse's  head  be  not 
let  go,  and  no  violence  or  punishment  be  used,  in  a  few 
days  he  submits.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  that 
neither  punishment  nor  harshness  of  lan^^uage  should  be 
permitted  in  these  early  trials.     Every  master's  eyes  and 


376 


COOKING. 


ears  should  be  open  to  check  this  in  a  servant  at  once. 
Firmness  is  quite  compatible  with  gentleness. 

When  the  rough  edge  has  thus  been  taken  off,  lessons  in 
the  road  must  begin.  The  colt  should  be  early  accustomed 
to  the  objects  he  is  likely  to  meet  with.  At  first  he  is  *ire 
to  be  shy  of  things  he  has  not  seen  before,  especially  when 
accompanied  by  the  rattling  of  wheels.  If  he  be  now 
hurried  past  them,  or  punished  in  any  way,  his  fears 
increase.  See  that  your  groom  endeavours  to  give  him 
confidence  'jy  talkir.g  to  him  and  patting  him  ;  or,  if 
able,  do  it  yourself.  Let  the  colt  look  at  the  offending 
object,  pass  and  repass  the  same  thing,  listen  daily  to 
the  same  noises.  Never  let  him  be  punished  for  any- 
thing but  vice  or  obstinacy,  and  then  only  when  he  quite 
understands  what  it  is  for.  Before  I  speak  of  "  lounging" 
the  colt,  as  a  necessary  part  of  his  education,  let  me 
give  one  precept  which  it  will  be  easy  to  remember  and 
to  follow :  Do  not  gi/ve  a  breaker  £2  is.  to  perform  in 
one  fortnight  what  ought,  if  properly  done,  to  take  at  least 
twice  the  time. 

Lotmging  a  young  horse  is  an  important  part  of  horse- 
breaking.  It  is  a  means  of  exercising  him  without  a 
rider,  and  of  making  his  paces  to  a  certain  extent.  Its 
great  use  is  for  teaching  the  canter,  the  walk  and  the 
trot  being  best  taught  by  exercise  in  straight  lines.  We 
append  a  sketch  of  the  colt  as  prepared  for  "  lounging," 
p.  375.  The  breaker,  standing  in  the  middle  of  the  circle, 
directs  the  movements,  keeping  the  colt  nearly  at  the 
length  of  his  cord.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  pressure  is 
exercised  on  his  mouth,  and  by  this  means  he  learns  to 
go  evenly  and  within  himself.  "  Lounging"  should  be 
slow  and  steady — never  hurried — and  when  the  colt  has 
reached  this  stage  good  hands  and  patience  may  do 
all  the  rest  /or  him.  Every  horse-master  should  look 
after  these  things  himself,  although  many  men  are 
precluded  from  doing  so  by  their  occupations.  Our 
space  here  prevents  us  from  going  further  into  the 
details. 

Breaking  to  Harness  may  be  done  in  more  ways  than 
one,  and  each  has  its  advocates.  We  have  ourselves  not 
unfrequently,  with  good-tempered  horses,  put  them  at  once 
into  single  harness,  and  found  them  proficient  after  a  drive 
of  an  hour  or  two.  Such  is,  however,  not  always  the  case, 
and,  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  safer  to  begin  with  double  har- 
ness and  the  proper  appliances.  Let  your  horse  stand 
for  an  hour  in  the  harness.  You  must  have  a  break — i.e., 
a  long  carriage,  with  a  high  box,  adapted  for  this  kind  of 
work — and  a  very  steady  old  horse  as  a  companion  and 
guide  to  the  young  one.  The  old  horse  must  be  put  in 
on  the  near  sid^,  and  be  sure  that  the  harness  is  strong. 
A  breakage  at  starting  has  been  the  ruin  of  more  than  one 
promising  young  horse.  He  must  have  a  halter  on  his 
head,  and  a  man  whose  sole  business  is  to  attend  to  him. 
Quiet  is  again  the  great  desideratum,  and  he  should  be 
almost  imperceptibly  attached  to  the  pole  by  the  pole- 
strap.  The  reader  must  excuse  a  conventionality  or  two, 
as  these  expressions  will  be  explained  when  we  come  to 
speak  of  harness  and  its  parts.  The  inner  trace  should 
then  be  fastened,  and  afterwards  the  outer.  The  horse 
is  now  "  to."  When  ■  the  reins  are  crossed  and  buckled, 
let  him  stand.  Then  draw  up  the  pole-strap  to  its 
right  length,  taking  care  that  the  reins  are  buckled 
at  the  cheek — i.e.,  at  the  top  ring — and  let  the  trap  be 
started  at  a  foot's  pace  by  the  break  horse.  The  slower 
and  shorter  the  first  lesson  the  better,  and  the  chances 
are  much  in  favour  of  your  success.  Let  the  turning  be 
done  by  the  break  horse,  with  the  assistance  of  the  man 
at  the  colt's  head.  In  four  or  five  lessons,  if  nothing  un- 
toward occurs,  he  will  be  tolerably  safe. 

There  are  certain  vices  connected  with  harness,  as 
jibbing,  kicking,  and  bolting.  They  and  their  remedies 
must  be  left  till  we  come  to  speak  of  the  vices  of  the 
horse  in  its  proper  order  ;  at  present  we  have  said  enough 


on  the  general  principles  of  breaking,  which  was  all  we 
proposed  at  this  time  to  do. 

If  it  be  decided  to  put  the  horse  at  once  into  single 
harness,  it  should  be  done  with  considerably  more  caution, 
as  the  horse  will  have  to  start  himself — always  the  great 
difficulty  with  young  horses.  They  have  a  way  of  jump- 
ing forward,  and,  finding  themselves  suddenly  checked, 
become  irritable  and  impatient.  The  gig  or  single  break 
should  be  high,  the  harness  strong  as  before,  with  the 
addition  of  the  kicking-strap.  The  shafts  should  be  let 
down  very  gently  into  the  tugs,  which  should  be  open  on 
the  upper  side,  and,  if  there  is  any  disposition  to  jibbing — 
i.e.,  hanging  back — the  gig  should  be  pushed  forward  very 
cautiously,  so  as  to  relieve  the  shoulders  without  touching 
his  hocks.  You  will  then  proceed  as  before,  slowly  and 
cautiously.  If  he  takes  to  lying  down,  it  will  be  your 
duty  to  sit  still  till  he  gets  up  again,  according  to  orthodox 
authorities.  It  is  easier  in  double  harness  than  in  single, 
but  we  scarcely  think  it  worth  the  trouble.  Le  jeu  ne 
vaut  pas  la  chandelle. 

The  other  method  by  which  a  horse  may  be  made 
to  bear  harness  quietly,  is  to  put  him  into  a  team  between 
two  others,  in  a  light  harrow,  wagon,  or  plough.  We  think 
the  latter  too  heavy.  If  he  tries  to  pull,  he  finds  the 
resistance  too  great ;  if  he  leaves  it  all  to  the  others,  he 
gets  no  lesson  in  draught. 

The  one  thing  the  above  plan  will  do  will  be  to  accustom 
him  to  chains  and  rough  harness  dangling  about  him, 
and  if  the  lesson  be  upon  grass  he  will  not  be  frightened 
by  the  noise  of  the  wheels  behind  him.  However,  as  a 
rule,  there  is  nothing  that  answers  better  than  beginning 
with  double  harness. 


COOKING. 

calf's  head. 

Calfs  Head,  Plain  Boiled. — Calves'  heads  are  sold  by 
butchers  in  two  very  different  conditions — viz.,  skinned 
and  unskinned,  with  the  hair  completely  removed  by 
scalding.  The  latter  state  is  indispensable  for  making 
mock-turtle  soup  ;  calf's  head  a  la  tortue j  hashed,  or 
rather  stewed  calf's  head,  and  other  ways  of  serving  it 
at  company  dinners,  and  is  well  worth  the  extra  cost. 
A  scalded  head,  with  the  skin  on,  has  generally  to  be 
ordered  of  the  butcher  beforehand,  especially  as  half 
a  fine  head  is  sufficient  for  a  small  family,  and  he  has 
to  find  a  customer  for  the  other  half.  True,  the  two 
halves  can  be  cooked  in  different  ways— one  boiled, 
&c.,  the  other  made  into  mock  turtle.  But  many  people 
do  not  care  to  have  too  much,  even  of  a  good  thing. 
Whether  the  whole*  is  taken  or  not,  the  head  is  halved, 
the  tongue  being  equally  divided  between  the  two  por- 
tions, as  also  the  brain.  On  a  scalded  head  the  ear  is  left 
in  its  natural  position,  erect ;  the  eye  also  remains  entire 
beneath  the  lid.  From  a  skinned  head  we  always  have 
the  eye-ball  removed,  simply  for  the  sake  of  rendering  it 
more  sightly.  The  iris  and  crystalline  lens  are  not  the 
eatable  parts,  and,  whether  cooked  or  uncooked,  are  no 
ornament  after  death.  The  edible  portion,  one  of  the 
epicure's  tit-bits,  lies  deep  in  the  socket  of  the  eye,  and  is 
not  injured  by  the  removal  of  the  poor  calf's  ogling 
apparatus.  On  receiving  a  calf's  head,  half  or  whole, 
take  out  the  brain  ;  throw  it  into  cold  water  for  an  hour  ; 
after  draining,  throw  it  into  boiling  salt  and  water,  and 
let  it  boil  galloping  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  Then  set  it 
aside.  You  will  have  asked  the  butcher  to  remove  the 
internal  cartilage  of  the  nose  ;  the  other  bones  remain, 
to  keep  the  head  in  shape  ;  the  halved  tongue  is  also  left 
in  its  place.  In  all  weathers,  calf's  head  is  best  cooked 
as  fresh  as  convenient  ;  in  summer  especially,  delays  are 
dangerous  ;  during  hard  weather,  take  precautions  to 
prevent  its  getting  frozen.    After  the  above  preparation 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


377 


and  trimming,  put  the  head  into  a  pail  of  cold  water ; 
wash  it  well  by  hand,  inserting  the  fingers  into  the  cavities 
of  the  interior.  Then  put  it  into  fresh  cold  water,  and 
leave  it  there  to  draw  out  any  blood  and  mucilage  that 
may  remain  adhering  to  it.  When  you  want  to  cook  it, 
put  ifc  first  into  a  large  boiler  three-quarters  full  of  warm 
(not  scalding)  water,  with  a  handful  of  salt  in  it.  Skim 
carefully.  When  no  more  scum  rises,  and  the  water  has 
boiled  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  take  out  the  head,  lay  it  on 
a  dish,  throw  away  this  first  water,  rinse  and  wipe  out  the 
boiler,  and  set  the  head  again  in  it  on  the  fire  in  water 
which,  this  time,  may  be  hot.  Should  more  scum  appear, 
remove  it  as  it  rises.  After  one  good  boil  up,  let  the  head 
simmer  gently  until  enough.  This  will  take  from  an 
hour  and  a  half  to  three  hours,  according  to  size,  &c.  It 
is  clear  that  a  small  skinned  head  will  take  much  less 
time  to  boil  than  a  large  one  with  the  skin  on ;  the  latter 
addition  requires  both  more  time  and  more  gentle 
simmering,  to  cook  it  well.  A  calf's  head  should  be 
thoroughly  done,  without  being  overdone  :  you  ought  to 
be  able  to  help  it  in  slices  ;  it  should  not  fall  to  pieces. 
When  done,  lift  it  carefully  out  of  the  boiler  and  lay  it, 
cheek  upwards,  on  the  dish,  without  making  a  mess  of  it ; 
in  which  you  will  be  assisted  by  previously  binding  it 
with  broad  tape.  You  can  either  serve  it  in  that  way, 
quite  plain,  or  you  may  smear  its  surface  with  beat-up 
egg,  dust  over  it  bread-crumbs  or  biscuit-raspings,  and 
brown  them  nicely  under  a  hot  salamander.  This  will 
not  take  more  than  two  or  three  minutes  to  do,  and  will 
greatly  add  to  the  style  of  its  appearance.  In  any  case, 
it  will  be  accompanied  by 

Brain  Sauce. — You  have  already  set  aside  the  brains  to 
cool,  after  a  thorough  boiling.  Chop  them  up,  but  not  too 
small,  with  a  little  of  the  calf's-head  boilings.  Make  a  very 
small  quantity  of  melted  butter.  Heat  up  the  brains  in 
this,  with  pepper,  salt,  and  sage-leaves  minced  very  fine. 
Chopped  parsley  or  chervil  may  be  added,  together  with 
a  dessert-spoonful  of  vinegar  or  lemon-juice ;  or  with  a 
portion  of  the  brains,  you  may  make 

Brain  Cakes. — Mix  the  chopped  brains  into  a  paste, 
with  flour,  pepper,  salt,  butter,  and  minced  sage-leaves. 
Make  these  into  little  cakes,  half  an  inch  thick,  and  the 
size  of  a  florin.  Dust  them  outside  with  flour,  and  either 
fry  them  or  brown  them  before  the  fire  in  an  American  oven. 
With  these  you  may  garnish  your  boiled  calf's  head  ; 
they  are  even  more  appropriate  with  calf's  head  ^  la  tortue 
and  hashed  calf's  head. 

Fine  Herb  Sauce. — On  the  Continent,  this  is  the  most 
common  accompaniment  for  boiled  calf's  head.  Chop 
together  very  finely  parsley,  chervil,  and  chives,  or  spring 
or  small  seedling  onions,  allowing  the  parsley  to  pre- 
dominate. These  are  the  regular  and  orthodox  herbs  ; 
you  may  also  add  to  them  (and  we  think  it  is  an  im- 
provement) some  aromatics,  as  common  thyme,  lemon 
thyme,  sage,  knotted  marjoram,  or  sweet  basil,  if  you 
can  procure  it.  Put  these  into  your  sauce-boat,  and 
pour  over  them  enough  vinegar  to  fill  it  a  little  more 
than  half  full,  at  least  an  hour  before  the  sauce  is 
wanted,  in  order  to  extract  the  flavour  of  the  herbs. 
With  cold  calf's  head  (and  sometimes  also  with  hot),  oil 
is  eaten  in  conjunction  with  this  fine  herb  sauce,  which 
will  be  seen  to  be  a  modification  of  our  mint  sauce,  with 
the  sugar  omitted. 

Calfs  Head  d,  la  Tortue  '^Turtle -wise). — This  very 
pretentious  and  apparently  elaborate  dish  is  by  no 
means  difficult  to  prepare  so  as  to  be  good  to  the 
palate — and  it  really  is  good. 

The  subject  of  decorations,  by  which  it  appeals  to 
the  eye,  is  a  matter  which  will  depend  upon  your  own 
taste,  and  the  materials  which  you  have  at  hand.  In 
these  you  are  allowed  a  tolerably  wide  margin,  and  it 
will  be  strange  if  you  cannot  master  some  of  them. 

Procure  a  large  calfs  head ;  scald  with  the  skin  on  ; 


prepare  it  as  directed  for  calfs  head  plain  boiled  ;  make 
brain  cakes  with  the  brains.  Boil  it,  as  above  directed, 
till  it  is  tender  enough  to  allow  you  to  take  all  the  flesh 
entire  away  from  the  bones.  Keep  the  flesh  so  removed 
in  handsome  shape,  retaining  the  tongue  in  its  place 
beneath,  to  help  to  plump  it  up.  Set  it  aside.  For  con- 
venience it  may  be  brought  to  this  stage  of  forwardness 
the  day  before.  Take  a  stewpan,  large  enough  to  hold 
your  boned  calf's  head.  In  it  brown  some  flour  in  butter. 
Dilute  it  with  just  enough  of  the  boilings  to  warm  up  the 
meat  in  it.  Season  with  salt,  pepper,  grated  nutmeg,  a 
little  cayenne,  and  a  bumping  wineglass  of  Madeira, 
Bronte,  or  Marsala  wine.  Mix  together,  and  put  the  calfs 
head  in,  basting  with  the  sauce  while  it  is  warming  up. 

The  meat  when  dished  hot,  and  covered  with  this 
sauce  (to  which  a  little  tomato  sauce  is  a  correct  addition), 
would  be  calf's  head  ci  la  tortue,  in  its  simplest  form.  But 
no  cook  would  think  of  serving  it  without  sundry  and 
miscellaneous  trimmings,  some  of  which  are  to  be  heated 
up  in  the  sauce  at  the  same  time  with  it,  and  some  not ; 
the  latter  being  merely  laid  upon  and  about  it  as  garnish. 
With  the  sauce  you  may  heat  up  and  serve  button  mush- 
rooms ;  olives,  peeled  from  off  their  kernels  ;  brain  cakes  ; 
gherkins ;  forcemeat-balls,  composed  of  anything  you 
choose  ;  hard  egg-yolks  ;  cocks'-combs,  real  or  artificial ; 
cocks'  kidneys,  idem  ;  nouilles  ;  sliced  truffles  ;  sweet- 
bread ;  dice,  &c.  On  and  about  the  head  you  may  place 
fried  eggs,  one  for  each  guest ;  slices  of  fried  bread,  idem  ; 
fresh-water  cray-fish  in  their  shells,  idem  (these,  in  case  of 
need,  might  be  replaced  by  prawns) ;  little  stars,  half- 
moons,  and  buttons,  made  of  puff"-paste,  varying  in  size 
from  that  of  a  sixpence  to  a  shilling,  &c. 


ODDS  AND    ENDS. 


Chairs. — If  these  are  cane-bottomed,  make  cushions  as 
described  for  the  box ;  cover  with  velvet  and  edge  with 
fringe.  If  cushioned,  it  is  merely  needful  to  re-cover  the 
cushions.  If  the  backs  are  shabby  also,  merely  add 
canvas  covers  comfortably  stuffed  with  flock,  if  there  are 
no  cushions,  and  tie  as  well  as  tack  them  on.  Make  entice 
covers  of  brown  holland,  like  frocks,  for  the  chairs,  and 
bind  with  scarlet  worsted  braid.  In  this  way  a  parlour, 
a  boudoir,  or  a  bedroom  can  be  made  to  appear  elegant, 
especially  if  the  latter  has  a  silk  patchwork  quilt  the  pre- 
vailing colour  to  correspond,  a  monogram  in  the  centre, 
and  a  deep  velvet  border  like  the  hangings,  edged  with 
fringe.  Crimson,  antique  blue,  or  green  is  the  colour  to 
select.  Crimson  looks  best  of  all,  and  next  to  that  the  blue. 

Looking-glass. — If  the  looking-glass  frame  has  become 
very  shabby,  take  out  the  glass  and  the  board  at  the  back ; 
tacic  a  strip  of  canvas  to  each  of  the  four  sides,  beginning 
with  the  two  upright  sides.  Fill  all  the  irregularities,  just 
enough  to  level  them,  with  flock.  Strain  the  canvas  over, 
tack  it  down  ;  next  do  the  top,  and  lastly  the  base. 
Afterwards  cover  it  with  velvet,  and  set  a  row  of  gilt- 
headed  star  nails  around  both  the  outer  and  inner  edges. 
Replace  the  glass  and  back.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  touch  any  part  of  the  back  of  the  looking-glass 
with  the  fingers,  or  the  quicksilver  will  be  removed. 
Another  way  is  to  have  a  wooden  frame  made  as  for 
the  fender  (page  361),  and  then  at  a  wholesale  glass 
manufactory  purchase  a  sheet  of  plate- glass.  Take 
your  frame  there  in  a  cab  and  get  the  glass  secured  in. 
Furniture-pictures  look  very  well  furnished  in  the  same 
manner. 

Side  Tables. — The  plan  recommended  on  page  361  may 
also  be  applied  to  the  covering  of  small  round  tables 
which  are  common,  or  have  become  shabby  with  long 
use.  The  tops  of  these  may  be  of  deal,  covered  with 
the  cotton  velvet  or  cloth  in  the  way  there  described, 
with   fringe  and   star-headed  gilt   nails,  &c.,   as  shown 


378 


HOME  GARDENING. 


in  our  engraving,  Fig.  i.  If  the  legs  are  very  shabby, 
these  also  may  be  covered  with  velvet;  but  the  tacks 
may  here  be  of  the  common  ordinary  kind,  as  they  will, 
of  course,  be  placed  inside  and  out  of  sight.  Cheap  deal 
boxes  may  in  the  same  way  be  converted  into  quite 
ornamental  and  very  useful  pieces  of  furniture.   Fig.  2, 

Oito7nans. — A  pair  of  ottomans  may  very  well  be  placed 
one  each  side  of  the  fireplace,  or  one  under  the  window. 
Boxes  of  any  kind  come  in  use  for  the  construction  of 
ottomans.  First  cover  the  lower  part  of  the  box  all  over 
with  velvet,  cutting  out  the  place  over  the  key-hole,  and 
nailing  it  well  down.  Nail  the  velvet  securely  under  the 
box,  then  cover  the  lid  entirely.  Fix  a  worsted  fringe, 
price  I  id.  or  5d.,  according  to  depth,  all  round  the  edge 
of  the  lid  by  means  of  star  nails.  The  fringe  covers  the 
space  left  for  the  lock.  Another  way  is  to  cover  the  box 
as  already  named,  turning  the  edge  of  the  velvet  over 
inside  and  underneath,  and  nailing  some 
good  white  calico  on  the  bottom,  with 
the  edge  turned  in,  and  also  lining  the 
box  with  calico.  Make  a  cushion,  the  size 
of  the  lid,  of  canvas.  Cut  the  lower  part 
the  size  of  the  lid,  and  the  upper  larger, 
to  admit  of  raising  it.  Full  it  a  little  to 
the  lower  in  running  them  together.  Stuif 
well  with  flock  till  quite  hard.  Then  fix 
it  to  the  box  by  tacks.  Cover  afterwards 
with  velvet  and  fringe,  as  before  described. 
The  box  with  a  thick  canvas  cover  will 
travel  well,  and  be  a  great  comfort  to  the 
owner  in  strange  places.  To  preserve  it 
better,  put  first  a  calico  and  then  a  can- 
vas, or  American-cloth,  cover. 

Whitewashing    Walls.  —  Sulphate    of 
baryta  has  been  strongly  recommended 
as  a  substitute  for  lime  in  white-washing 
walls.      Its    advantages   are   said    to  be 
numerous.     The  mode  of  using  it  is  as 
follows  : — Four  ounces  of  glue  are  soaked 
for  twelve  hours  in  tepid  water, 
and  then  placed,  until  boiling,  in 
a  tin  vessel  with  a  quart  of  water. 
The  vessel  being  placed  in  water, 
as  in  the  usual  process  of  boiling 
glue,  the  whole  is  then  stirred  until 
dissolved.     Six  or  eight  pounds  of 
sulphate  of  baryta,  reduced  to  an 
impalpable  powder,  are  put  into 
another    vessel ;     hot    water    is 
added,  and  the  whole  stirred  until 
it  has  the  appearance  of  milk  of 
lime.     The  sizing  is  then  added, 

and  the  whole  stirred  well  together,  and  applied  in  the 
ordinary  way  whilst  still  warm. 

Oxidised  Silver. — Silver  ornaments  may  be  oxidised 
of  a  brownish  tint  by  the  application  of  a  solution  of  sal 
ammoniac.  Equal  parts  of  sulphate  of  copper  and  sal 
ammoniac,  dissolved  in  vinegar,  form  a  better  mixture 
than  sal  ammoniac  alone.  A  slightly  warm  solution  of 
sulphate  of  potassium  gives  to  silver  a  fine  black  tint. 


HOME  GARDENING.  ' 

THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  {continued). 

Borecole  or  Kale. — This  is  a  plant  of  the  Brassica  oler-  : 
acca  tribe.  There  are  several  sub-varieties,  all  of  which 
have  large  open  heads,  with  curled,  wrinkled  leaves,  and  ; 
are  of  a  more  hardy  constitution  than  most  of  the  other  j 
kinds  of  this  genus,  which  enables  them  to  stand  the  winter  : 
better,  and  remain  fresh  and  green  during  the  season,  j 
This  we  shall  be  rather  particular  in  describing,  as  it  is  ' 
a  somewhat  difficult  family  to  understand  thoroughly,  j 


The  Green  Borecole,  or  Scotch  Kale. — The  leaves  are  of 
a  bright  light-green  colour,  deeply  lobed  but  not  very 
wide.  The  margins  of  the  leaves  are  so  closely  curled, 
or  plaited,  as  to  widen  the  margin  of  the  leaf  three  or  four 
times  as  much  as  it  would  measure  if  a  qu^ter  of  an  inch 
of  plaiting  were  taken  away  all  round  the  edge.  The 
part  used  is  the  crown  or  centre  of  the  plant,  cut  ofT  so  as 
to  include  the  leaves,  which  do  not  exceed  nine  inches  in 
length.  It  boils  very  tender,  and  is  very  sweet  and  deli- 
cate, provided  it  has  been  duly  exposed  to  frost. 

Purple  Borecole,  or  Brown  Kale. — This  differs  from  the 

other  in  being  of  a  deep  purple  colour,  becoming  greener 

as  the  leaves  enlarge.     Yet  the  veins  and  ribs  still  remain 

purple.     It  is  more  hardy,?but  less  delicate  in  flavour,  than 

the  former  ;  and  when  boiled  the  purple  colour  disappears, 

German  Kale,  or  Brown  Kale. — This  is  a  variety  of  the 

green  kale,  but  differs  in  its  leaves  being  more  pointed 

and  longer    than    the   others,   but   their 

margins    not    so  plaited ;    yet    they  are 

considerably  so,  which  gives   the   plants 

a   fringed  appearance,   but    not   so  rich 

and  beautiful  as  the  true   Scotch   kale 

The  chief  difference  is  that  this  affords  a 

greater   abundance  of  sprouts  than  the 

other,  after  the  crown  has  been  cut.     It 

is   disposed    to    grow   tall,  consequently 

ought    to   be    planted    earlier    than   the 

others,  as  the  produce  is  in  proportion  to 

its    length    in    stem.      It    is    somewhat 

hardier  than  the  Scotch  kale,  possessing 

nearly  the  same  taste  when  mellowed  by 

frost ;  otherwise  it  is  rather  better. 

The  Hundred  -  headed  Cabbage. — This 
grows  three  feet  or  more,  and  branches 
out  from  the  stem  like  a  fan,  tongued- 
shaped  and  entire,  being  narrower  than 
any  of  the  other  kinds.  This  is  best 
known  to  the  agriculturists,  as  being 
grown  chiefly  for  cattle.  It  is  more 
hardy  than  any  of  the  former, 
but  its  flavour  is  much  inferior. 

The  Egyptian  Kale.  —  This 
greatly  resembles  the  Swede 
turnip  when  it  has  run  up  to 
head,  it  having  a  very  thick  stalk 
and  rising  about  a  foot  above  the 
ground.  The  leaves  are  narrow, 
generally  having,  at  the  lower  part, 
one  strong  indentation  on  eaeh 
side.  They  are  of  a  dark  green,  like 
those  of  the  Swede  turnip,  and 
much  resemble  them  in  flavour. 
Ragged  Jack. — This  grows  close  to  the  ground,  and 
in  spring  grows  up  strong  from  the  sides  and  crown. 
The  leaves  are  very  much  cut  or  divided  on  the  edges, 
which  are  marked  with  small  obtuse  serratures.  This 
is  seldom  grown  any^^here  but  in  farmers'  and  cottage 
gardens. 

The  yerusalem  Kale  very  much  resembles  the  pre- 
ceding, both  in  habit  and  growth.  The  leaves  are  long, 
with  several  indentations,  and  the  edges  are  serrated,  but 
not  deeply  ;  the  upper  surface  being  of  a  purplish  colour, 
the  under  one  a  pale  green,  and  the  veins  inclined  to  a 
pink  colour.  It  is  very  hardy,  and  when  growing  ap- 
pears of  a  dingy  purple.  This  is  not  considered  fit  for 
use  until  spring,  when  other  greens  have  ceased  to  be 
good,  and  hence  it  is  a  kind  that  should  be  cultivated  in 
every  garden,  if  only  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  Manchester  Kale,  like  the  preceding,  grows  low, 
but  more  close  and  compact,  with  leaves  somewhat  like 
the  German  kale,  having  the  same  sort  of  fringe  on  its 
margin.  The  whole  plant  appears  purple  before  it  begins 
to  shoot  in  spring.     It  is,  in  our  opinion,  as  valuable  as 


CASSELUS   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


379 


any  of  the  borecoles,  being  very  hardy  ;  and  remaining, 
as  it  does,  late  in  the  spring  before  it  comes  into  flower, 
it  eats  very  sweet. 

Melville's  improved  variegated  Borecole  or  Kale. — 
This  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  whole  family,  the  colours 
almost  defying  description,  ranging  as  they  do  from 
almost  a  black  purple  to  the  palest  pink,  from  the  deepest 
orange  to  the  most  delicate  straw  colour,  from  the 
darkest  bronze  green  to  the  palest  imaginable  green,  and 
almost  every  mentionable  hue.  It  is  an  annual  of  dwarf 
habit,  and  hardy,  and  when  grown  in  collection  would 
beat  many  a  bed  of  choice  flowers.  Therefore  it  has  the 
double  advantage  of  being  handsome  as  a  garden  orna- 
ment, and  delicious  as  an  edible,  after  you  have  feasted 
your  eyes,  as  it  in  reality  is.  All  the  sorts  are  propagated 
by  seed,  which  may  be  sown  at  any  time  from  the  first 
of  February  to  the  end  of  May,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Manchester  kale,  which  should  be  sown  the  first  week 
in  August,  and  transplanted  in  September  for  the  latest 
spring  crop.  The  future  culture  of  these  plants  generally 
should  be  carried  out  or  managed  as  follows  : — When  the 
seedlings  are  an  inch  and  a  half  high,  the  strongest  plants 
should  be  drawn  out  of  the  seed-bed,  and  pricked  out  into 
other  beds  five  or  six  inches  apart,  well  watered,  and  chere 
remain  for  four  or  five  weeks,  when  they  will  be  sufficiently 
strong  for  final  transplanting  in  May  and  up  to  August.  In 
transplanting  always  be  guided  by  the  weather  rather  than 
the  season,  taking  advantage  of  showers,  if  possible.  These 
should  be  planted  in  open  compartments  in  rows,  two  and 
a  half  feet  asunder,  for  the  first  summer  planting,  and  the 
later  crops  two  feet,  and  so  on  ;  setting  the  rows  nearer 
each  other  as  the  season  advances.  They  must  be  watered 
immediately  after  planting,  to  settle  the  soil  to  the  roots, 
and  this  watering  must  be  continued  in  dry  weather.  In 
order  to  employ  land  to  the  best  advantage — and  this  should 
be  the  first  consideration  of  every  landed  proprietor, 
whether  his  means  be  large  or  small — ^plant  between  the  rows 
of  early  beans  and  potatoes,  which  will  beready  to  be  cleared 
from  the  ground  by  the  time  these  plants  will  require  hoe- 
ing. In  this  case,  as  soon  as  the  potatoes  and  beans  are  ripe, 
have  the  crop  gathered,  and  dig  over  the  spaces  between 
the  plants,  that  is,  where  the  former  crop  stood,  and  place 
the  soil  round  and  about  the  stems  as  much  as  possible. 
Wehave  alwaysfound  this  practice  to  answerwell,inasmuch 
as  by  this  means  an  extra  crop  is  obtained.  The  ground 
between  the  rows  should  be  hoed  over  once  or  twice  a 
week  in  order  to  destroy  weeds,  as  well  as  to  draw  earth  to 
their  stems,  which  will  be  found  to  encourage  their  growth 
in  the  production  of  large  full  heads  in  the  autumn  and 
winter  months.  In  October  it  is  a  very  good  plan  to  take 
the  plants  up  with  as  much  soil  round  about  their  roots  as 
possible,  removing  all  the  lower  leaves,  and  immediately 
replant  them  in  a  sloping  direction,  about  eighteen  inches 
apart,  covering  their  stems  quite  close  up  to  the  leaves. 
By  doing  so  the  crowns  of  the  plants  will  be  close  to  the 
ground,  and  when  snow  falls  they  will  be  all  the  sooner 
covered  from  the  severity  of  the  frost,  and  thus  be  pre- 
served over  the  winter  until  spring.  When  all  danger  of 
frost  is  over,  set  them  erect  again,  by  taking  hold  of  their 
heads  and  drawing  them  up  straight,  pressing  them  down 
with  the  foot  at  the  same  time  to  keep  them  in  that  posi- 
tion ;  they  will  then  sprout  out  from  the  top  to  the  bottom 
of  the  stem.  These  will  be  fit  to  gather  as  soon  as  they 
have  been  frozen,  and  the  heart  is  the  part  to  be  gathered 
for  table,  although  every  sprout  is  eatable.  Those  contem- 
plating saving  seed  will  do  well  to  attend  to  the  following 
hints.  The  seed  of  more  than  one  sort  seldom  can  be 
saved  the  same  year  in  the  same  garden,  on  account  of 
accidental  impregnation,  by  bees,  the  wind,  and  other 
causes,  no  plant  being  more  addicted  to  sport  than  this.  The 
seed  when  once  saved  true,  will  keep  good  for  several  years, 
therefore,  if  the  garden  be  large,  one  or  two  s»rts  may  be 
saved  every  year  in  rotation,  but  in  a  small  garden  it  would 


be  folly  to  attempt  to  do  so.  If,  as  we  have  said,  you  have 
room  to  save  a  little  seed,  you  must  in  tiic  autumn  or  spring, 
select  some  of  the  best  and  truest  plants,  and  pu.nt  them  as 
far  distant  as  the  garden  and  other  circumstances  m  7II  allow. 
All  loose  and  ragged  leaves  should  be  clearea  way,  and 
the  plant  inserted  to  the  head,  and  at  about  double  the 
distance  they  stood  before  in  the  plantation.  The  seed 
will  be  ripe  in  August,  when  it  may  be  gathered,  dried, 
and  threshed  out,  and  after  being  exposed  to  the  air  a 
few  days  may  be  put  up  in  bags  for  use.  We  do  not 
advise  any  small  grower  to  save  his  own  seed,  unless  for 
novelty's  sake,  as  good  seed  is  now  to  be  had  so  reasonable 
that  it  is  not  worth  the  trouble. 


THE  TOILETTE. 


Ill 


DISORDERS  OF  THE  HAIR  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

{continued). 

Hair  Dyes. — Those  used  for  the  production  of  a  black 
colour  contain,  as  a  rule,  either  a  preparation  of  silver  or 
lead.  When  lead  compounds  are  used  there  is  danger 
lest  their  continued  application  cause  serious  symptoms. 
The  lead  may  become  absorbed,  and  indiuce  paralytic  symp- 
toms, such  as  are  noticed  in  what  is  known  as  "wrist-drop." 
The  silver  compounds  act  in  virtue  of  ^e  property  they 
possess  of  being  turned  black  by  the  action  of  the  air. 
Certain  vegetable  juices,  such  as  those  of  the  walnut,  the 
lye  of  vine  branches,  pyrogallic  acid  got  from  nut-galls, 
are  likewise  employed.  These  black  hair  dyes  are  used  in 
the  liquid  state,  and  when  they  rapidly  change  the  hair, 
they  are  called  "  Instantaneous  Hair  Dyes  ;"  or  when  more 
slow  in  action,  "  Atmospheric  Hair  Dyes."  Now  all  the 
dyes  that  contain  nitrate  of  silver  or  caustic,  stain  the  skin 
as  well  as  the  hair,  if  they  come  in  contact  with  it ;  hence 
care  must  be  taken  to  use  them  only  to  the -hair.  Those 
who  dye  hair  are  therefore  careful  to  avoid  touching  the 
skin  of  the  head,  or  apply  pomatum  to  the  scalp,  so  as  to 
protect  it  from  the  dye.  It  is  first  necessary  to  wash  the 
hair  very  thoroughly  with  soap  and  water,  and  dry  it  before 
applying  the  dye,  which  latter  must  be  kept  from  touching 
the  skin.  We  will  describe  in  a  moment  how  this  is  to  be 
actually  carried  out.  Most  people  now  prefer  lead-dyes, 
because  of  the  disagreeableness  of  staining  the  skin.  With 
these  preliminary  observations  we  will  give  the  recipes  for 
several  black  dyes. 

Instantaneous  Hair  Dye.  —  The  hair  is  to  be 
moistened,  after  being  cleansed  and  perfectly  dried,  by  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  in  water,  in  the  proportion 
of  I  part  to  8,  and  then  after  a  few  minutes  it  is  to 
be  brushed  over  with  a  weak  solution  of  hydrosulphuret 
of  ammonia. 

Eau  d'A/rique. — Two  solutions  are  used  here.  The 
first  is  made  by  dissolving  90  grains  of  crystallised  nitrate 
of  silver  in  two  ounces  of  water ;  the  second  by  mixing 
3  drachms  of  liquor  of  potash,  7  drachms  of  hydro- 
sulphuret of  ammonia,  and  i  ounce  of  water.  To  dye 
the  hair,  brush  it  over  with  No.  i  solution  by  means  of 
a  tooth-brush,  but  do  not  touch  the  skin.  Then  in  ten 
minutes  dilute  No.  2  solution  with  5  ounces  of  water, 
and  brush  that  over  the  hair.  If  the  skin  is  wetted  wipe 
it  dry  with  a  piece  of  rag.  Arrange  the  hair  after  washing 
it  gently  over  with  warm  water,  and  leave  it  for  a  few  hours 
untouched. 

The  above  details  we  give  for  those  who  are  determined 
to  experiment  upon  themselves,  but  we  strongly  advise  our 
readers  to  use,  if  they  wish  to  dye  their  hair,  a  preparation 
devoid  of  silver,  and  the  following  may  be  u>ed  without 
danger.  It  consists  of  two  solutions  as  in  the  above  silv 
dyes  : — 

No.  I  is  made  by  mixing  together  eight  grains  of  bichlo- 
ride  of  mercury,  two  drachms  of  spirits  of  wine,  and  ten 
ounces  of  Avater.    This  solution  should  be  brushed  through 


380 


HOW  TO    MAKE   TEA. 


the  hair  (after  the  latter  has  been  cleansed)  for  several  days, 
and  then  No.  2  should  be  applied. 

No.  2  is  made  by  dissolving  half  an  ounce  of  hyposul- 
phite of  soda  in  four  ounces  of  water. 

N.B. — The  amount  of  mercury  is  too  small  to  do  any 
harm,  in  addition  to  which  the  compound  used  is  altered 
by  the  No.  2  solution. 

The  formulae  we  have  given  are  those  available  when 
the  whole  hair  needs  a  thorough  dyeing.  We  now  append 
the  composition  of  a  pomade  which  can  be  used  so  as  to 
produce  a  more  gradual  change  to  a  black  colour. 


Nitrate  of  silver... 
Dilute  nitric  acid 
Iron  filings 


1  part. 

2  parts. 
2  parts. 


Mix,  and  let  them  remain  for  four  or  five  hours  ;  then 
add  them  to  2  parts  of  oatmeal,  and  stir  in  3  parts  of  lard 
and  then  scent  it. 

If  in  consequence  of  the  liability  to  staining  of  the  skin 
by  the  silver  dyes,  they  are  found  to  be  difficult  of  use,  one 
of  the  less  active  lead  dyes  may  be  had  recourse  to.  The 
chief  ingredients  in  the  more  generally  used  and  more 
largely  advertised  black  dyes  are  lead  and  sulphur.  The 
following  is  a  liquid  dye  containing  these  two  elements  : — 


Acetate  (or  sugar)  of  lead 

Flowers  of  sulphur     ... 

Glycerine 

Rose  water       


60  grains. 
60  grains. 
1-3-  ounce. 
6  ounces. 


This  lotion  is  one  which  used  to  the  hair  daily  for  a  week 
or  two  will  take  away  all  greyness,  and  turn  the  hair  to  a 
jet  black.  It  must  not  be  applied  to  the  skin  but  only  the 
hair,  lest  the  lead  be  absorbed  and  do  mischief. 

Some  writers  advise  a  pomade  made  with  bismuth,  but 
this  does  not  act  well.  If  persons  will  dye  from  greyness 
they  had  better  chance  the  use  of  the  last  given  recipe. 

A  dark-brown  colour  is  given  by  using  a  solution  of 
prussiate  of  potash  with  a  mordant  of  sulphate  of  copper  ; 
and  light  hair  is  dyed  golden  brown  by  the  employment 
of  the  following  solution  : — 

Gold  Dye. 
Solution  of  perchloride  of  gold     ...     2  drachms. 
Water i^  ounce. 

This  is  to  be  brushed  through  the  hair. 

Thinning  and  Loss  of  Hair. — We  now  come  to  consider 
the  important  question  of  loss  of  hair,  the  causes  that  lead 
thereto,  and  the  remedies  to  be  used  in  order  both  to 
prevent  the  evil,  and  to  promote  the  re-growth  of  hair  in 
place  of  that  which  is  lost.  Now,  loss  of  hair,  varying  in 
degree,  may  be  a  congenital  peculiarity — with  that  we 
shall  have  nothing  to  say.  It  may  likewise  be  the  natural 
consequence  of  advancing  age.  This  is,  of  course,  a 
matter  of  every-day  experience  ;  but  the  instances  in 
which  the  reader  is  most  interested,  are  those  in  which 
the  hair  thins,  or  is  lost  absolutely,  over  a  greater  or  less 
extent  of  surface  prematurely,  and  as  the  result  of  disease 
or  disturbance  of  the  proper  nutrition  of  the  body.  It 
may  be  asserted,  without  fear  of  contradiction,  that  the 
growth  of  the  hair  is  retarded  by  any  cause  which  leads  to 
debility,  and  promoted  by  anything  that  tends  to  give 
tone  to  the  system.  This  is  the  rule — indeed,  it  must  be 
within  the  experience  of  most  persons  that  the  assertion  is 
true,  and  individual  peculiarities  are  but  exceptions  proving 
the  rule.  We  shall  speak  of  thinning  of  the  hair,  first  of  all ; 
.  then,  of  complete  loss  of  hair  over  a  certain  limited  extent 
of  surface ;  and,  lastly,  complete  loss  of  the  hair  of  the  body 
or  of  different  regions,  such  as  the  whole  scalp. 


HOW   TO    MAKE    TEA. 

The  Scotch  do  not  say  "  to  make  tea,"  but  "  to  infuse  the 
tea,"  which  is  more  correct  in  every  respect.  Good  tea  is 
an  infusion,  not  a  decoction.  By  boiling  the  tea-leaves, 
you  get  from  them  a  bitter  principle,  and  you  drive  off  the 
delicate  perfume  of  the  tea.  For  this  reason,  the  teapot 
should  never  be  kept  hot  by  letting  it  stand  on  the  top  of  a 
cooking-stove,  over  a  lamp,  or  where  it  is  likely  to  be  made 
to  boil.  Excessively  bad  tea  is  made  in  some  parts  of  the 
Continent  by  people  who  do  not  know  better,  by  putting 
a  small  pinch  of  tea  into  a  large  kettle  of  water,  and  letting 
it  boil  till  they  have  extracted  all  its  colouring  matter,  in 
which  they  think  the  goodness  of  tea  consists.  A  metal 
teapot  is  better  than  an  earthen  one,  and  the  brighter  it 
is  kept  the  better  is  the  tea.  Rinse  the  teapot  with 
boiling  water.  Put  in  a  bumping  spoonful  of  tea  for  each 
person,  and  one  for  the  pot.  Pour  over  it  just  enough 
boiling  water  to  soak  the  tea.  Let  it  stand  a  few  minutes, 
and  then  fill  up  the  pot  with  boiling  water.  Do  not  put  in 
carbonate  of  soda  to  soften  the  water  and  make  the  tea 
draw  better  ;  i.e.,  to  make  a  wretched  saving  of  tea,  un- 
less you  are  in  absolute  poverty.  The  water,  in  fact,  is 
softened  by  boiling,  which  causes  it  to  deposit  some  of  the 
matters  it  held  in  solution  ;  witness  the  "  fur "  in  long- 
used  tea-kettles,  and  the  lime  which  settles  at  the  bottom 
of  many  waters  after  boiling. 

A  cup  of  tea  is  an  excellent  thing  after  any  fatigue.  Its 
refreshing  effects  may  then  be  followed  up  by  more  sub- 
stantial nutriment.  A  proof  amongst  others  (such  as 
steam,  railways,  electric  telegraphs,  &c.)  that  the  world 
is  still  in  its  infancy,  is  that  it  is  scarcely  two  hundred 
years  since  tea  came  into  general  use.  Pepys  mentions 
having  tasted  tea  for  the  first  time  in  September,  1660  : — 
"  Tea — a  Chinese  drink,  of  which  I  never  drank  before." 
Sir  Kenelm  Digby  records,  as  important,  the  Jesuits'  mode 
of  preparing  tea  : — "  The  priest  that  came  from  China 
told  Mr.  Waller  (the  poet)  that  to  a  pint  of  tea  they  fre- 
quently take  the  yolks  of  two  new-laid  eggs^  and  beat 
them  up  with  as  much  fine  sugar  as  is  sufficient  for  the 
tea,  and  stir  all  well  together.  The  water  must  remain 
upon  the  tea  no  longer  than  while  you  can  say  the 
Miserere  Psalm  very  leisurely  ;  you  have  then  only  the 
spiritual  part  of  the  tea,  the  proportion  of  which  to  the 
water  must  be  about  a  drachm  to  a  pint." 

In  1688,  the  Court  of  Directors  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, writing  to  their  agents  at  Bantam,  in  Java,  ordered 
them  to  send  home  one  hundred  pounds  weight  of  the 
best  tea  they  could  get ;  and  the  next  year  there  arrived 
their  first  consignment  of  tea,  in  two  canisters  of  one 
hundred  and  forty-three  pounds  and  a  half  each.  Before 
that  date,  namely  in  1671,  tea  had  already  found  a 
doughty  champion  in  Cornelius  Boutekoe,  a  Leydcn 
doctor,  who  vaunted  tea  as  a  panacea  against  all  the  ills 
that  flesh  is  heir  to.  He  pronounced  it  an  infallible  cause 
of  health,  and  thought  two  hundred  cups  daily  not  too 
much  even  for  a  moderate  drinker.  The  Dutch  Plast 
India  Company  is  said  to  have  made  it  worth  his  while  to 
uphold  that  opinion.  There  are  sundry  and  divers  "teas' 
made  from  sage,  camomile,  ground  ivy,  hawthorn,  black- 
currant, sloe,  and  other  leaves.  They  are  ptisanes,  or 
herb-drinks,  and  may  be  taken  in  obedience  to  medical 
advice,  or  drunk  by  hypochondriacs,  who  must  be  always 
dosing  themselves  with  something  ;  but  they  are  not,  and 
never  will  be  tea  —  "  the  cups  that  cheer,  but  not  ine- 
briate." The  Russians  (who  certainly  drink  the  best 
tea  in  Europe,  obtained  overland  from  China)  as  a  rule 
prefer  their  tea  with  something  which  does  inebriate 
in  it. 


ANALYTICAL      INDEX. 


A. 


Abscess,  Description  of,  303. 

Abscesses  (Cliionic  or  Cold),  Milk  Ab- 
scess, Particulars  of,  and  Treatment,  252, 
253  ;  Figure,  253. 

Administration,  91. 

Ague,  Particulars,  Symptoms,  and  Treat- 
ment, 303. 

Aitch-bone  of  Beef,  see  Beef. 

Alabaster,  How  to  Clean,  255. 

Albums  and  Scrap-books,  Making  of,  130  ; 
Figures,  129. 

Alum-baskets  and  other  Ornaments, 
Making  of,  263. 

Amusements,  Household. — The  Ball 
of  Wool,  Shadows,  The  Messenger, 
Magic  Music,  127,  128 ;  Prussian 
Exercises,  The  Courtiers,  The  Dumb 
Orator,  Speaking  Buff,  The  Shop- 
keepers, Twirling  the  Trencher,  Pro- 
verbs, 159,  160  ;  Forfeits,  163,  164 ; 
Novelties  in  Toys  and  Tricks — The 
Siamese  Link,  The  Chameleon  Top, 
The  Obedient  Ball,  The  Magic  Bottles, 
191,  192 ;  Forfeits  {continued),  202, 
203  ;  The  Newspaper,  The  Picnic,  The 
Coach,  The  Traveller,  238,  239  ;  Im- 
promptu Romance,  251  ;  Card  Games, 
261—263;  The  Game  of  Whist,  278, 
279  ;  The  Game  of  Whist  (continued). 
Comical  Combinations,  Acted  Charades, 
319,  320;  Acted  Charades  {continued). 
Pantomime  Charades,  347 — 349. 

Anacharis  alsinastrum,  63  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Anagallis,  82. 

Anchovy  Sauce,  Making  of,  324. 

Anemone,  82,  132. 

,  Single  Garden,  Growing  of,  81. 

Anemones,  60,  162. 

Animals  Kept  for  Pleasure. — The 
Dog,  II — 13,  60—62,  76,  77,  106 — 
109,  204,  205,  266,  267,  308. 

Animals  Kept  for  Pleasure  and 
Profit. — The  Horse,  295 — 299,  325 
—327,  374—376. 

Animals  Kept  for  Profit. — Poultry, 
30 — 32  ;  The  Feeding  and  General 
Management  of  Adult  Fowls,  46—48  ; 
Incubation  of  Poultry,  95,  96  ;  Poultry, 
121,  122  ;  The  Rearing  and  Fattening 
of  Chickens,  145 — 147,  168,  169 ; 
Ducks  and  Geese,  169,  170 ;  Cattle, 
188,189;  Poultry,  217—219;  Cattle, 
228 — 230,  309,  310. 

Animals,  Fresh  Water,  Selection  of,  for  the 
Aquarium,  64- 

Annuals,  Autumn-sown,  65, 

,  Description  of,  82  ;  Treatment  of,  il>. 

Apoplexy,  Symptoms,  Causes,  Treatment, 
and  Prospects,  318,  319. 


Apple  Dumplings  ;  see  Dumplings. 

Fritters,  Particulars  of,  67. 

Jam,  Directions  for  Making,  220. 

Jelly,   Directions   for   Making,    220 ; 

see  Orange  Apple  Jelly. 

Pudding,  Baked,  Making  of,  28. 

Rolls,  How  to  Make  them,  55. 

Apples,  Baked,  for  Children,  219. 

,  Baked  (two  recipes),  Preparing  and 

Serving  of,  219. 

,  Dried,  Directions,  220. 

,  Stewed,  Particulars  and  Serving  of, 

219,  220. 

Apricot,  109. 

Jam,  Directions  for  Making,  221. 

Aquarium,  The,  17;  (For  the  Window) 
Figure  of,  ib.;  Bell-glass,  ib. ;  Figure 
of,  18  ;  Tanks  for  Fitting  on  the  Out- 
side of  Window-sills,  17  ;  Figure  of, 
ib.;  Hexagonal  Shape,  18;  Figure  of, 
ib.;  Situation,  Temperature,  &c.,  for, 
ib.;  Preparation  of,  ib.;  Fresh -water 
Vegetation,  63,  64 ;  Suitable  Plants, 
ib. ;  Modes  of  Arrangement,  64 ;  (with 
Rockwork  and  Fern)  Figure  of,  ib.; 
Selection  of  Fresh-water  Animals,  64, 
69 ;  How  to  Stock,  69 ;  Names  of 
Fish,  ib.;  Food  for,  ib.;  How  to 
Manage,  ib. 

,  Marine,   105,    106,  132 — 134  ;  Light 

and  Temperature,  105 ;  Choice  of  Vessel, 
ib.;  Water,  ib.;  Means  of  Procuring,  ib.; 
Analysis  of  Water  of  the  Channel,  ib. ; 
Gathering  of  Objects,  ib.;  P'igure  of  Tin 
Can,  ib.;  Figure  of  Net,  ib.;  Figure  of 
Rockpool,with  Seaweed  and  Anemones, 
ib.;  Figure  of  Shrimp,  ib.;  Figure  of 
j^sop  Prawn,  ib.;  Sea  Anemones,  ib.; 
Stocking  of,  i6i,  162;  Figure  of,  i6r. 

Arable  Husbandry,  301,  302,  344,  345; 
Figures,  344 ;  Farm-yard  Manure, 
Liquid  Manure  Carts  and  Barrows, 
Tables  of  Cubic  Measure  and  Weight 
of  Water,  Table  of  Weight  and  Cubic 
Capacity  of  Liquid  Measures,  Table  of 
the  Number  of  Square  Areas  in  an 
Acre  of  Land,  Liquid  Manure  Tanks, 
Succession  of  Crops,  Particulars  of  the 
Four,  Five,  Six,  and  Seven  Course 
Shift  of  Cropping,  327 — 329. 

Arrowroot,  with  Milk,  Making  of,  235. 

Arteries,  9. 

Artichokes,  Globe,  138  ;  (December),  271 ; 
Particulars  and  Cultivation  of,  272. 

,  Jerusalem,  272. 

Ash,  Particulars  and  Uses  of,  77»  78- 

Asparagus,  65  ;  The  Growing,  Dressing, 
Forcing  of,  &c.,  with  Illustrations,  287, 
288. 

Assessed  Taxes,  see  Queen's  Taxes. 

Assurance,  Fire  and  Life,  2,  3. 


Assurance  Policies  ;  su  Insurance  Policies. 
Asthma,     Description,     SjTuptoms,     and 

Treatment,  319. 
Auriculas,  66. 
Arum  {Calla palustfis),  63. 
Augers,  16  ;  Figure  of,  23 ;  set  Gimtets. 
Axe,  Particulars  and  Uses  of,  137. 


B. 


Babies. — First  Attentions,  10  ;  First  Feed- 
ing, ib.  ;  Evil  effects  of  Laudanum, 
ib.  ;  Remedy  for  Pain  in  the  Stomach, 
ib.;  Sleeping  with  the  Mother,  ib.; 
Cradle — its  Position,  and  Comforts  for, 
10,  II;  Feeding  of,  1 1  ;  Washing  of, 
ib.;  Use  of  Violet-powder,  ib.;  Water 
for,  ib.;  j«  Children. 

,  Rickety  ;  see  Children,  Rickety. 

Babies'  Long  Frocks  and  Petticoats,  Di- 
rections for  Making,  with  Figures,  1 16 
— 119;  Materials  for,  116,  1 18. 

Baby-linen,  II. 

Baby's  Bib,  119;  Figures  of,  117. 

Chemises,   Making   of,  34 ;  Figures, 

33  ;  Directions  for  Making,  accom- 
panied by  Figures,  88. 

Cloak,  Directions  for  Making,  accom- 
panied by  Figures,  88 — 90. 

— —  House  Cloak  or  Flannel  Wrapper, 
Directions  for  Making,  accompanied 
by  Figures,  88. 

Flannels,    Making    of,    34 ;    Figures 

of,  33- 

Day  Flannels,  Making  of,  34 ;  Figure 

of,  33- 
Handsome  Day  Flannel,  35  ;  Figure 

of,  33- 

Rich   First  Frock,    Making  of,    35  ; 

Figure  of,  33. 

Frock,  90  ;  Figure,  89. 

First  Gowns,  Making  of,  34 ;  Figures, 

33- 
Robe,  Making  of,  1 18,  119  ;  Figures, 

"7. 
Bacon,  Carving  of,  198. 

,  Particulars  for  Marketing,  336. 

Back  Windows  :    How    to    Shut    out  a 

Disagreeable  View,  299. 
Baking  Powders,  Making  of,  263. 
Ball  of  Wool  (a  game),  127. 
Balsam,  82. 
Balsams,  1 1 4. 
Bandages,  9  ;  Figure  of,   8  ;    Application 

of,  9 ;  Figures  of,  8,  9. 
Bandaging  for  Arterial  Bleeding,  9;  Figure 

of,  8. 
Barley-water,  Making  of,  234,  284. 
Barrow,  Hand,  Uses  of,  137,  138;  Figure 

•f.  137. 


3S2 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 


Baskets,  Garden,   Uses   of,   149 ;    Figure 

of,  ib. 
Bathing  Recommended,  46  ;  Cold  Douche, 

ib.;    Hot    Baths,   ib.;   Turkish  Baths, 

ib.;    Flesh   Gloves    and   Brushes,   ib.; 

Bathing    when    the    Body    is   slightly 

heated  by  Exercise  recommended,  ib.; 

Signs  of  Bathing  doing  Good  or  Harm, 

ib.;  Rules  for  Bathing,  ib. 

of  Children,  46. 

Baths,  see  Bathing. 
Batter,  Making  of,  37. 

Pudding,  Plain  Boiled,  see  Pudding. 

Pudding,    Baked,    with   Apples,    see 

Pudding. 
Pudding,    Baked,    with    Sausages   or 

Bacon,  37. 
Beads,  42. 
Bean,  Tlie  Dwarf  French,  Cultivation  of, 

355- 

Beans,  1 74 ;  Cooking  of,  1 82  ;  Early, 
109. 

,  Dwarf  Kidney,  139. 

,  Pickled  French,    Pickling,  &c.,   of, 

196. 

,  Runner,  138,  see  Runner  Beans. 

,  Scarlet  Runners,  139  ;  Sticking  of,  ib. 

,  see  Broad  Beans. 

Bedroom,  The. — Blankets,  Sheets,  and 
Pillow-cases,  Towelling,  Russian 
Towelling,  346,  347. 

Bedroom  Furniture,  Particulars  of,  155 — 
157;  Mattresses,  Quilts  and  Counter- 
panes, Feather  Beds,  285,  286. 

Bedsteads,  156. 

,  see  Furniture. 

,  Arabian,  183,  184;  Figures  of,  1S4. 

Beech,  Particulars  and  Uses  of,  78. 

Beech,  see  Copper  Beech. 

Beef ;  how  the  Beast  is  divided,  with  Illus- 
tration, 261  ;  Quality  of,  ib. 

,  see  Roast  Beef. 

,  Aitch-bone  :  How  to  Carve,  256. 

Pudding,  see  Pudding. 

,  Ribs  of,  Carving  of,  7,  256. 

,  Ribs  or  Breast,  Stewed  with  Vege- 
tables, 140. 

,  Round:  How  to  Carve,  256, 

,  Shin  of.  Soup,  see  Soup. 

,  Sirloin  of,  l;  Serving  of,  ib.;  Carving 

of,  ib. 

Tea,  258  ;  Dr.  Dobell's,  ib. 

Beet,  139,  272. 

,  Red,  Cultivation  of,  356. 

,  White,  Cultivation  of,  356. 

Beet-root,  Pickled,  see  Pickled. 

Beet-roots,  174,  175. 

Beets,  191. 

Beetles,  69. 

Bell-glasses,  1 13. 

Bell-hanging,  Particulars  and  Description 
of,  with  Figures,  180,  181. 

Bernays,  Dr.,  162,  163. 

Bevel,  Mitre,  Description  of,  50 ;  Figure 
of,  49. 

Bilious  Attacks,  Causes  and    Treatment, 

.  .334.  335- 

Biliousness,  Causes  and  Treatment,  334. 

,  or      Bilious     Disorders,     including 

Jaundice,  350,  351. 

Birch,  see  Silver  Birch. 

Birds,  j^^  Cage-birds. 

Biscuits,  Orange,  Making  of,  234. 

Bits,  16  ;  see  Centre-bit,  Pin-bit,  Counter- 
sink-bit. 

Blackberry  Jam,  Making  of,  220. 

Black-cap  Pudding,  see  Pudding. 

■ Currant  Jam,  Directions  for  Making, 

220,  221. 


Black  Pudding,  104. 

Thorn,  see  Red. 

Blacking,  How  to  Make,  313. 
Blankets,  346. 

,  Washing  of,  299. 

Bleeding   Piles,    Causes  and    Treatment, 

30. 

Blinds,  19  ;  Fixing  and  Making  of,  ib. 

,  Venetian,  19. 

,  Spring    Blinds,     Venetian     Blinds, 

Descriptions,  with  Particulars  of  the 
Working  and  Fixing,  175, 176;  Figures 
of,  176. 

Blowing  the  Feather,  127. 

Boar's  Head,  150. 

Body,  Unusual  Heat  of  the,  41,  42. 

Boiling  of  Meat,  171. 

Boils  (at  Short  Notice),  167. 

Boils,  Particulars  and  Treatment,  253. 

Boot-cleaning,  305,  306;  Figure,  305. 

Boots,  see  India-rubber  Varnish. 

,  see  Shoes. 

Borecole  or  Kale,  Particulars  of  the 
Many  Sorts,  378,  379. 

Border,  The,  Culinary  Art  in,  5. 

Bow  Legs,  Cause  and  Treatment  of,  202. 

Bowel,  Lower,  8. 

Brace,  Figure  and  Description  of,  16. 

Bracket,  Modelling  of,  345  ;  Figures,  ib. 

Brad-awls,  Description  of,  16. 

Brain  Cakes,  Making  of,  377. 

Sauce,  Making  of,  377. 

Brass  and  Copper,  Cleaning  of,  222. 

Brawn,  150. 

Bread,  Use  of,  5;  Making  of,  5,  6;  Cutting 
of,  7. 

and  Flour,  Weights  of,  284. 

without  Yeast,  Making  of,  6. 

,  see  Com  Bread. 

,  Barley,  Making  of,  6. 

,  Oaten,  Making  of,  6. 

,  Rye,  Making  of,  6. 

and  Butter  Pudding,  without  Butter, 

see  Pudding 

Pudding,  Broken,  Baked,  see  Pud- 
ding. 

Breakfast,  4. 

Bream  and  Roach,  341. 

Breathing  Apparatus,  see  Bronchitis. 

Brill ;  How  to  Carve,  256, 

Broaches,  see  Rymers. 

Broad  Bean,  The,  Particulars  and  Growing 
of,  with  Figures,  330. 

Beans,  138,  139,  149. 

Broadstairs,  132,  133,  134. 

Broccoli,  138,  139,  149,  174,  17s,  190, 
(December)  271,  272. 

,  see  Cauliflowers. 

,  Cape,  190. 

Broiling,  171,  172. 

Bronchitis  and  Croup,  and  Nervous  Croup, 

83- 
and  Diseases   of  the   Breathing  Ap- 
paratus, Particulars  and  Treatment  of, 

115- 
,  Particulars,    Symptoms,    &c.,    359, 

360. 
Broth,  Chicken,  255,  258. 

,  Hasty,  Making  of,  283, 

,  Mutton,  258  ;  Another  Recipe,  ib. 

,  Pea,  311. 

,  White  Veal,  258. 

,  Brown  Veal,  258. 

from  Essences  and  Extracts  of  Meat, 

Particulars,  311. 
Broths,  Generally,  253,  254;  Pot-au-Feu, 

254  ;  Ratatouille,  tb. 
and  Soups,   258 — 260  j  Fish   Soups, 

260,  261. 


Broths  and  Beverages,  Invalid  —  Hasty 
Broth,  Porridge,  Gruel,  Barley-water, 
283,  284. 

Brown  Sauce,  see  Sauce. 

Bruises  and  Contusions,  Treatment  of,  52, 

53. 
Brussels  Carpets,  Testing  of  Quality,  126. 

Sprouts,  174. 

Budding-knife,  Description  of,  149 ;  Figure 

of,  ib. 
Buhl  Work,  Description  of,  223. 

Saw  :  its  Uses,  49  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Bulbs,  60,  66,  82,  109. 
Bull-terrier,  see  Dogs. 

Bullace  Cheese,  see  Damson. 

Bullock's  Heart  a  la  Mode,  Preparing  and 
Dressing  of,  120. 

Kidney,  Dressing  of,  120. 

Bunions,  Causes  and  Treatment  of,  201. 

Buns,  Saffron,  see  Cakes. 

Burns  and  Scalds,  Particulars  and  Treat- 
ment of.  How  to  Guard  against,  &c., 

73.  74. 
Bustard,  150. 
Busts,  354. 
Butter,  160. 


C. 


Cabbage,  Hundred-headed,  378. 

,  see  Red  Cabbage. 

Plant,  272. 

Plants,  175,  190, 

Soup,  see  Soup. 

Cabbages,  65. 

Cage  -  birds  :  Their  Homes  and 
Treatment  in  Winter. — Keeping 
and  Feeding  of,  175. 

Cake,  American  White,  Recipe  for,  234. 

,  Clieap,  Making  of,  27,  28. 

,  Good  Common,  Making  of,  66. 

,  Egg  Powder,  Making  of,  27. 

— — ,  Johnny,  or  Journey  (American), 
Making  and  Baking  of,  28. 

,    Fried    Bread   (American),    Making 

and  Frying  of,  28. 

Cakes,  Little,  Making  of,  234. 

— ,  Raised  Buckwheat  (American),  Mak- 
ing and  Baking  of,  28. 

or  Buns,  Saffron,  Particulars  of,  66. 

,  Sally  Lunn,  Making  of,  28. 

Calandrinia,  82. 

Calceolaria,  82,  114. 

Calf's  Cheek,  Particulars  and  Dressing  of, 

139- 
Head,  Plain  Boiled,  Particulars,  Pre- 
paring and  Boiling  of,  376,  377  ;  Brain 
Sauce,  377;    Brain   Cakes,    ib. ;    Fine 
Herb  Sauce,  ib. 

Head  h.  la  Tortue  (Turtle-wise),  Pre- 
paring and  Decorations  of,  377;  Sauce, 
ib.;  How  to  Carve,  79,  80;  Figure, 
80. 

or     Sheep's    Liver,    Shced,    Fried, 

Dressing  and  Serving  of,  120. 

— —  Liver,  Stewed,  How  to  Dress,  Particu- 
lars of,  &c.,  119. 

Liver  Cheese,  Dressing  of,  120. 

Came],  Wild,  12. 

,  Young,  12. 

Camellias,  Culture  and  Propagation  of,  81. 

Cameos,  A  Word  or  Two  about. — 
Particulars  and  Values  of  Different 
Kinds,  123. 

Canariensis,  113. 

Candied  Horehound,  Recipe  for  Making, 
291. 

Cape  Broccoli,  see  Broccoli. 

Co  pons,  150. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


383 


Carbuncles,  Particulars,  253. 
Card  Games,  261,  262,  see  Whist. 
Carnation,  see  Tree  Carnation. 
Caroline,  Queen  of  George  II.,  S. 
Carp,  The,  340;  Figure,  341. 

,  Stewed  Whole,  340,  341, 

,  Golden,  69. 

,  Common,  69. 

,  Piiissian,  69. 

Carpenter's  Eench,   Construction  of,   loi; 

Figures,  ib. 
Carpenters'  Joints,  see  Joints. 
Carpentry,    see  Woods,    Tools,    Mechanic 

(the  Household),  &c. 
Carpets,    How  to    Remove    Grease   from, 

313- 

Carrot  Pudding,  see  Pudding. 

Carrots,  4,  149,  174,  175,  191,  272, 

,  Sowing  of,  138  ;  Thinning  of,  139. 

,  Early  Horn  and  Long  Surrey,  Sow- 
ing of,  138. 

Carving,  Hints  on. — Particulars,  Leg 
of  Mutton,  Sirloin  of  Beef,  Ribs  of  Beef, 
6,  7 ;  History  of.  Roast  Fowls,  Salmon, 
55,  56 ;  Hare,  Rabbit,  Turkey,  Calf's 
Head,  Shoulder  of  Mutton,  79,  80 ; 
Ham,  Neck  of  Mutton,  Loin  of  Mutton, 
Neck  of  Veal,  Loin  of  Veal,  Phea- 
sant, Partridges,  143,  144 ;  Goose, 
Sucking-pig,  Saddle  of  Mutton,  Fore- 
quarter  of  Lamb,  Leg  of  Pork,  Tongue, 
Bacon,  197,  198;  Whiting,  Pike,  Cod, 
Flat  Fish,  Pigeons,  Mackerel,  Pilchards, 
&C.,  Loin  of  Pork,  Aitch-bone  of  Beef, 
Round  of  Beef,  Ribs  of  Beef  rolled, 
256. 

Cattle,  The  Varieties  and  Breeding 
OF. — The  Shorthorn,  The  Ayrshire,  The 
Aldemey,  The  Brittany,  The  Suffolk, 
Welsh  Breed  of  Black  Cattle,  The  Kerry, 
188,  189 ;  Flesh-producing  Breeds  : 
The  Shorthorn,  The  Hereford  (Figure 
of,  228),  The  Devon,  The  Sussex, 
The  West  Highland  or  Kyloe  (Figure 
of,  229),  The  Galloway,  The  Angus, 
Peculiarities  of  a  Good  Milking  Cow, 
Rules  for  Breeding  for  the  Growth  of 
Beef,  Ditto  for  Milking  Stock,  228— 
230 ;  The  Housing,  Feeding,  and 
Management  of  Daily  Cows,  309,  310  ; 
Figure,  309. 

Cauliflowers,  65,  138,  139,  149. 

and  Broccoli,   Season  and  Dressing 

of,  183. 

and  Cheese,  Dressing  of,  183. 

Ceilings,  19. 

Celery,  139,  149,  183  ;  (November),  190, 
191  ;  (December),  272. 

,  Planting  of,  174;  Earthing  of,  1 7 5. 

,  Stewed  Brown,  183. 

,  Stewed  White,  183. 

Cement,  see  Liquid  Glue. 

for  Mending  Broken  Vessels,  How  to 

Make,  190. 

,  Cheese,  Plow  to  Make,  255. 

,  Cheese  (for  Mending  China),  How  to 

Make,  284. 

Centre-bit,  Figure  and  Description  of,  16. 

Cesspools,  247. 

Channgs  of  Infants,  71. 

Chairs,  Particulars  of,  126. 

,  How  to  Make  Cushions,  Coverings, 

&c.,  for,  377. 

Chameleon  Top,  191,  192. 

Chapped  Hands  and  Lips.  Cures  for, 
124. 

"  Characters,"  Giving,  14. 

Charades,  Acted,  Particulars  of,  with  a 
List  of  Words,  320. 


Charades,  Words,  with  Acting  and  Illustra- 
tions, 347—349- 

,  Pantomime,  349. 

Cheese,  160. 

Cheesecakes,  Orange,  How  to  Make,  234. 

Chemicals,  Injuries  from.  Particulars  and 
Treatment  of,  154. 

Chemistry,  Household. — Introduction, 
338  ;  Food  :  Why  is  Food  Required  ? 
Different  Functions  of  Food,  Work 
done  by  the  Body,  Classification  of 
Food,  Flesh-formers,  Heat-producers, 
Gelatin,  338—340. 

Cherry  Trees,  109. 

Chicken  Broths,  see  Broths. 

Chicken-pox,  Particulars  and  Treatment 
of,  271. 

Chickens,  Directions  for  Hatching,  95,  96  ; 
Rearing  and  Fattening  of,  145 — 147  ; 
Figures  of  Coops  and  Shed  for,  145  ; 
Fattening  of,  168 ;  Killing  of,  ib, ; 
Plucking  of,  ib. 

Chiffonier,  Full  Particulars  of,  126. 

Chilblains,  Cause,  Particulars,  and  Treat- 
ment of,  123. 

Child,  see  Parent  and  Child. 

Children,  Diet  for,  4  ;  Mastication  of  Food, 
ib. 

,  Dietary   in   Early    Childhood,  314, 

315-. 

,  Diseases  Incidental  to,  83,  84. 

,  Diarrhoea  of,  83,  84. 

,  Duties  to  Parents,  36. 

,  Exercise  for,  242,  243. 

,  Feeding,    Clothing,     and     Training 

(Introdtietion),  2. 

Children,  The  Rearing  and  Manage- 
ment of. — The  Mother  and  Baby,  10, 
II  ;  Clothing  for  Infants,  33 — 35,  88— 
90  ;  The  Nursery,  no,  lii  ;  Children's 
Clothing,  116 — 119;  Sleep,  142,  143; 
Children's  Clothing  [continued),  177 — 
179,  236—238;  Exercise,  242,  243; 
Food  in  Infancy,  270,  271  ;  Children's 
Clothing  {continued),  291 — 294;  Diet- 
ary in  Early  Childhood,  314,  315  ; 
Children's  Clothing  {contitiued),  331 — 
334  ;  Dietary  of  Youth,  343,  354,  355  ; 
Clothing  for  Children  of  Six  Years, 
369—371. 

Children,  Rickety,  Recipe  for,  il. 

Children's  Clothing,  1 16 — 119  (j^if  Baby's, 
Babies') ;  Short-coating  the  Baby,  Par- 
ticulars of  Young  Children's  Clothing, 
with  Figures,  177 — 179;  Chemises, 
Short-coat  Stay,  Little  I3oy's  Shirt, 
Stay-body,  Drawers,  Flannel  Petticoat, 
White  Petticoats,  with  Full  Particulars 
of  the  Proper  Materials,  How  to  Cut 
Out,  Make,  &c.,  and  exemplified  by 
Figures,  236—238  ;  Pelisse  and  Cape, 
To  Cut  a  Cape,  291,  292  ;  The  Pelisse, 
292,  293 ;  To  Make  up  the  Pelisse, 
293  ;  Lining  of  the  Cape,  ib.;  Trim- 
mings, ib. ;  Material  for,  294  ;  P'igures, 
292,  293  ;  Jackets,  294  ;  Pinafores,  ib.; 
Day  Frocks,  ib.;  Materials,  ib.;  Night- 
gowns, Frocks,  331. — Clothingfor  Chil- 
dren of  Six  Years  :  Shirt,  Drawers  (for 
Boys),  Stay  Bodice,  Flannel  Petticoat, 
White  Petticoat,  Frocks  (for  Girls), 
with  Illustrations,  332 — 334  ;  Garibaldi 
Suits  (for  Girls),  Mantua-makers'  Seams, 
For  the  Sleeve,  Out-door  Jacket,  Tunics, 
Waistcoat,  Jacket,  Sleeve,  Coat,  with 
Illustrations,  369 — 371. 

Chimney-glass,  Particulars  of,  126. 

China,  To  Mend,  190. 

Roses,  Culture  of,  81. 


Chinese  Primrose,  Propagation  of,  8r. 

Chintz  Window-curtains,  35c. 

Chisels,  16  ;  Sharpening  of,  ib. 

,  Common,  Figure  and  Description,  16. 

,  Mortice,  Figure  and  Description  of, 

16. 

Paring,  Description  of,  16. 

Chops  and  Steaks,  4  ;  Cooking  of,  5. 

Christening  Robe,  Making  of,  119;  P'igurc 
of,  117. 

Christmas  Decorations  of  the  Home, 
Materials  to  be  used,  and  how  to  use 
them,  with  Figures  of  Designs,  97,  98. 

Dinner  (Ancient),  151. 

Fare,    History   and    Particulars   of, 

150,  151. 

Boxes,  History  of,  151. 

Tree,  History  of,  151. 

Chiysanthemums,  60  ;  see  Pompon  Chry- 
santhemums. 

Cinder-sifting,  305. 

Cisterns,  163. 

Citizenship,  Rights  of. — Electoral  Rights  : 
Franchise,  Distribution  of  Seats,  Sup- 
])lementary  Provisions,  P'reedom  of 
Conscience,  Freedom  of  Speech,  230, 
231. 

Clams,  Various  Modes  of  Dressing,  182. 

Clerks,  Governesses,  or  others,  holding 
posts  not  menial,  Term  of  Notice,  &c., 

13- 

Clothes-brushing,  306. 
Clothing,    &c.,    23,    38  ;    see    Children's 
Clothing. 

for  Children  ;  see  Children. 

Coals,  160. 

Cochin  China  Fowls,  see  Fowls. 

Cockles,  134. 

Cockscomb,  82. 

Cod,  Plow  to  Carve,  256  ;  Figure,  ib. 

Cod-fish,  Sauce  for,  68. 

Cod's  Head  and  Shoulders  (Coloured  Plate), 

193- 

Heads,    Particulars    of,    68 ;    Sauces 

for,  68. 

Coffee  Making,  294,  295. 

Colds,  Precautions  against,  284. 

Colour,  Loss  of,  42. 

Comforts,  see  Home  Comforts. 

Comical  Combinations  (a  Game),  320 ; 
Figure,  ib. 

Compass-saw,  its  Uses,  49. 

Conger-eels,  Serving  of,  256. 

Conger;  see  Eels. 

Conifers,  109. 

Concussion  of  the'Brain,  Treatment  of,  53. 

Contusions,  see  Bruises. 

Convolvulus,  82. 

Major,  113. 

Convulsions,  83 ;  Diagnosis,  ib.;  Causes, 
ib.;  Treatment,  ib. 

Cook,  her  Position  and  Duties,  170; 
Judicious  Engagement  of,  ib.;  Kitchen 
Fire,  ib.;  Roasting,  170,  171;  Gravies, 
171 ;  Poultiy,  ib. ;  Boiling,  ib.;  Boiling 
of  Fish,  ib.  ;  Frying  of  Fish,  ib. ;  Broil- 
ing, ib.;  Making  of  Pastry,  Sauces, 
Gravies,  and  Soups,  171,  172. 

Cooking  (Introduction),  2,  19,  Plain,  172. 

,  Plain   Cookery — General    Remarks, 

liow  to  Cook,  &c.,  4,  5  ;  Simple  Re- 
cipes, 5,  6,  27,  28,  36,  37,  53—55  ; 
Puddings,  Cakes,  Fritters,  Fi.sh,66 — 68 ; 
Fish,  86,  87  ;  Soups  and  Meat  Dishes  at 
moderate  cost,  103,  IC4  ;  Meat  Dishes 
at  moderate  cost — Sheep's  Trotters, 
Skeep's  Feet  Pate  (French),  Pigs'  Feet, 
Calf's  Liver  (Stewed),  Sliced  Calf's 
or  Sheep's  Liver  (Frietl),  Calfs  Liver 


384 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX. 


Cheese,  Bullock's  Heart  a  la  Mode, 
Bullock's  Kidney,  Tripe  (Normandy 
fasliion),  Stewed  Tripe,  Tripe  h.  la 
Lyonnaise,  Neat's  Foot  or  Cow  Heel, 
Neat's  Foot  with  Parsley  Sauce,  Breast 
of  Pork  with  Rice,  119,  120;  Calf's 
Cheek,  Sheep's  Head,  Fried  Fowl, 
Boiled  Fowl,  Fowl  Stewed  with  Rice, 
Ends  of  the  Ribs  or  Breast  of  Beef 
Stewed  with  Vegetables,  139,  140 ; 
The  Cheaper  Shell-fish— The  Com- 
mon Limpet,  Periwinkles,  Whelks, 
Mussels  and  Rice,  Hustled  Mussels 
(Plain),  Pickled  Mussels,  140 ;  Christ- 
mas Fare,  166,  167  ;  Hot  Dishes  easily 
served  at  short  notice,  167  ;  Shell-fish, 
181,  182;  Vegetables,  182,  183;  Mush- 
rooms and  Pickles,  195,  196  ;  Pickles 
{(ontinued),  219  ;  Preserves,  219 — 22i ; 
Kitchen  Requisites,  Miscellaneous  Re- 
cipes, 232—235  ;  Broths,  253—255  ; 
Broths  and  Soups,  258—261  ;  Fish 
Sox\^5{contimi<:d)i Miscellaneous  Soups, 
Invalid  Broths  and  Beverages,  282 — 
284 ;  Soups  and  Purees,  304 ;  Soups 
{continued),  310,  311  ;  River  Fish, 
322—325  ;  340—343 ;  364—366;  Calf's 
Head,  376,  377. 

Coopers'  Awls,  16. 

Copper  Beech,  109. 

Coral-stitch,  1 18;  Figin-e  of,  117. 

Com  Bread,  American,  Recipe  for,  190. 

Corns  (Soft  and  Hard),  Causes  of,  Reme- 
dies and  Cures  for,  124. 

Cornwall,  Coast  of,  134. 

Correspondence,  sre  Ways  and  Means. 

Cosmetics,  see  Skin  Cosmetics. 

Cottage  Farm  (^Inlrodtiction),  2. 

Buildings,  301,  302. 

Cottage  Farming  {Introduction),  2;  see 
F'arming. 

Couches,  127. 

Counterpanes,  see  Patchwork, 

,  see  Quilts. 

Countersink-bit,  Figure,  and  Description 
of,  16. 

Court-bouillon,  323,  341. 

Courtiers,  The,  (a  game,)  Particulars  of, 

159- 
Cows,  see  Cattle. 
Crab,  Figure  of,  133. 
Crabs,  133,  134,  161. 
Cranes,  150. 

Crocuses,  Cultivation  of,  81  I 

Cropping,    Four,    Five,    Six,   and   Seven  j 

Course  Shift  of,  329. 
Crops,  Succession  of,  32S. 
Cross-cut  Saw,  43  ;  Figure  of,  //;. 
Croup  and  Nervous  Croup,  Diagnosis  and 

Treatment  of,  115. 
,  False  or  Nervous  (Child-crowitig), 

Diagnosis  and  Treatment  of,  115. 

,  see  Bronchitis. 

Crumpets,  Making  of,  &c.,  28. 
Cucumber  Frames,  15. 
Cucumbers,  Pickled,  see  Pickled. 
Culinary  Utensils,  Necessary,  5 

Vessels,  5. 

Currants,  65, 
Currant  Trees,  109. 

Jelly,  Directions  for  Making,  221. 

Curry,  Ratatouille,  255. 

Curtain  Poles,  15. 

Curtains,    Particulars   of,  208 ;    Figure  of 

Rod  and  Fixings,  tb. ;   Particulars  and 

Uses  of,  362. 
Cuttings,  114. 
Cuts,  9  {see  also  Wounds)  ;  in  the  Ball  of 

the  Tliunib,  ib. ;   Mode  of  Bandaging, 


9,  10 ;   Cuts  about  the  Face,   Use  of 
Collodion,    Court-plaistcr,   Stitches  of 
Silk,  &c.,  29. 
Cypress,  109. 


D. 


Damson  or  Bullace  Cheese,  Directions  for 
Making,  221. 

Damson  Drops,  Recipe  for  Making,  291. 

Dandriff  or  Scurfiness,  Particulars  of,  and 
Cures  for,  70. 

Dapline,  Cultivation  of,  81. 

Deal,  Yellow,  Particulars  and  Uses  of,  78. 

Decorative  Art,  Household. — Leather 
Work,  39—41,  57,  58  ;  Diaphanie,  92, 
93 ;  Christmas  Decorations  of  tlie  Home, 
97,  98 ;  Recreations  for  Long  ICvenings, 
129,  130;  to  Imitate  Busts  and  Statu- 
ettes in  Marble,  by  means  of  Wax,  164, 
165  ;  Coloured  Transparencies,  165  ; 
Paper  Flower  Making,  193 — 195,  264 — 
266 ;  Feather  Screens,  289—291  ;  Mo- 
delling in  Clay  for  Amateurs,  315 — 317; 
Feather  Screens  {continued),  321,  322; 
Modelling  in  Clay  for  Amateurs  {con- 
tinued), 345,  346,  353,  354, 

Dentition,  83. 

Deodar,  109. 

Depilatories,  Recipes  for  Making,  366,  367. 

Dessert,  Setting  of  the  Table ;  see  Dinner 
Tables. 

Devonshire,  Coast  of,  134. 

Diaphanie,  P'uU  Description  of,  and  Rules 
for,  accompanied  by  Figures,  92,  93. 

Diarrhoea,  83. 

of  very  Young  Children,  Particulars 

and  Treatment  of,  83,  84. 

of  Teething  Children,  Directions,  and 

Treatment  of,  84. 

,  Inflammatory,  Description  of,  84. 

Dibbler  or  Dibble  (two  kinds).  Uses  of, 
149  ;  Figures  of,  id. 

Dietary  of  Youth,  see  Youth. 

Dinners,  French,  Ser\ang  of,  37Z 

Courses,  372. 

Dinner-table,  Hints  on  Arranging, 
114. 

Dinner-tables,  The  Dressing  of,  &c., 

371,  372. 

in  the  Russian  Mode,  372. 

Diseases,    Common,   Alphabetical  List   of 

Diseases  for  Treating  of  in  the  House- 
hold Guide,  303. 
Dish-covers,  19,  20. 
Dishes,  Hot,  Easily  Served  at  Short  Notice, 

167. 
Dislocations,  Particulars  of,  73 ;  Figure,  ib. 
Dog,  The,  Origin  and  Principal  Varieties, 

II — 13  ;  Rearing  and  Feeding  of,  12. 

,  Arctic,  II. 

,  Esquimaux,  11. 

,  Terriers,  12,  13. 

,  Bull-terrier,  12,  13  ;  Figure  of,  12. 

,  English  Terrier,  12. 

,  Black-and-tan  Smooth  Terrier,  12. 

,  Scotch  or  Rough  Terrier,  12  ;  Figure 

of,  ib. 

,  Broken-haired  Terrier,  iz 

,  Skye,  12. 

,  "Dandie  Dinmont,"  12. 

,  Poodle,  "Clever  Dog,"  13. 

,  Poodle,  French,  13. 

,  Principal  Varieties  {contintwd),  60 — 

62. 
,  English   Mastiff,  Particulars  of,  60 ; 

Figure  of,  61. 
,  Bull-dog,  Origin  and  Particulars  of, 

6b,  61. 


Dog,  Bloodhound,  Description  of,  61. 

,  St.  Bernard,  Description  of,  61. 

,  Newfoundland,    Particulars    of,    61, 

62  ;  Figure  of,  61. 

,  Labrador,  the,  Description  of,  62. 

,  Spaniels  and  Retrievers,  62, 

,  Principal  Varieties  {continued),  76,  77. 

,  Water  Spaniel,  Description  of,  76. 

,  Setter,  Particulars  of,  76. 

,  King  Charles  and  Blenheim  Spaniels, 

76. 

,  Retriever,  Particulars  of,  76. 

,  Pointer,  Particulars  of,  76 ;  Figure,  ib. 

,  Greyhound,  History  and  Particulars 

of.  76,  77  ;  Figure  of,  76. 

,  Hounds,  History  and  Particulars  of,  77. 

,  Sheep-dogs,  Description  of,  77. 

,  Dalmatian  or  Carriage  Dog,  The,  77. 

,  Training  of,  106—109. 

,  Newfoundland,  Training  of,  106. 

,  Sheep-dog,  Training  of,  106,  107. 

,  Pointers,  Training  of,  107,  108. 

,  Setter,  Training  of,  108. 

,  Retriever,  Training  of,  108. 

,  Spaniels,  Training  of,  108. 

,  Sporting  Dogs,  Training  of,  108,  109. 

,  Scotch  Collie,  Figure  of,  108. 

,  Greyhounds,  Training  for  Coursing, 

109. 

,  Training  for  Performance,  109. 

,  Feeding  and  General  Management — 

Lodging,  204 ;  Figure  of  a  Kennel,  205  ; 
Feeding,  204,  205  ;  Washing  and 
General  Treatment,  205. 

,  Diseases   of,  266,  267  ;    Rearing   of 

Pups,  266. 

,  Diseasesof(fo;///«7/^d^)— Affections  of 

the  Eyes,  Fits,  Rabies  or  Hydrophobia, 
their  Causes  and  Treatment,  308. 

i  ,    Diseases    of    {continued)  —  Mange, 

Canker  of  the  Ear,  &c.,  358,  359. 

Dog's  Licence,  131. 

Domestic  Comfort  {/ntfoduction),  1. 

Domestic  Medicine,  see  Medicine. 

Domestic  Ser\'ants  and  their  Duties,  102, 
103 ;  Causes  of  Vexations  and  Disap- 
pointments, 102  ;  Education  as  a  Cor- 
rective, ib.  ;  High  Wages  as  a  Means  to 
Procure  Efficient  Service,  Fallacy  of,  ib.; 
Extras,  ib.;  Beer  Money,  ib.;  Perqui- 
sites, ib.;  Remnants  of  Food  and  Clothes, 
Disposal  of,  ib.;  Rules  for  Household 
Work,  ib.;  Followers,  ib.;  Holidays, 
Going  to  Church,  103 ;  Dress,  ib.;  Caps 
and  White  Aprons,  ib. 

Domestic  Surgery,  see  Surgery. 

Door-locks,  15. 

Doors,  Particulars  of  Making,  with  Figures, 
128. 

Dorset,  Coast  of,  134. 

Dove-tailing,  85,  86 ;  Dove-tail  Joint, 
Figure  of,  85. 

Drainage — Construction  of  House  Drains, 
Size  of  Drains,  Fall,  Traps,  Ventilation 
of  Drains,  Inspection  of  Drains,  Three 
Conditions  with  regard  to,  (with  Illus- 
trations,) 247 — 250. 

of  Grass  Land,  see  Grass  Land. 

of  Roads,  93. 

Drains,  109. 

,  see  Drainage. 

Draughts,  Stopping  of,  312. 

Drawers,  Chests  of,  157. 

Drills,  16. 

Drooping  Plants,  113. 

Drowning,  Treatment  of.  Ill ;  Figures,  112. 

Ducks,  Keeping  of,  169  ;  Breeds,  ib. 

Dumpling,  see  Sausage  Dumpling. 

Dumplings,  Light,  Steamed,  27. 


CASSELL^S   HOUSEHOLD  GUIDE. 


3^5 


Dumplings,  Light,  Boiled,  27. 

,  Light,  Sauce  for,  j^-if  Matrimony  Sauce. 

— — ,  Hard  or  SufTolk,  27. 

,  Drop,  Making  of,  27. 

,  Suet    (highly    recommended),    the 

Making  of,  53,  54. 

,  Plum,  How  to  Make,  54. 

,  Apple,  the  Making  of,  55. 

Dusting,  222. 

Dyeing,  a  Few  Words  about,  360,  361, 


Easy  Chairs,  T'artiailars  and  Prices  of,  126; 

Figure  of,  ib. 
Economy  in  the  Household — Domestic  and 

Social,  I. 
Eel,  Mayonnaise  of,  How  to  Make,  365. 

Pie  (Conger),  67. 

Roastetl  in  the  Ashes,  364,  365. 

Eels,  Cooking  of,  67. 

,  Potted,  67. 

,  Collared,  67. 

,  Large  Conger,  Roasted,  68. 

,  Serving  of,  256. 

>  342,  343- 

Stewed  with  Sorrel,  342. 

,  Tartar,  Dressing,  365. 

Egg  Balls,  Making  of,  304. 

Eggs,  122. 

Electoral  Rights,  230,231. 

Employers,  Duties  of,  to  Servants,  13,  14; 

see  Characters. 
Endive,  65,  149,  191. 
Epping  Sausages,  see  Sausages. 
Eruptions,  Diagnosis  and  Treatment  of,  70, 

71- 

of  the  Soles  of  the  Feet,  71. 

,  Discharging,  Treatment  of,  123. 

Evening  Recreations — Screen-making,  Al- 
bums, 129,  130. 

Evergreens,  60. 

,  Dwarf  Potted,  60, 

liverton  Toflf)',  How  to  Make,  234. 

Executors,  91. 

Expenditure,  see  Income. 

Eye,  Dust  in  the,  Treatment  of,  154,  155. 

,  Cold  in  the,  &c.,  Causes  and  Treat- 
ment, 252. 

,  Sty    in  the,  Causes  and  Treatment, 

252. 


Fainting,  Treatment  of,  1 1 1. 

False  or  Nervous'Croup,  see  Croup. 
■   Teeth,  see  Teeth. 

Farm,  Cottage  {Introduction)^  2. 

Farming,  Cottage  {Introduction),  2 ; 
Drainage,  25 — 27  {see  Grass  Land) ; 
Drainage,  Levelling,  Claying  Peaty, 
Open,  Porous,  Gravelly,  and  Sandy 
Lands,  Chalking  and  Marling,  Liming, 
Fencing,  Liquid  Manure,  Irrigation, 
"Warping,  93,  94  ;  Manuring  of  Grass 
Lands,  Liquid  Manure  Cart,  152 ;  on 
the  Grasses  best  adaptetl  for  Meadow 
and  Pasturage,  153,  154  ;  Grasses 
adapted  for  a  Cottage  Farm,  209 ; 
Manures,  209—211  ;  Housing  Hay, 
Fencing,  276,  277 ;  Fencing  {con- 
tinued), 300,  301 ;  Arabic  Husbandry, 
Cottage  Farm  Buildings,  301  ;  Arabic 
Husbandry  {continued),  yii,  329,  344, 

345- 
Feather  Beds,  156;  Particulars  and  Prices, 

286. 
—  Mats,  How  to  Make,  363. 


Feather  Screens,  Particulars  of  Making, 
with  Illustrations,  289 — 291,  321,  322. 

Feeding-bottles,  11. 

Fencing — Stubbing  out  of  Old  or  Super- 
fluous Hedges,  276,  277  ;  Planting  of 
Thorn  or  Quick  Hedges,  with  Figures, 
277;  Young  Hedges,  Beech  and  Horn- 
beam Hedges,  Thorn  Hedges  (renewing 
or  renovating  oQ.  Subdivision  Fences, 
300,  301  ;  Figure,  301. 

Fenders,  126. 

,  Velvet,  Making  of,  361  ;  Figure,  ih. 

Ferns — Maidenhair,  Hart's-tongue,  Spleen- 
wort,  Laciy  Fern,  113. 

Fever,  Symptoms  of,  41. 

,  Scarlet,  Vomiting  a  Symptom  of,  42. 

Fevers,  Eniptive,  83,  215. 

,  Eniptive,  Scarlet  Fever  or  Scarlatina, 

Measles,  Vaccination,  and  Small-pox, 
186,  187. 

,  Relapsing,  Diagnosis,  Symptoms  and 

Treatment,  226. 

,  Typhoid,  and  Typhus,  and  Infantile 

Intermittent,  215,  216. 

Files  and  Rasps,  Description  of,  23. 

Fillisters,  42. 

Fine-herb  Sauce,  How  to  Make,  377. 

Finger  Plates,  126. 

Fire-irons,  126. 

Fish,  67,  68. 

,  Cooking  of,  86,  87. 

,  Seasonable  (December),  11  r. 

,  Seasonable  (Januarj'),  148. 

,  Boiled,  167. 

,  Fried,  167. 

,  Broiled,  167. 

,  Boiling  and  Frying  of,  171. 

,  Seasonable  (February),  235. 

,  Carv'ing  of,  256  ;  Figures,  ib, 

,  Seasonable  (March),  284. 

,  River — The  Carp,  Figure,  341 ;  Carp 

Stewed  whole,  Stewed  Tench,  Boiled 
Tench,  Perch,  the  Mariner's  Matelote, 
Bream  and  Roach,  Pike  Boiled  whole, 
Stuffing  for  Pike,  Pike  Baked  whole, 
Eel  Stewed  with  Sorrel,  D.B.,  340 — 
343  ;  Eel  Roasted  in  the  Ashes,  Tartar 
Sauce,  Sauce  Robert,  Tartar  Eels  or 
h  la  Tartare,  Mayonnaise  of  Eel, 
Mayonnaise  Sauce,  Grey  Mullet,  Shrimp 
Sauce,  Whitebait,  Figure  of,  365,  366. 

,  River,  Boiling  of,  322,  323. 

Sauce,  see  Sauce. 

Soups,  see  Soups. 

Flat  Foot,  Causes  and  Treatment,  201 ; 
Figure  of,  ib. 

Flesh,  Loss  of,  42. 

Flour,  see  Bread. 

Pudding  (Dr.  Dobell's),  see  Pudding. 

Flower-garden,  109. 

Flowering  Plants,  65. 

Food,  its  Functions,  &c.,  see  Chemistry, 
Household. 

Food,  Seasonable  (December),  in ; 
(January),  148  ;  (February),  235  ; 
(March),  2S4. 

Forcemeat  Balls,  Making  of,  304. 

Forfeits,  Game  of,  163,  164  ;  List  of,  for 
a  Gentleman,  202,  203  ;  List  of,  for  a 
Lady,  203. 

Forget-me-not,  82. 

Foreign  Bodies  introduced  into  Various 
Parts  of  theiBody,  154. 

introduced    into    the   Nose    or   Ear, 

Treatment,  155. 

in    the   Wind-pipe,    Particulars    and 

Treatment,  155. 

in  the  Gullet,  Particulars  and  Trcr.t- 

mcnt,  155. 


Foreign  Bodies  introduced  (as  Coins,  Pins, 
Needles,  &c.)  into  the  Stomach,  Treat- 
ment, 155. 

Fork,  Digging,  Uses  of,  137 ;  Figure  of,  136. 

,  Small  Weeding,  Uses  of,  137;  Figure, 

136. 

Fowl,  Boiled,  and  Rice,  255. 

,  Fried,  Dressing  and  Serving  of,  139, 

140. 

— — ,  Boiled,  Dressing  and  Serving  oi,  140. 

,  Stewed  with  Rice,  Dressing  and  Serv- 
ing of,  140. 

Fowl-houses,  15,30 — 32;  Construction  of, 
31  ;  Figure  of,  32. 

Run,  31,  32. 

Fowls,  Keeping  of,  30 — 32. 

,  Cochins  or  Brahmas,  32. 

,  Adult,  Feeding  and  General  Manage- 
ment of,  46 — 48  ;  Figure  of  a  Feeding- 
dish,  47  ;  Figure  of  Cover  to  ditto,  48 ; 
Figure  of  Drinking-fountain,  48. 

>  95.  96. 

,  Cochins,  95. 

,  Brahmas,  95. 

,  Dorkings,  95  ;  Figure  of,  96. 

,  Game,  95,  96. 

,  Hatching  Nest,    121  ;   Attention   to 

Eggs   and   Hens   Sitting,  ib. ;    Figure, 

122  ;    Number  of  Eggs  to  Set,    121  ; 

Time  of  Hatching,    122 ;    Cleanliness, 

ib.;  Eggs,  ib.;  Profit,  ib.;  Feeding  of, 

ib.;  Cost,  ib. 

,  Cochin  China,  White,  Figure,  121. 

,  Loss  of  Feathers,  Causes  of,  218. 

,  Roup,  Causes  and  Treatment  of,  218. 

,  Diarrhoea,  Causes  and  Treatment  of, 

218. 

,  Soft  Eggs,  Causes  of,  218. 

,  Insect  Vermin,  Causes  and  Cure  of, 

218. 

,  Cure  for  Disease,  219. 

Fractures,  Particulars  of,  71,  72. 

Frames,  65,  66. 

Frame  (One  Light),  66  ;  Figure,  65. 

France,  Culinary  Art  in,  5. 

Franchise,  230. 

Frankland,  Professor,  163. 

Freckles,  see  Skin,  Discoloration  of  the. 

Freedom  of  Conscience,  231 

of  Speech,  231. 

French  Bean ,  see  Bean. 

Revolution,  130. 

Rolls,  Making  of,  234. 

Use  of  Bread,  5. 

Fritters,  167. 

,  see  Apple,  Parsnip,  Peach,  and  Turnip 

Fritters. 
Frog,  Development  of  the,  Figures,  69. 
Frog-bit  {Hydrocharis  morsus-rance),   63  ; 

Figure  of,  ib. 
Frost-bite,   Particulars  and  Treatment  of, 

154. 
Frait  Trees,  Aged,  Dressing  of,  109. 
Fruits,  Sea.sonable  (December),  iii. 

,  Seasonable  (Januar)-),  148. 

,  Seasonable  (February),  235. 

,  Seasonable  (March),  284. 

Frumenty,  150. 

,  How  to  Make,  235. 

Fr)ing,  171. 

Fuchsia,   82 ;    Propagation,  CuTture,    and 

Training  of,  ib.;  Figure  of,  81. 
Fuchsias,  66,  109,  114. 
Fuel,  5. 

Furmcnty,  see  Frumenty 
Furniture    {Infivducticn),    i ;    General 

Remarks,  !8. 
,  The  General  l-^imilurc  of  the  House, 

123-137. 


386 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 


Furniture,     Bedroom     Furniture,     155  — 

157- 

.General   Tarticulars  of,    183 — 185; 

Figures  of,  184,  185. 

,  Bedroom  Furniture,  Full  Description 

of  Bedsteads,  Four-post  Bedsteads,  and 
other  Bedroom  Furniture,  with  Illus- 
trations, 243 — 246. 

,  Bedroom  Furniture,  285,  2S6. 

;  The  Bedroom,  346,  347. 

,  Hiring  of,  312,  313. 

,  Brokers',  362. 

,  Polish  for.  Making  of,  230. 


Gall-stones,    Symptoms,   Treatment,    &c.. 

Game,  Seasonable  (December),  in, 

(January),  148. 

(February),  235. 

(March),  284. 

Games — Impromptu  Romance,  251. 

Garden,  The  (Introduction),  2. 
■  ■ ,  Advantages  of,  4. 

,  Small  Suburban,  58—60;    Primary 

Operations,  58 ;  Laying  out  of,  58,  59 ; 
Figures  of  Designs  for,  59 ;  Formation 
of  Garden  Paths,  59 ;  Borders  or  Edg- 
ing, 59,  60. 

Gardens,  Small,  the  Cultivation  of,  65,  66. 

,  Small,  Laying  out  of,  65  ;  Figure,  t'/). 

,  Laying  out  of,  109 ;  Figure,  /A 

Garden,  Small,  Rotation  Cropping  of,  138, 

139- 

Operations  for  January,  1 38. 

for  February,  138. 

for  March,  138. 

for  April,  138. 

for  May,  138,  139. 

for  June,  139. 

for  July,  149. 

for  August,  1 74. 

for  September,  1 74. 

for  October,  174,  175, 

for  November,  190. 

for  December,  65,  66 ;  Calendar 

for  December,  109,  i  lo. 

,  see  Vegetable  Garden. 

,  Profit  on  [Correspondent],  106. 

Gardening,PIome,  20;  Town— Conditions 
of,  ti.;  Selection  of  Plants,  r7>.;  Cleanli- 
ness, id.;  The  Soil,  and  How  to  Im- 
prove it,  20,  21 ;  Aspect  of  the  Ground, 
21;  Walls  and  Fences, /(^.y  Laying  out 
the  Garden,  i6.;  Succession  of  Plants, 
tl).;  The  Small  Suburban  Garden — 
Foimation  of  Garden  Paths,  Gardening 
Operations  for  November,  58—60;  The 
Cultivation  of  Small  Gardens,  Gar- 
dening Operations  for  December,  65, 
66  ;  Gardening  Calendar  for  De- 
cember, 109,  no;  The  Tool-house, 
Rotation  Cropping  of  a  Small  Garden, 
136—139 ;  The  Tool-house  {continued), 
148,  149;  Rotation  Cropping  of  a 
Small  Garden  {continued),  149, 174,  175, 
190,  19J  ;  The  Vegetable  Garden,  223,  I 
224,  239,  240,  246,  247;  Rotation  ' 
Cropping  {contbiued) — Operations  for 
December,  271  ;  The  Vegetable 
Garden,  377,  379,  287,  288,  330,  331, 
355,  356. 

,   Window    {Introduction),    2;    The 

Window  Garden,  43 — 45;  Pots,  Zinc 
Boxes,  Drainage  of  Boxes  and  Pots, 
Soil,  &c.,  44 ;  Seedlings,  44,  45  ; 
Hanging-baskets,  45  ;   Figures  of,  44 ; 


The  Window  Garden,  81,  82,  113, 
114;  Figure  of  Small  Green-house, 
without  Heating  Apparatus,  113; 
Figure  of  ditto,  with  Heating  Ap- 
paratus, ib.;  Ferns,  ib.  ;  Drooping 
Plants,  ib.;  Bell-glasses,  &c.,  ib. 
Garden  Frame,  114. 

Furniture      and      Decorations  — 

Garden  Chairs,  Seats,  and  Tables, 
Tools  for  Constructing  and  the  Con- 
struction of.  Varnishing,  &c.,  with  Il- 
lustrations, 372,  373. 
Gas,  General  Remarks,  250 ;  the  Iron 
Service-pipes,  Horizontal  Pipes,  Pen- 
dants, Brackets,  Chandelier — its  Water- 
chamber,  k.c..  Ventilation,  Burners, 
Regulators,  &c.,  with  Illustrations,  273, 
274 ;  for  Heating  Purposes,  299,  300. 

Explosions,  15. 

Gas-meters,  300. 

Gases,  Foul,  Suspended  Animation  from, 

Treatment  of,  112. 
Gateau  (French   Country  Cake),    Making 

and  Use  of,  37. 
Gauge,    Common    Marking,    Description 
and  Use  of,  24  ;  Figure  oC  23. 

,  Cutting,  24. 

,  Mortice,  Description  and  Figure  of,  24. 

Geese,   Breeds  of,    169,    170;    Setting  of, 
170,    Goslings,    ib.;     Feeding   of,  ib.; 
Fattening  of,  ib. 
George  HI.,  a  .Statute  of,  14. 
Geraniums,  Scarlet,  81,  82. 

,  82,  Propagation  and  Culture  of,  ib. 

,  Fancy  or  Dwarf,  Culture  of,  82. 

Germany,  North,  6. 

Gherkins,  Pickled,  sec  Pickled. 

Gimlets     and     Augers,    Description    and 

Figures  of,  23. 
Gingerbread,  Making  and  Baking  of,  27. 

,  Mrs.  Smith's,  Making  of,  27. 

Ginger  Drops,  Recipe  for  Making,  291. 
Glass,  Washing  of,  222,  306. 
Glue,  see  Liquid  Ghie. 
Godfrey's  Cordial,  Particulars  of,  284. 
Gold,  Cleansing  of,  284. 
Gold  and  Silver  Marks   (generally), 
180;  Hall  Mark,  ib.;  Duty  Mark,  ib.: 
Standard  Mark,  ib.;  Maker's  Mark,  ib.; 
Date  Mark,  ib. 

,  The  Qualities  and  Values  of. 

With  Tables,  279,  2S0. 
Golden  Carp,  see  Carp. 
Goose,  150. 

,  Roast,  Coloured  Plate,  193. 

,  Carving  of,  197;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Gooseberries,  65. 

Gooseberry  Jam  (Ripe),  Directions  for 
Making,  220. 

Trees,  log. 

Goslings,  see  Geese. 
Governesses,  see  Clerks. 
Gouges,  16  ;  Sharpening  of,  ib. 
Grasses   best   Adapted   for   Meadow    and 
Pasture,  153,  154;  Figures  of,  152,153. 

Adapted  for  a  Cottage  Farm,  209. 

Grass  Land,  25,  26  ;  Drainage  of,  25 — 27  ; 
Figures  of  the  Four  Ways  of  Draining, 
ib.;  Drainage  Pipes,  26,  27  ;  (Figures 
of,  25) ;  Tapping,  26;  Draining  Springs, 
ib. 

,  General  Management  of,  152. 

,  Renovating  of,  211. 

Grates,  Cleaning  of,  222. 

Gravies,  171. 

Grease,  to  Erase  Stains  of,  190. 

,  see  Carpets. 

Greengage  and  Plum  Jam,  Directions  for 
Making,  221. 


Greenhouses,  15. 

,  Miniature,  Figures  of,  113,  114, 

Greens,  Winter,  272. 

Gregory's  Powder,  Making  of,  230. 

Grey  Mullet,  see  Mullet. 

Greyness,  Treatment,  &c.,  of,  367,  368. 

Gridiron,  Figure  of,  4,  5. 

Gruel,  Making  of,  284. 

Gudgeon,  The,  69. 

Guinea-fowl,  Directions  for  Keeping  and 
Rearing,  218. 

Gums,  Lancing  of,  1 72  ;  Figure  of,  1 73  ; 
Figure  of  Lancet,  173. 

and     Teeth,     Particulars     of,     172  ; 

Figure  of,  173. 

Gunpowder  Accidents,  Particulars  and 
Treatment  of,  154. 

Gun-shot  Injuries,  Particulars  and  Treat- 
ment of,  154. 

GUTTA-rERCIIA    FOR     MeNDING    SHOES, 

214. 


H. 


Hainorrliagc,  9,  lo. 

Hair,  The,  and  its  Management,  with 
Figures,  241,  242,  274,  275  ;  Washing, 
275  ;  Brushing,  ib.  ;  Cutting,  ib.  ; 
Curling,  ib.;  Pomades,  275,  276; 
Recipes  for  IMaking,  276  ;  Disorders  of, 
and  their  Treatment;  Hair -washes 
(Recipes,  how  to  make)  ;  Hair  in 
Unusual  Situations,  or  Superfluous 
Hair  (Depilatories,  how  to  make)  ; 
Changes  in  the  Colour  of  the  Hair, 
including  Blanching  and  Greyness, 
366 — 368  ;  Disorders  of,  and  their 
Treatment  {continued),  379,  380  ; 
Thinning  and  Loss  of,  380. 

Hair-dyes,  379,  380. 

Hair-washes,  Recipes  for  Making,  366. 

Half-rip-saw,  43. 

Hall  or  Passage  Furniture,  &c.,  125. 

Ham,  Cai-ving  of,  143  ;  Figure  of,  144  ; 
Coloured  Plate,  193  ;  Particulars  for 
Marketing,  336. 

Hammer,  Ordinary  Claw,  Figure  of,  24. 

,  Tang,  Figure  of,  24. 

,  Smith's  Chipping,  Figure  of,  24. 

for  the  Garden,  Description  of,  137. 

Hammers  and  Mallets,  24. 

Hand-saws,  Plain,  43. 

Hanging,  I'rcatment  of,  112. 

Hanging-basket,  113;  Plants  for,  ib. 

Hare,  How  to  Carve,  79  ;  P'igure,  80. 

Haricot  Mutton,  Directions,  104. 

Hay-barn,  211. 

Hay  Harvest,  Particulars,  211. 

,  Housing  of ;    Stack  Stands  ;  Dutch 

Hay    Barns     (Figure    of,    277),    The 
Modem  English  Hay-barn,  276. 

Stack  and  Rick-cloth,  Figure  of,  209. 

Hayes'  "Arctic  Boat  Joiuney,"  li. 

Health,  Board  of,  163. 

Heat,  Artificial,  for  Plants,  sec  Plants. 

Heaths,  Culture  of,  81. 

Hedges,  see  Fencing. 

Heliotropes,  113. 

Hens,  see  Fowls. 

Hermit,  133. 

Hernia,  see  Rupture. 

Herrings,  Fresh,  Broiled,  Directions,  87. 
,  Siamese,   Broiled  as   Twins,    Direc- 
tions, 87. 

,  Red,  Directions  for  Dressing,  87. 

,  Pickled    (French   way),    Directions, 

86,  87. 

,  Serving  of,  256. 

Hindoos,  5, 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD   GUIDE. 


387 


Hip  Disease,  Particulars  of,  202. 

Hoe,  137;  Figures  of,  136. 

,    Dutch,    Uses  of,    14S ;    P'igiiic   of, 

,  Drill,  Uses  of,  14S  ;  Figure  of,  149. 

Hollows,  42. 

Home  Comforts,  Some  Cheap.  — 
Stopping  Draughts,  Mats,  312. 

Honeysuckle,  113. 

Hooping-cough,  its  Symptoms,  various 
P'orms,  Complications,  Effects,  and 
Treatment,  226,  227. 

Horse,  The.  — Jntroduction,  295  ;  Of  the 
Diflcrent  Breeds  of  Horses,  ib. ;  The 
Horse  in  Scripture,  id.  ;  Of  Eastern 
Breeds — The  Arabian,  295,  296  ;  The 
Persian  Horse,  296 ;  the  Turkoman, 
/b.;  India — Native  Breeds, /A  ;  Portrait 
of  "Varna,"  a  high-bred  Arab,  /b.  ; 
Portrait  of  the  Head  and  Neck  of  the 
Godolphin  Arabian,  297  ;  Western 
Breeds  (The  Barb)— Egyptian  Horses, 
296 ;  South  and  North  American 
Horses,  297  ;  European  Horses — The 
P'lemish,  297,  298  ;  The  Norman 
Horse,  298 ;  The  Hanoverian  Horses, 
//'.  ;  The  Spanish  Jennet,  :b.  ;  The 
British  Horse,  ib.  ;  The  Scotch  Gal- 
loway, ib.  ;  The  Shetland,  or  Sheltie, 
ib. ;  The  New  Forest  Pony,  and  the 
Exmoor  or  Devonshire  Pony,  ib. ;  The 
Welshman,  298,  299  ;  English  Horses 
— The  Cart  Horse,  Lincolnshire  and 
Clydesdale  (London  Dray  Horse) ; 
Lighter  Horses  and  their  Adaptability 
to  our  Pursuits — Race-horse^  High-class 
Hunter,  Poor  Man's  Hunter,  Hack, 
Harness  Horse,  Charger,  Farmer's 
Horse,  325  ;  Structure  of  the  Horse — 
Head,  Neck,  Shoulders,  Chest,  &c.. 
Back,  Hind-quarters,  Fore  Legs,  Foot, 
Hind  Legs,  Height,  Colour,  and  Age, 
325 — 327  ;  Breeding  and  Breaking — 
Sire  and  Dam,  Hereditary  Ailments, 
Of  Age,  Management,  Handling,  Feed- 
ing, Breaking  to  Saddle,  Lounging 
(Figure  of  Colt  prepared  for).  Breaking 
to  Harness,  374 — 376. 

Horse-radish,  109. 

House,  The,  as  a  Building,  a  Possession, 
and  a  Home  (Introduction),  i ;  Building 
or  Improvement  of,  ib. 

,  Ways  and  Means,  2 ;  As  Determining 

the  Respectability,  Class,  Credit,  or 
Means  of  the  Occupier,  ib.;  Ways  and 
Means  (continued),  38,  39  ;  Life  Assur- 
ance, 134—136;  Water  Supply,  162, 
163;  Life  Assurance  (continued),  179, 
180,  198—200;  Drainage,  247 — 250; 
Water   Supply   (continued),    257,  258, 

317,  318,  35i»  352. 

House,  Inmates  ok  the. — Law  of  Master 
(or  Mistress)  and  Servant,  13,  14. 

, ,  Legal  (Introduc- 
tion), 2  ;  Parent  and  Child,  35,  36 ; 
Law  of  Will-making,  90,  91  ;  Rates 
and  Taxes,  130 — 132,  206,  207;  Rights 
of  Citizenship,  230,  231. 

, ,  Domestic  (Intro- 
duction), 2 ;  Domestic  Servants  and 
their  Duties,  102,  103 ;  the  General 
Servant,  147,  148;  the  Cook,  170—172; 
the  Housemaid,  221 — 223  ;  the  Parlour- 
maid, 268,  269  ;  the  Page,  or  Occa- 
sional Boy,  305,  306  ;  the  Lady's-maid, 
363,  364. 

Household,  as  an  Institution  (Introduction), 
I  ;  Economy  in,  ib. ;  Management  in 
the,  i!>, ;  Expenditure  in,  2. 


Household,  Out-of-door  Departments  of. 
Introduction,  2. 

HoasEHOLD  Guide,  The,  Introduction,  \. 

Householders,  Compound,  Particulars  of, 
Rhumc  of  Act  32  &  33  Vict,  cap.  41, 
206,  207. 

House-hunting,  Directions  for  Judicious 
Selection  of  a  House,  99 — loi. 

Housekeeping,  &c.,  2,  3,  38. 

Housemaiil,  The,  General  Particulars  and 
Duties  of,  Sweeping  and  Dusting,  Dust- 
ing, Scrubbing,  Cleaning  of  Grates, 
Brass  and  Coj^per,  Ormolu,  Lacquered 
Work,  Marble,  Washing  of  Glass, 
cleaning  of  Oil-cloth,  Paint,  Paper- 
hangings,  Stone  Staircases,  221 — 223. 

Housemaid's  Knee,  Description  and  Treat- 
ment of,  202  ;  Figure  of,  201. 

House-tax,  or  Duty,'  Particulars  of,  130, 
131  ;  Table  showing,  132. 

Hyacinths,  60;  Cultivation  of,  81, 82;  Figure 
of  Ornamental  Box,  ib.  ;  Cultivation  of, 
191  ;  Potting  of,  ib. ;  in  Glasses,  ib. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda,  a  Hint  for  the 
Laundry,  299. 


I. 


Income  of  £\  per  week  [Correspondent], 

Table  of  Expenditure,  106. 
,  ^'i.y^  per   annum.    Expenditure    of, 

38,  39 ;  Tables,  Yearly  and  Weekly,  38. 

(Introduction),  I ;  Surplus,   ib. 

Tables  '  for     Expenditure,    Yearly, 

Weekly,  Daily,    and  Monthly  —  ^100 

per  Annum,  3. 

,  ;i^200  per  Annum,  3. 

.  £1^  per  Annum,  3. 

,  ;^400  per  Annum,  3. 

,  ;^50O  per  Annum,  3. 

,  ;i^i50  per  Annum  (Future  Article),  3. 

Income  Table,  jcf  Wages  anu  Income 

Table. 

Tax,  130;  Particulars  of,  131. 

Indian  Pink,  82. 

ludia-rubber    Varnish    for  Boots,  Making 

of,  230. 
Infancy,  Food  in,  270,  271  ;  the  Period  of 

Weaning,  ib. ;  Feeding-bottles,  ib. 
Infants,  see  Babies. 
Infants,  Clothing  for,  33 — 35,  88 — 90 ;  sec 

Baby's  ;    Exercise    not   Desirable    for, 

242  ;  Red  Gum,  Red  Gown  or  Tooth 

Rash,  Particulars  of  and  Remedies  for, 

70  ;    Sleeping  of,    142,    143  ;  Bedding, 

and  Arrangement  of  the  Bed,  143. 
Inflammation,  Symptoms  of,  41. 
Ink,  to  Erase  Stains  of,  190. 

,  Retl,  Making  of,  230. 

,  Violet,  Making  of,  230. 

,  Black,  Making  of,  230. 

,  Solid,  Recipe  for,  284. 

Inlaying,  223. 

Insurance,  Life  and  Fire,   Advantages  of, 

&c.,  39. 

,  see  Assurance. 

Policies,  Table  of  Duties  Chargeable 

upon,  207. 
Intestacy,  Administration,  91. 
Intoxication,  Treatment  of,  112. 
Iron  Pipes,  How  to  Preserve,  255. 
Itch,  The,  Diagnosis  and  Treatment,  &c., 

158  ;  Figure  of  the  Itch  Insect,  ib. 


J. 

Jam,  Making  of,  see  under  tlie  respective 
heads  of  Sorts. 


Jaundice,  particulars,  Causes,  and  Treat- 
ment, 350,  351. 

Jelly,  see  Apple  Jelly,  Currant  Jelly, 
Orange  Apple  Jelly. 

John  Dor}',  How  to  Carve,  256. 

Johnson,  Dr.,  130. 

Joints,  78 ;  Figure  of  a  Cross-joint,  77, 
84 — 86  ;  Figures,  85  ;  see  Dovetailing. 

Jonquils,  Cultivation  of,  81. 


K. 


Kale,  Particulars  of  the  Many  Sorts,  37S, 

379- 

Keyiiole-saw,  43. 

Kidderminster  Carpets,  126. 
i  Kidney  Beans,  149,  174. 
!  Kitchen  Garden,  see  Vegetable  Garden. 
' •  Range,  5  ;  Figure  of,  4. 

— —  Requisites,  19,  232 — 234  ;  Figures  of, 
232,  233. 

Ranges,  19,  20. 

Cupboards,  19. 

Furniture,  20. 

Knife-cleaning,  306  ;  Figures,  305,  306. 

Knock  Knees,  Treatment,  &c.,  of,  202. 


L. 


Lace,  sec  Point  Lace. 
Lacquered  Work,  Cleaning  of,  222. 
Ladder,  Uses  of,  137  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 
Lady's-maid,    The,    Duties   of,    &c.,    363, 

364- 

Lamb,  Particulars  for  Marketing,  336  ; 
Figure,  ib. 

,  Fore-quarter  of.  Coloured  Plate,  193; 

Cai-vmg  of,  198  ;  Figure  of,  197. 

Lamp-trimming,  306. 

Larch,  Description  and  Uses  of,  78. 

Laundry,  a  Hint  for  the,  299. 

Lawn,  109. 

Lead,  Hints  for  the  Household  Uses  of,  362. 

Leather  Work,  39 — 41  ;  Its  Introtluc- 
tion  into  England,  39  ;  Materials  and 
Instruments  for,  ib.;  Figure  of  a 
Veiner,  40 ;  the  Making  of  Leaves, 
39,  40 ;  the  Making  of  Stems,  40  ; 
the  ^Iaking  of  Berries,  Grapes,  Acorns, 
Filberts,  ^c,  40,  41 ;  Branches,  41  ; 
Patterns  for  the  Ivy  and  a  Fern 
Frond,  41  ;  Figures,  40  ;  O.ak  Leaf, 
Figure  of,  41  ;  Stains  and  Varnishes, 
IMode  of  Using,  &c.,  41  ;  Recipe  for 
Preserving  Leaves,  41  ;  Making  of 
Flowers  or  Fruit,  57;  Camelli.as,  ib.: 
Figures  of,  ib.  ;  Dahlias,  ib.;  Figure 
of,  ib.;  White  Lilies,  ib.;  Figure,  tb. : 
Hops,  ib.;  Figure,  //'. ;  in  Constructing 
Fruit,  57,  58  ;  How  to  Construct  a 
Peach,  lb.  ;  Cherries,  58 ;  W.alnuts,  ib. ; 
Filberts,  ib.;  Figure,  57;  Currants,  58; 
Strawberries,  tt>. ;  Raspberries  and 
Mulberries,  ib. ;  Wheat,  ib. ;  How  to 
Make  Leather  Figures,  ib.;  How  to 
Make  Beehives,  ib.;  Frames  for  Pic- 
tures and  Mirrors,  Brackets,  Book- 
stands, &c.,  ib. 

Legacy  and  Succession  Duty,  Table,  207. 

Lemon  Drops,  Recipe  for  Making,  291. 

Letter-writers,  Hints  to,  79 ;  How 
to  Address,  &c.,  loi,  207,  208  ;  The 
Title  of  "  Esquire,"  Heading  and  Con- 
cluding of  Letters,  235  ;  The  General 
Principle  for  Addressing  Persons 
of  Distinction,  bearing  Academical 
Honours,  &c.,  267,  268 ;  The  Directing 


38S 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX. 


or  Addressing  of  Letters,  British, 
Colonial,  or  Foreign,  335. 

Lettuces,  65,  109,  139,  149,  191,  272. 

Levels,  50  ;  see  Spirit-level. 

Lice,  or  Pediculi,  Treatment  of,  158,  159. 

Life  Assurance,  Full  Particulars  of,  74,  75 ; 
Principle  of,  74;  Credit  o{,ib.;  Selec- 
tion of  an  Office,  75  ;  Bonuses,  ib. ; 
Loans,  ib.  ;  Pai'ticulars  of,  134 — 1 36  ; 
Bonuses,  135,  136;  Generally,  179; 
Publication  of  Accounts,  ib. ;  Expendi- 
ture, 180 ;  Amalgamations,  ib. ; 
Caution  in  the  Acceptance  of  Risks, 
ib. ;  Safe  Investment,  ib. ;  Careful 
Management,  ib.  ;  Special  Uses  and 
Appliances  of,  198,  199  ;  Endowments 
to  Children  and  Life  Annuities,  199  ; 
Government  Annuities,  ib.;  Bequeath- 
ing of  Policies,  ib. ;  Mortgaging  of 
Policies,  200. 

Lily  of  the  Valley,  82. 

Lime-wash,  Making  of,  223. 

Limpet,  132. 

Shell,   Aconi    Barnacles  on,    Figure, 

.  ^33- 
Limpets,  Dressing  of,  140. 
Liquids,  How  to  Keep  Warm,  299. 
Liquid  Glue  and  Cement,   How  to  Make 

203,  223. 
Liquid  Manure,  see  Manure. 
Liver,  Complaints  of  the,  see  Biliousness 
Liver  and  Bacon,  Fried,  119,  120. 
Liver,  see  Calf's,  Sheep's. 
Liver  Sauce,  see  Sauce. 
Loach,    The,    recommended,    69 ;    Figure 

of,  ib. 
Loaf,  see  Bread. 
Lobelia,  82,  113,  114. 
Lobster  Sauce,  324. 
Locks   and  Door  Fittings,   Particulars  of, 

213,  214  ;  Figures,  213. 
Lodgers,  Advice  to,  211 — 213. 
Loin  of  Pork,  see  Pork. 
Looking-glass,  Re-decorating  of  the  Frame, 

377. 


M; 


Macaroni  Pudding,  Directions  for  Making, 

234- 

Mackerel,  Plain  Boiled,  with  Fennel  Sauce, 
68. 

• ,  Plain  Broiled,  How  to  Dress,  86. 

,  Potted,  Directions,  86. 

,  Coloured  Plate,  193. 

,  How  to  Carve,  256. 

Magic  Bottles,  The,  192. 

Music  (a  game),  127. 

Mahogany,  Particulars  and  Uses  of,  78 

Mallets,  see  Hammers. 

Management,  {Introduction),  i. 

Mantel-shelves,  Making  of  Velvet  Hang- 
ings for,  &c.,  with  Illustrations,  361. 

Manure,  109,  246,  247. 

,  Farm-yard,  327. 

,  Liquid,  Carts  and  Barrovv'S,  152,  327. 

,  Liquid,    Tanks,    328 ;    Figure   of  a 

Portable  Pump,  ib. 

,  Composts,  Farm-yard  Manure,  Farm 

Sewage,  Manure  Pits,  Dry-earth  Com- 
post and  Sewage  Tank  combined,  Top- 
dressings,  Liquid  Manuring,  209 — 211. 

Manuring,  138,  174. 

Marble,  Cleaning  of,  222. 

,  Polish  for.  Making  of,  230. 

Mariner's  Matelote,  The,  341. 

Marketing,  261  ;  Mutton,  Lamb,  Pork, 
Bacon,  Ham,  Venison,  336. 


Marquetry,  Particulars,  223. 

Marrow,  1 03. 

Master  (or  Mistress)  and  Servant,  13,  14, 
see  Employers ;  Characters,  Respon- 
sibility and  Non-responsibility  for  Acts 
of  Servants,  14. 

Mats,  312  ;  Figures,  ib. 

,  see  Feather  Mats. 

Matelote,  see  Mariner's  Matelote. 

Matrimony  Sauce,  27. 

Mattresses,  Stuffing  of,  263 ;  Particulars 
and  Figure,  285. 

Mayonnaise  Sauce,  How  to  Make,  365. 

of  Eel,  see  Eel. 

Meadow,  Grasses  best  Adapted  for,   153, 

154- 

Meadows,  209;  Top-dressings,  210;  Liquid 
Manuring,  210,  211. 

Measles,  Diagnosis,  186,  187 ;  Treatment, 
187. 

Measures,  Tables  of,  1 60. 

Meat,  171. 

,  see  Boiling  of  Meat. 

,  Seasonable  (December),  III. 

,  Seasonable  (January),  148. 

-,  Seasonable  (February),  235. 

,  Seasonable  (March),  284. 

Mechanic,  the  Household.  —  Intro- 
duction, The  Tool-chest,  14 — 16; 
The  Tool-chest,  23,  24,  42,  43,  49  — 
5 1 ;  Woods  used  in  Household  Car- 
pentry, 77,  78;  Joints,  84 — 86;  The 
Carpenter's  Bench,  lOi ;  Doors,  128 ; 
Windows,  140 — 142;  Blinds,  175,  176; 
Bell-hanging,  180,  181;  Curtains,  208; 
Locks  and  Door  Fittings,  213,  214; 
Gas,  250,  273,  299,  300;  Garden  Fur- 
niture and  Decorations,  372,  373. 

Medallions,  353,  354. 

Medical  Men,  7. 

Medicine,  Domestic  {hiiroduction),  2; 
General  Remarks,  7,  8,  41,  42;  Symp- 
toms Justifying  to  Send  for  the  Doctor, 
41 ;  Diseases  Incidental  to  Children — 
Convulsions,  Diarrhoea,  83,  84;  Teeth- 
ing, Bronchitis  and  Diseases  of  the 
Breathing  Apparatus,  Croup  and  Ner- 
vous Croup,  False  or  Nervous  Croup 
(Child-crowing),  114,  115;  Ei-uptive 
JFevers,  186,  187,  215;  Typhoid  and 
Typhus,  and  Infantile  Intermittent 
Fevers,  2x5,  216;  Relapsing  Fever, 
Hooping  Cough,  Mumps,  226,  227; 
Chicken  Pox,  271;  Worms,  Abscess, 
Ague,  302,  303;  Apoplexy,  Asthma, 
318,  319;  Biliousness  and  Bilious 
Attacks,  334,  335 ;  Biliousness  or 
Bilious  Disorders,  Including  Jaundice, 
350,  351;  Bronchitis,  359,  360. 

Melted  Butter,  Making  of,  324. 

Mesembryanthemum,  82. 

,  Trailing,  113. 

Messenger,  The  (a  game),  127. 

Mignonette,  Directions  for  Culture,  81, 
"82,  114. 

Mince  Meat,  for  Mince  Pies,  Making  of, 
166. 

j  Old-fashioned,  Making  of,  167. 

j  or  Bacon  Pudding,  Making  of,  28. 

—  Roll,  28. 

Tslince  Pies,  Particulars  of,  151. 

,  Making  of,  167,  see  Mince  Meat. 

,  Lemon,  Making  of,  234. 

,  Egg,  Making  of,  234. 

Minnow,  Highly  Recommended,  Par- 
ticulars of,  69. 

,  Disease  of,  6g. 

Mimulus,  82,  113. 

Mock  Ivobster  Sauce,  324. 


Mock  Turtle  Soup,  see  Soup. 

Modelling  in  Clay  for  Amateurs — General 
Remarks,  Material,  Tools,  the  First 
Lesson  (with  Figures),  315 — 317  ;  De- 
corative Modelling  :  a  Bracket,  a  Vase 
(with  Illustrations),  345,  346  ;  a  Me- 
dallion (Illustration),  a  Bust  (Illus- 
trations), 353,  354. 

Moles  and  Mothers'  Marks,  Particulars  and 
Treatment  of,  124. 

Moss,  82. 

Mother  and  Baby,  10 ;  when  about  to 
become  a  Mother,  ib.;  Nursing,  ib. ; 
Early  Rising  from  Childbed,  ib. ; 
Diet,  ib. 

and  Child,  36. 

Mothers'  Marks,  see  Moles. 

Moths,  190. 

Moulding,  Paste  for  Making  of,  230. 

Mouldings,  42. 

Muffins,  "^Making  of,  &c.,  28. 

Mullet,  Grey,  Particulars  and  Dressing 
of,  365- 

Mumps,  Particulars  of  and  Treatment,  227. 

Mushroom,  Broiled,  Dressing  of,  195. 

,  Stewed,  Dressing  and  Serving  of,  195. 

Catchup,  Making  of,  195. 

Toast,  Making  of,  195. 

,  Pickled,  Making  and  Keeping  of,  195. 

Mushrooms  and  Pickles,  195,  196. 

Musk,  Directions  for  Culture,  81,  82. 

Mussels,  134. 

and  Rice  (an  Algerian  Recipe),  Dress- 
ing and  Serving  of,  140. 

,  Hustled,  Dressing  and  Serving  of,  I40. 

,  Pickled,  Pickling  of,  &c.,  140. 

,  Various  Modes  of  Dressing,  181. 

Mustard  Sauce,  Making  of,  324. 

Mutton,  Leg  of,  7;  Cai-ving  of,  ib.; 
Figiu'es  of,  ib. 

,  Cold,  Servmg  of,  7, 

,  Particulars     for     Marketing,    336  ; 

Figure,  ib. 

,  Haricot,  see  Haricot. 

• ,  Neck  of,  Carving  of,  1 43  ;    Figure, 

144. 

,  Loin  of,  Car\'ing  of,  143. 

,  Saddle  of.  Coloured  Plate,  1 93. 

,  Canning  of,  198  ;  Figure  of,  I97. 

Myrtle,  Culture  of,  81. 


N. 


Nails,  Common  forms  of,  with  Names,  51  ,* 
Figures  of,  ib. 

Narcissus,  Cultivation  of,  81. 

Nasturtium,  113. 

,  Pickled,  see  Pickled. 

Navel,  Started,  Treatment,  286,  287. 

Neat's  Foot  or  Cow  Heel,  Uses  of,  120. 

,    with  Parsley   Sauce,    Cooking   and 

Serving  of,  120. 

Nectarine,  109. 

Nemophila,  60,  82,  113. 

Nervous  Croup,  see  -False  Crbup. 

Nettle-rash,  Diagnosis  and  Treatment,  158. 

Newt,  the  Common,  Figure  of,  69. 

Nipples,  Sore  or  Chapped,  Causes  and 
Treatment,  157,  158,  253 

Nitrates,  163. 

Nose,  Bleeding  from  the.  Treatment  of,  52. 

Nursery,  Aspect  of,  1 10  ;  Part  of  the  House, 
ib.;  Furniture,'?^!'./  Walls,  ib.;  Bedding, 
ib.;  Fittings,  ib.;  Pictures,  ib.;  Carpet. 
ib.;  Sto\e, ib.;  Fenders,  no;  Ventila- 
tion, III, 

Nurses,  10. 


CASSELL'S   HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


389 


o. 


Oak,  Particulars  and  Uses  cf,  70. 

Oatmeal  ronidge,  Making  of,  234. 

Obedient  Ball,  The,  192. 

Oil-cloth,  125  ;  Cleaning  of,  222. 

Old    Woman's    Tooth    (for    cutting    out 

grooves  across   the  grain),  Figure  of, 

42. 
Omelettes,  Sweet,  167. 
Onions,  4,  65,  13S  ;  Thinning  of,  139,  174. 

,  I'ickled,  Tickling  of,  196. 

,  Stewed,  182. 

Opodeldoc,  Recipe,  230. 

Orange  Apple  Jelly,  Making,  220. 

Ormolu,  Cleaning  of,  222. 

Ornaments,   Table     and   Other,    How  to 

Make,  with  Illustrations,  313. 
Ottomans,  How  to  Constmct,  Cover,  &c., 

378  ;  Figure,  ib. 
Ox-tail  Soup,  see  Soup. 
Oxidised  Silver,  see  Silver. 
Oystei^s,  Stewed,  Dressing  of,  182. 


Page,  The,  or  Occasional  Boy,  His  Du- 
ties, Dress,  Cinder-sifting,  Boot- clean- 
ing (Figure),  Knife-cleaning  (Figures), 
Plate-cleaning,  Window-cleaning,  Trim- 
ming Lamps,  Washing  Glass,  Brushing 
Clothes,  305,  306,  350. 

Pa-tjurus  Bernhardus,  133. 

Paint,  Cleaning  of,  222,  223. 

,  French,  Recipe  for,  284. 

for  Out-door  Work,  284. 

Pancakes,  Particulars  of,  66,  67,  167. 

,  Apple,  Making  of,  67. 

Panel-saw,  43. 

Pansies,  109. 

Paper  Flower  Making  (generally),  193, 
194  ;  To  Make  the  Cement,  194  ;  To 
Make  a  Cabb.age  Rose,  &c.,  194,  195; 
Making  the  Stamens  and  Pistils, 
Calyxes,  The  Azalea  and  Rhododen- 
dron, A  Half-blown  Rosebud,  Carna- 
tion, Primrose,  with  Illustrations,  264 
—266. 

I'apcr-hangings,  Cleaning  of,  223. 

Parent  and  Child,  Relations  between,  35  ; 
Legal  Duties  of  Parents,  ib.  ;  Education 
of  Children,  35,  36  ;  Power  of  Parents 
over  Children,  36. 

Parishes,  Persons  Chargeable  to,  206. 

Parlour-maid,  The,  her  Duties,  Directions 
Regarding  Answering  the  Door,  Wait- 
ing at  Tabic,  the  Serving  of  Meals, 
Wine,  &c..  26^S,  269. 

Parochial  Rates,  Particulars  of,  131. 

Parquetry,  Description,  223. 

Parsley  Sauce,  see  .Sauce. 

Parsnips,  So^ving  of,  138 ;  Thinning  of,  138, 

174,  175.  191. 
Parsnip  Fritters,  American,  How  to  Make, 

67. 
Partridges,  Carving  of,  144  ;  Figure,  z<5. 
Pasturage,  Grasses  best  Adapted  for,  153, 

154- 

Pastures,  209. 

Patchwork. — Tntroauition,  with  Illustra- 
tions, 337;  Elemcntarv — Counterpanes 
in  Patchwork,  337,  338. 

Peach,  109. 

Fritters,  67. 

Peacocks,  150. 

Pear-trees,  109. 

Pearl  White,  299. 


Peas,  Early,  109  ;  Sowing  of,  138 ;  Stick- 
ing of,  138,  149  ;  Cooking  of,  182,  272. 

Pea-soup,  see  Soup. 

Pediculi,  see  Lice. 

Pelargoniums,  see  Cieranlums. 

Peppermint  Drops,  Recipe  for  Making, 
291. 

Perch,  How  to  Cook,  67  ;  Boiled,  Fried, 
&c.,  341. 

Perennials,  82. 

Periwinkle,  132. 

Periwinkles,  Dressing  and  Serving  of,  140. 

Perpetual  Paste,  Making  of,  203. 

Petunias,  113. 

Pheasant,  Carving  of,  144  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Pick-axe,  Uses  of,  137  ;  Figure  of,  136. 

Pickled  Beet-root,  jfi*  Pickled  Cucumliers. 

Cucnnil)crs,  Tomatoes,  and  Beet- 
root, Preparation,  Pickling,  and  Keep- 
ing of,  219. 

-- — ■  Gherkins,  Particulars  of  Pickling, 
&c.,  219. 

Nasturtium  Buds  and  Seeds,  Descrip- 
tion and  Pickling  of,  219. 

Onions,  Walnuts,  &c. ,  see  under  their 

Respective  Names. 

Samphire,    Particulars   and    Pickling 

of,  219. 

Tomat'^es,  see  Pickled  Cucumbers. 

Pickle-jars  and  Bottles,  Wax  for  Sealing, 
195,  196. 

Pickles,  219. 

• -,  see  Mushrooms. 

Pigeons,  How  to  Carve,  256. 

Pie-crust,    Good    Common,    Making    of, 

54,  55- 

Pigs,  Keeping  of,  Pitslit  on,  &c.  [Cor- 
respondent], 106. 

Pigs'  Feet,  Dressing  of,  119. 

Fry,  Directions  for  Dressing,  104. 

— —  Liver,  Directions  for  Dressing,  104. 

Head,  Boiled  with  Vegetables,  Direc- 
tions, 104. 

Pike,  Small,  How  to  Cook,  67. 

,  Boiled  Whole,  341. 

,  Stuffing  for,  342. 

,  Baked  Whole,  342. 

,  Sen'ing  of,  256. 

Pilchards,  Serving  of,  256. 

Piles,  Treatment  of,  287. 

,  see  Bleeding  Piles. 

Pillow-cases,  346. 

Pimples  and  Rashes  of  the  I'acc,  Particu- 
lars of,  and  Cures  for,  70. 

Pin-bit,  Figure  and  Description  of,  16. 

Pin-vices,  5  r  ;  Figure  of,  ib.  ;  Prices  of, 
ib. 

Pincers,  Ordinary,  Figure  of,  24. 

and  Pliers,  24. 

Pine,  Particulars  and  Uses  of,  78. 

Pines,  109. 

Pinks,  109. 

Pippins,  Dried  Normandy,  Directions  and 
Sers-ing  of,  220. 

Pitchfork,  Uses  of,  149  ;  Figure  of,  /A 

Pit-saw,  43. 

Pits,  65,  66. 

Plaice,  How  to  Carve,  2^6. 

Plane,  Ordinary  (or  Jack),  Construction  of, 
24  ;  Figure  of  a  Section,  id.  ;  Figure  of 
Double  Iron,  ib. 

,  Smoothing,  24. 

,  Trying,  24. 

,  Toothing  (for  Mahogany),  42. 

,  Beading,  42. 

,  Rebating,  see  Fillisters. 

,  Match,  42. 

,  Compass,  42. 

,  see  Spokcshavc. 


Plane,  Principle  in,  42. 
Plane-irons,  Sharjiening  of,  24. 
Plants,  Artificial  Heat  for,  114. 

,  Young,  Training  House  io:.  114. 

Plate-cleaning,  306,  362. 
Pliers,  Common,  Figure  of,  24. 

Culling,  Figure  of,  24. 

Plum  Dumpling,  see  Dumpling. 
——  Jam,  see  Greengage. 
— —  Pudding  (Economical  and  Excellent), 
Making  and  Boiling  of,  28. 

,  Sauce  for,  28. 

,  History  of,  151. 

.   Making,    Boiling,  and   Serving  of, 

166. 

,  without  Eggs,   Making  and  Boiling 

of,  166. 

(Economical),  Making,  Boiling,  and 

Serving  of,  166. 

,   Smaller  (Reasonable),    Making  of, 

166. 

,  Family,    (very  Palatable),    Making, 

Serving,  and  Keeping  of,  166. 

,  with  Apples,  Making  of,  166. 

,  Sauce  for,  166. 

Plum  Trees,  109. 

Point    Lace    Work. — Tracing    Linen, 
Braid,    &c.,    with    Illustrations,    225, 
226;  Spanish  Point  Trefoil,  280—282  ; 
Spanish  Point  Loop,  with  Illustrations, 
356-358. 
Poisoning,  Treatment  of,  1 12. 
Polishing  Paste,  How  to  Make,  190. 
Pdlyanthus,  81. 

Pomades — Castor   Oil,   Crystallised,  Mar- 
row,   Macassar,    East  India,    Macassar 
Oil,  Marrow  Oil,  Recipes  for  Making, 
276. 
Pomatum,  Ordinary   Scentetl,   Recipe  for 

Making,  276. 
Pompon    Chrysanthemums,    Suitable    for 

Window  Decoration,  81. 
Poor  Rate,  The,  History  and  Particulars 

of,  131,  132. 
Pork,  Particulars  for  Marketing,  336. 

,  Roast,  and  Potatoes   Fried  Whole, 

Directions,  104. 

,  Breast  of,  with  Rice,  Preparing  and 

Serving  of,  120. 

,  Leg  of.  Carving  of,  198 ;  Figure  of, 

197. 

,  Loin  of.  How  to  Carve,  256. 

Porridge,  Making  of,  284. 

,  see  Oatmeal  Porridge. 

Poitulaca,  82. 

Pot  Pourri,  Indian  Jars  for,  vnxh.  Illustra- 
tions, 349,  350. 
Potage  a  la  Tortue,  Recipe  for,  304. 
Potato  Bread,  Making  of,  27. 

Cake,  ditto,  ib. 

Dumpling,  Making  of,  6. 

Pie,  6  ;  Figures  of  Dish  and  Pie,  ib. 

Potatoes,   138,    139,  160;  How  to  Cook, 

182  ;  Mashed,  182. 
Potting  of  Plants,  65  ;  Rearing  of  Delicate 
Plants  from  Seed  in  Pots,  114  ;  How  to 
Sow,  ib.;  How  to  Water,  ib. 
Poultry  {Introdiietion),  2. 

,  Incubation  of,  95,  96. 

,  Roasting  of,  1 7 1 . 

,  Seasonable  (December),  m  ;  (Janu- 
ary), 148  ;  (February),    235  ;    (March), 
284. 
Poultry — Turkeys  and  Guinea-fcwl,  217, 
218;  Diseases  of  Poultry,  21S,  219. 

Houses  and  Runs,  30 — 32. 

Keeping,  30 — 32. 

Yaro,  32  ;  Plan  (Figure  of),  32- 

PrcscrNCs,  219—221. 


390 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 


Primrose,  see  Chinese  Primrose. 

Primroses,  82. 

Prolapse  (of  the  Bowel),  Particulars,  287. 

Property-tax,  130 ;  Particulars  of,  131. 

Proven,  11. 

Proverbs  (a  game).  Particulars  of,  160. 

Praning-knife,  Uses  of,  149  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Scissors,  Particulars  of,  148. 

Prussian  Exercises  (a  game).  Particulars  of, 

159- 
Pudding,  Tapioca,  Baked,  Making  of,  36. 

,  Rice,  Baked,  Making  of,  36. 

,  Bread,  Broken,  Baked,  Making  of,  36. 

,  Bread  and   Butter,  without   Butter, 

Making  of,  36. 
,  Batter,    Plain,   Boiled,   Making  and 

Boiling  of,  37. 

,  Black  Cap,  Making,  37. 

-;  Batter,  Baked,  with  Apples,  Making 

of,  37- 
— — ,  Batter,     Baked,    with    Sausages    or 
Bacon,  37. 

,  see  Toad-in-the-hole. 

,  Baiter,   Baked  under  Meat,  Making 

and  Serving  of,  37. 
,  Yorkshire,  Making  and  Cooking  of, 

37- 

,  Carrot,  Making  and  Boiling,  37. 

,  Saratoga   (American),    Making  and 

Baking,  37. 

,  Flour,  Dr.  Dobell's,  37. 

,  Suet,  How  to  Make,  54- 

,  Treacle,  the  Making  of,  55. 

,  Beef,  How  to  Make,  66. 

Puddings,  see  Apple  Pudding,  Mincemeat 

or  Bacon  Pudding,  Plum  Pudding,  &c. 
Pumpkin  and  Rice  Soup,  see  Soup. 
Puree  of  Green  Peas,  see  Soup. 
Putty  and  Paint,  How  to  Soften,  255. 


Queen  Cakes,  Making  of,  234. 

(Queen's  Taxes,  130,  131. 

Quilts  and  Counterpanes,  Particulars  and 

Prices  of,  285,  286. 
Quince  Marmalade,  Making,  &c.,  of,  221. 


R. 


Rabbit,  How  to  Carve,  79, 

Radishes,  65,  109,  138. 

Radish  Pods,  Pickled,  Pickling  of,  196. 

Rake,  Uses  of,  137  ;  Figure  of,  136. 

,  Daisy,  137  ;  Figure,  136. 

Ranunculus,  82. 

Raspberries,  65,  138,  149,  174;  jJressing 
(November),  190  ;  (December),  271. 

Raspberry  Drops,  Recipe  for  Making,  291. 

Jam,  Directions  for  Making,  220. 

Rasps,  see  Files. 

Ratatouille,  254,  255. 

Ratchet  Braces,  16. 

Rates  and  Taxes,  130 — 132;  Unions, 
Persons  Chargeable  to  Parishes,  Com- 
pound Householders,  Table  of  Duties 
Chargeable  upon  Insurance  Policies  and 
Legacies,  206,  207. 

Razor-fish  or  Solen,  Dressing  of,  182. 

Recipes,  Simple,  5. 

Recreation,  and  Migrations  into  Purer 
Atmosphere,  as  Necessaiy  to  Healtli 
{^Introduction),  i. 

Red  Blushes,  71. 

or  Black  Thorn,  109. 

Cabbage,  Pickled,  Pickling  of,  1 96. 

Reeds  and  Rushes,  64. 


Reform  Act,  1867,  206. 

Rent,  Taxes,  &c.,  2,  3,  38. 

Rhubarb,  65,  109,  138,  149;  Forcing  of, 
271. 

Ribs  of  Beef,  see  Beef. 

Rice  Milk,  Savoury,  Making  of,  36 

,  Sweet,  Making  of,  36. 

Pudding,  Baked,  see  Pudding 

Ringworm  of  the  Body,  Diagnosis  and 
Treatment,  158. 

Rip-saw,  43 ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

River  Fish — Boiling  of.  Court-bouillon, 
The  Salmon  (P'igure,  324),  Boiled 
Salmon,  Melted  Butter,  Mustard  Sauce, 
Anchovy  Sauce,  Lobster  Sauce,  Mock 
Lobster  Sauce,  Salmon  Steaks,  Kippered 
Salmon,  The  Great  Lake  Trout  and 
Salmon  Trout,  River  Trout,  Potted  Trout 
_  (Charr),  322—325. 

Rivers,  Dr,  Edward,  163. 

Roach,  The,  69. 

,  see  Bream,  341. 

Roast  Beef,  Christmas  Fare,  150;  Roasting 
of,  166. 

— —  Fowls,  How  to  Carve,  56;  Figure  of, 
ib. 

Turkey,  Dressing  and  Serving  of,  166. 

Roasting,  170,  171. 

Roasting-jack,  5. 

Roasts,  at  Short  Notice,  167. 

Robes,  Infants',  88. 

Roller,  Particulars  of,  137. 

Roly-poly,  Sugar,  Making  of,  55  ;  Sauce 
for,  ib. 

,  Apple,  the  Making  of,  55. 

,  Fruit,  Jam,  or  Marmalade,  55. 

Room  Furniture,  Particulars  of,  126. 

Round  of  Beef,  see  Beef. 

Round  Worm,  The,  Particulars  of,  302; 
Treatment  for,  ib. 

Rounds,  42. 

Runner  Beans,  Particulars  and  Growing  of, 
33 1  ;  see  Beans. 

Rupture  or  Heinia,  Particulars,  286. 

Ruptures,  8. 

Rymers,  or  Broaches,  16. 


Saffron  Cakes  or  Buns,  see  Cakes. 

Salading,  Small,  no. 

Salmon,    Carving  of,  56 ;  Figure  of,   ib.  ; 

Figure  of  Fish-slice,  ib. 
,  150;     Full     Particulars     of,     323; 

Figure  of,  324. 

,  Boiled,  323,  324. 

>  Sauces  for,  324. 

Steaks,  324. 

,  Kippered,  324. 

— —  Trout,  Cooking  of,  324, 
Salvia,  82  ;  Management  of,  //'. 
Samphire,  Pickled,  see  Pickled. 
.Saratoga  Pudding,  American,  see  Pudding. 
Sauce,  see  Brain  Sauce. 

-,  see  Fine  Herb  Sauce. 

,  see  Tartar  Sauce. 

• ,  see  Mayonnaise  Sauce. 

,  Fish,   see  Melted    Butter,    Mustard, 

Anchovy,  Lobster,  Mock  Lobster. 

,  Liver,  How  to  Make,  68. 

,  Fennel,  68. 

for  Codfish,  68. 

■ ,  Sharp,  68. 

for  any  Boiled  Fish,  68. 

,  Brown,  68. 

,  Parsley,  Making  of,  140. 

for  Plum  Pudding,  see  Plum  Pudding. 

Robert,  Making  of,  365. 


Sauces,  at  Short  Notice,  167. 

Sausage  Dumpling,  Making  of,  28. 

Rolls,  Making  of,  66. 

Sausages  and  Cabbage,  Directions,  103, 
104. 

,  Epping,  Directions,  104. 

Savoys,  174. 

Saw,  Common  Metal,  Use  of,  49  ;  Figure 
of,  ib. 

,  Hand,  Uses  of,  148. 

,  Tenon,  Uses  of,  148. 

Saws,  Particulars  of,  42,  43. 

,  see  Pit-saw,  Rip-saw,  Half-rip- 
saw, Panel-saw,  Hand-sa^s,  Tenon- 
saw,  Keyhole-saw,  Crosscut -saw, 
Compass-saw,  Turning-saw. 

Sawdust  for  Forcing  Purposes,  113. 

Saw-set,  43  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Scalds,  see  Burns. 

Scallops,  Dressing  of,  181,  182. 

Scarlet  Fever,  Diagnosis,  186,  187;  Treat- 
ment, 186;  Dropsy,  ib.;  To  Prevent 
tlie  Spread  of  the  Disease,  ib.;  see 
Fever. 

Scarlet  Runners,  see  Beans. 

Scillas,  Cultivation  of,  81. 

Scotch  Terrier,  see  Dogs. 

Scotland,  Culinary  Art  iu,  5 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  12. 

Scrap-books,  see  Albums. 

Screen  Making,  with  Figures,  129,  130. 

.Screw-drivers,  16,  50;  Figure  of,  49. 

Screw  Hammer,  51 ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Scrubbing,  222. 

Scurfiness,  see  Dandriff. 

Scvthe-stone,  or  Rubber,  Particulars  of, 
'148. 

Sea-bathing,  Rules  for,  62 

Sea-kale,  Forcing  of,  27,  65,  109,  138,  139, 
149,  174,  175,  190. 

SeaAveeds,  132. 

Skaling  -  WAX,  Making,  —  (Various 
Colours),  368. 

Seats,  Distribution  of,  230,  231. 

"  Sedan  Chair"  for  Carrying  the  Wounded, 
72 ;  Figure  of,  73 

Seedlings,  113. 

Seeds,  Rearing  of,  114;  .Soils  for,  ib.;  In 
Pots,  ib.;  Thinning  of,  ib.;  Watering 
of,  ib. 

Serpula;,  134,  162;  Figure  of,  133. 

Servant,  General,  The,  Particulars  of.  In- 
cluding Wages,  Duties,  Time  for  Dress- 
ing, Arrangement  of  Work,  «S:c.,  147, 
148. 

Servants,  Domestic,  13,  14;  Certain  Duties 
of,  13 ;  Duration  of  the  Service,  ib.  ; 
Notice  or  Warning,  ib.;  Summary  Dis- 
missal, ib.;  Diet,  &c.,  ib.;  Ill-treatment 
of,  ib.;  see  Characters. 

Settees,  Conversion  of  Superfluous  Boxes 
into,  313. 

Shadows,  or  Shadow  Bufif,  127. 

Sharp  Sauce,  see  Sauce. 

Shears,  Uses  of,  148 ;  Figure  of,  149. 

Sheep's  Feet  Pat^,  Dressing  of,  119. 

Heads,  Dressing  and  Serving  of,  139. 

Liver,  see  Calf's. 

-Trotters,  How  to  Dress,   119;  Sauce 

for,  //'. 

Sheets,  346. 

Shell-fish,  The  Cheaper  —  Limpets,  Peri- 
winkles, "Whelks,  Mussels,  Dressing 
of,  140 ;  Mussels  with  Sharp  Sauce, 
Scalloped  Mussels,  Fried  Mussels, 
Scallops,  Stewed  Oysters,  the  Razor 
Fish  or  Solen,  Clams,  Stewed  Clams, 
Hashed  Clams,  l8l,  182. 

Shells,  132—134. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


391 


Shingles,   The,  Diagnosis  and  Treatment, 

.^57. 
Shiverings,  42. 
Shoes,  Cutta-peicha  Soles,  190. 

and  Boots,  Soleing  with  Gutta-percha, 

214. 
Shopkeepers,  The  (a  Game),  Particulars  of, 

159- 

Short  Cake,  How  to  Make  and  When  to 
Eat,  54. 

Shoulder  of  Mutton,  the  Carving  of.  So  ; 
(Figures),  //'. 

Shrubbery,  109. 

Shnibs,  Removal  of,  60,  65,  66 ;  Pro- 
tections for,  il>.;  (Figures),  65. 

Shutters,  15. 

Siamese  Link  (a  game),  191. 

Sickness,  42. 

Side  Tables,  Covering,  &c.,  of,  37;,  378 ; 
Figure,  378. 

Silver,  see  Gold. 

,  Oxidised,  How  to  Oxidise,  3 78. 

Birch,  109. 

Skate,  Particulars  of,  68. 

Skin,  Management  of  the,  22,  23  ;  Its  Struc- 
ture and  Functions,  22 ;  How  to  Keep 
the  Skin  in  Health,  22,  23,  45,  46  ; 
Warmth,  45  ;  Exercise,  45  ;  Cleanli- 
ness, 45,  46  ;  Sea-bathing,  62  ;  Dis- 
orders of  the  Skin — Dry  Skin,  Moist 
Skin,  62,  63  ;  Pimples  and  Rashes  of 
the  Face,  Skin  Cosmetics,  DandrifT  or 
Scurfiness,  Eruptions,  Red  Blushes,  70, 
71  ;  Discharging  Eruptions,  Chilblains, 
Warts,  Corns,  Moles  and  Mothers' 
Marks,  Discolorations  of  the  Skin, 
Chapped  Hands  and  Lips,  123,  124  ; 
The  Shingles,  Sore  Nipples,  Nettle- 
rash,  The  Itch,  Ringworm  of  the  Body, 
Lice  or  Pediculi,  157 — 159. 

,  Discolorations  of  the,  Particulars  of 

and  Remedies  for,  124. 

Diseases,  83. 

^  Cosmetics,  Particulars  of,  70. 

Small-pox,  Diagnosis,  215  ;  Treatment,  il>.; 
How  to  Prevent  the  Disease  Spread- 
ing, ib. 

,  see  Vaccination. 

Smelts,  Serving  of,  256. 

Smith,  Rev.  Sydney,  2. 

Snails,  69. 

Snowdrops,  Cultivation  of,  81. 

Soap  Liniment,  see  Opodeldoc. 

Sofas,  126,  127. 

Soil  for  Potting,  114. 

Soiling,  211. 

Solen,  see  Razor-fish. 

Soup,  Recipes  for  :  Cabbage,  87. 

,  Meagre  Cabbage,  87. 

,  Pea,  103. 

,  Vegetable,  103. 

,  Shin  of  Beef,  103. 

,  Pumpkin  and  Rice,  104. 

,  Van  Abbot's  Invalid's,  259. 

,  Meagre  (Soupe  Maigre),  259. 

,  Sorrel  and  Potato,  259. 

,  Small  White  Onion,  259. 

,  Leek  and  Potato  (Aleagre),  259. 

,  Turnip  and  Potato  (Meagre),  259. 

,  Carrot  259. 

,  Onion,  259. 

,  Rice  and  Onion,  Brown,  259. 

,  Rice  and  Onion,  White,  259. 

,  Green  Pea,  (French  Way,)  259. 

,  Pumpkin,  259. 

,  Cauliflower,  259. 

,  Provencal,  259. 

,  a  Garbure,  259. 

,  Garbure  k  la  Ik'arnaise,  259,  260. 


Soup,  Tomato,  260. 

,  Gravy,  260. 

,  Cheese,  (Meagre,)  260. 

,  Tapioca,  283. 

,  Vermicelli,  2S3. 

,  Macaroni,  283. 

,  Julienne,  283. 

,  White,  283. 

,  Mock   Turtle,    304  ;    sec   Forcemeat 

Balls. 

,  Ox-tail,  304. 

,  Cherry,  German  Recipe  for,  304. 

,  Mulligatawny,  How  to  Make,  310. 

,  All  the  Year  Round's  Mulligatawny, 

310. 

,  Giblet,  INIaking  of,  310. 

,  Cabbage,  Making  of,  310. 

— — ,  Puree  of  Green  Peas,  Making  of,  310. 

,  Hare,  Making  of,  311. 

,  Pea,  Puree  of  Dried  Peas,  Making 

of,  311. 

,  Hasty,  311. 

,  Green  Pea,  311. 

'— — ,  Cabbage,  (Maigre,)  Making  of,  311. 

■ ,  Small  Onion,  Making  of,  311. 

From    Essences     and     Extracts    of 

Meat,  see  Broth. 
,     Fish,    Recipes     for,     a     Soup    ol 

Plaice,     Small      Conger     Eels,     and 

Whiting,  260. 

,  Shrimp-tail  and  Tomato,  260. 

,  Oyster,  260. 

,  Mussel  or  other  Shell-fish,  260. 

,  Clam,  260,  261. 

,  Eel,  261. 

,  White  Eel,  282,  283. 

,  Brown  Eel,  283. 

,  Similar    Soups,    with     Firm-fleshed 

Middle-sized  Fish,   as    Small    Conger, 

Soles,  &c.,  283. 

,  Salmon,  283. 

,  Bouille-a-baisse,  283. 

Soups  and  Purees — Mock-turtle,  Force- 
meat Balls,  Egg    Balls,     Potage   h.   la 

Tortue,    Ox-tail    Soup,     Cheny    Soup 

(German  Recipe),  304. 
Soups,   Plain,   Directions  for  Making,  87, 

103  ;  (at  short  notice),  167. 
South  Americans,  5. 
Spade,   Particulars  of,    137  ;    Figures   of, 

136, 
Spanner,  51. 
Speaking  Buff  (a  game),   Particulars   of, 

159. 

Spermaceti  Ointment,  Recipes  for,  284. 

Spinach,  65  ;  Round-leaved  (sowing  of), 
138. 

Spirit-level,  50  ;  Figure  of,  tk 

Spokcshave  (lowest  form  of  Plane),  42. 

Sponge  Cake,  How  to  Make,  234. 

Sprained  Ankle,  53  ;  Strapping  or  Ban- 
daging, ib.  ;  Figure  of,  ih. 

,  Method  of  Carrying  (Figures),  72. 

Knee,   53  ;  Strapping  or  Bandaging, 

ib.  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Sprains,  Treatment  of,  53. 

Sprats,  Serving  of,  256. 

Spring-blinds,  see  Blinds. 

Slattresses,  156. 

Springs,  15. 

Squares,  Uses  of,  50 ;  Figures  of,  49. 

,  Used   by  Masons,    50;    Figure   of, 

49- 
Stain  for  Mahogany  Colour,  350. 
.Stair  Carpets,  125. 
Stairs,  125. 
Stays,  362. 
Steaks,  see  Chops. 
Steps,  Garden,  (''•es  of.  137  :  Ficure  of.  ib. 


Stereoscopic  Company,  The  London — 
Christmas  Novelties — The  "Scientific 
Mystery,"  &c.,  192. 

.Stocks,  60. 

Stone  Staircases,  cleaning  of,  223. 

Stone-wort  [C/iara  vjilgaris),  63;  Figure 
of,  ib. 

Stools  for  Children,  299. 

Stoppers,  Glass,  to  Loosen,  203. 

Stove  (Oven,  or  Oven  and  Boiler),  5 ; 
Figure  of,  4. 

Strawberries,  138,  139;  Watering,  138 ; 
Propagation  of,  149  ;  Dressing  for 
August,  174;  November,  190 ;  De- 
cember, 271. 

Strawberry  Beds,  109. 

Jam,  Full  Particulars  for  Making  and 

Keeping,  220. 

.Strength,  Loss  of,  42. 

Stretchers,  and  their  Substitutes,  71,  72; 
Figure  of,  72. 

Striking-knife,  50 ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Sucking  Pig,  Carving  of,  198;  Figures  of, 
197. 

Suet  Dumpling,  see  Dumpling. 

Suet  Pudding,  see  Pudding. 

Sun  Star,  Figure  of,  133. 

Sunstroke,  Treatment  of,  1 12. 

Supper,  4. 

Surgery,  Do.mkstic  (Introduction),  2 ; 
General  Remarks,  7 — 10;  j^^f  Bandaging; 
FIsemorrhage,  29, 30 ;  see  Cuts,  Wounds ; 
Wounds,  Bruises,  and  Sprains,  51 — 53  ; 
Fractures,  Dislocations,  Burn.s,  and 
Scalds,  71- — 74;  Suspended  Animation, 
Fainting,  Drowning,  Hanging,  Foul 
Gases,  Sunstroke,  Intoxication  or  Poison- 
ing, III,  112;  Frost  Bite,  Gunpowder 
Accidents,  Gunshot  Injuries,  Injuries 
from  Chemicals,  Foreign  Bodies  in  the 
Nose  or  Ear,  in  the  Windpipe,  Gullet, 
or  Stomach,  Dust  in  the  Eye,  &c.,  154, 
155;  Teething,  172,  173;  Bunions,  and 
Affections  of  the  P'eet  and  Legs,  201, 
202^;  Various  Local  Ailments,  252,  25  ^, 
286,  287. 

.Swans,  150. 

Sweeping  and  Dusting,  222. 

Sweetmeats,  Making  of. —  Candied 
Horehound,  Peppermint  Drops,  Ginger 
Drops,  Lemon  Drops,  Damson  Drops, 
Raspberiy  Drops,  291. 


Tables,  Dressing,   Setting  (or  I-aying)  of, 

see  Dinner-tables. 
— — ,  see  Side  Tables. 
Table- vices,  50,  51  ;  Figure  of,  51  j  Prices 

of,  ib. 
Tadpoles,  69  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 
Tail-vices,  50 ;  Figure  of,  il>.;  Prices  of,  51. 
Ta]ic-worm,    The,    Particulars    of,    302  ; 

Treatment  for,  //•. 
Tapestry   Carpeting,   Particulars   of,    126; 

How  to  Distingui^h  from  Brussels,  it. 
Tapioca  Pudding,  see  Pudding. 
Tarragon  Vinegar,  Making  of,  223. 
Tartar  Eels,  ste  Eels. 
Tartar  Sauce,  Making  of,  365. 
Tax  on  Armorial  Bearings,    on  Servants, 

Horses,    and    Carriages,    130 ;    Table 

Showing  Rates,  132. 
Taxes  upon  Household  Ser^■ants,  Carriages, 

Horses,  &c.,  131. 

,  Means  of  Recovering,  131. 

.  '30,  131 ;  J«  Queen's  Taxes,  Rates, 

Parochial  Rates.  Poor  Rate. 


39- 


ANALYTICAL    INDEX. 


;8o. 


Tea,  How  to  Maki:, 

Tea  Roses,  66. 

Teeth,  Care  of  the,  172,  173  j  see  Gums  and 
Teeth. 

,  False,  Particulars,  173. 

Teethmg,  Description  of,  114,  115;  Care 
and  Diet,  I15 ;  Gums  and  Teeth, 
Lancing  the  Gun";-,  Care  of  the  Teeth, 
Toothache,  False  Teeth,  Inflammation 
of  the  Tonsils,   Enlarged  Tonsils,  172, 

173- 
Tench,  the,  69. 

,  Stewed,  341. 

,  Boiled,  341. 

Tenon-saw,  43. 

Terriers,  see  Dogs. 

Thread-worm,  The  Small,   Particulars  of, 

302  ;  Treatment  for,  ib. 
Thrush,  Treatment  of,  71. 
Toad-in-the-hole,    Making     and    Serving 

of,  37- 

Toast,  Hot  Buttered,  How  to  Make,  313. 

Toe-nail,  Ingrowing,  Causes  and  Treat- 
ment of,  201 ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Toffy,  see  Treacle  Toffy. 

Toilette,  The  {Introduction),  2. 

Toilette,  The.  —  Management  of  the 
Skin  —  Structure  and  Functions,  to 
Keep  the  Skin  in  Health,  21 — 23 ; 
Warmth,  Exercise,  Cleanliness,  the 
Bath,  and  Bathing  in  general,  45,  46  ; 
Management  of  the  Skin,  Sea-bathing, 
Disorders  of  the  Skin,  Dry  Skin,  Moist 
Skin,  62,  63 ;  Pimples  and  Rashes  of 
the  Face,  Dandriff  or  Scurfiness,  Erup- 
tions, Red  Blushes,  70,  71  ;  Discharging 
Eruptions,  Chilblains,  Warts,  Corns, 
Moles  and  Mothers'  Marks,  Discolora- 
tions  of  the  Skin,  Chapped  Hands  and 
Lips,  123,  124 ;  the  Shingles,  Sore 
Nipples,  Nettle-rash,  the  Itch,  Ringworm 
of  the  Body,  157 — 159;  the  Hair  and 
its  Management,  241,  242,  274 — 276 ; 
Disorders  of  the  Hair  and  their  Treat- 
ment, 366—368,   379,  380. 

Tomatoes,  109. 

,  Pickled,  see  Pickled. 

Tongue,  Coloured  Plate,  193  ;  Carving  of, 
198  ;  Figure  of,  197. 

Tonsils,  Inflammation  of  the.  Particulars, 

173- 

,  Enlarged,  Particulars,  173, 

Tool-box,  Household,  Where  to  Purchase, 
372. 

Tool-chest,  the  Domestic,  (Introduction), 
2,  15,  16,  23,  24,  42,  43,  49—51; 
Engraving  of,  15 ;  Description  of, 
15,  16. 

Tool-house,  136 — 138. 

— -,  Particulars  of  Certain  Tools,  148,  149. 

Tools,  14,  15  ;  Lists  of,  with  Approximate 
Prices,  15,  16. 

,   List  of  Garden    Tools,  with  their 

Prices,  138. 

Toothache,  173. 

Towelling,  347. 

Toys  and  Tricks,  Novelties  in — The 
Siamese  Link,  The  Chameleon  Top, 
(Figure  ot),  192  ;  The  Obedient  Ball, 
The  Magic  Bottle,  The  Invisible  Gift, 
and  the  Vanishing  Coin,  191,  192. 

Trade,  Choosing  a. — General  Remarks, 
Watchmaking,  307,  308,  362,  363. 

Transparencies,  Coloured,  165  ;  Design 
for  a  Transparency,  ib. 

Treacle  Pudding,  see  Pudding. 

Toffy,  Making  of,  223. 

Tree  Carnation,  Propagating  and  Train- 
ing of,  81. 


I  Trees,  Removal  of,  60. 

I  ,  Ornamental,  log. 

j  Trenching,  60. 

Tricks,  see  Toys. 

Tripe,  Normandy  Fashion,  Dressing  of, 
120. 

,  Stewed,  Dressing  of,  120. 

a  la  Lyonnaise,  Dressing  of,  1 20. 

,  Broiled,  with  Sauces,  120. 

,  Proven9al  Way,  120. 

— — ,  Milanese  Way,  120. 

,  Italian  Way,  120. 

Triton,  The,  Figure  of,  69. 

Tropeolum,  113. 

Trout,  Great  Lake,  324. 

,  Salmon,  324. 

,  River,  Cooking  of,  324. 

,  Potted,  325. 

Trowel,  Uses  of,  149  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Trustees,  91. 

Tulips,  60  ;  Cultivation  of,  81,  109. 

Turbot,  How  to  Carve,  256  ;  Figure,  ib. 

Turf-cutter,  Uses  of,  137  ;  Figure,  136. 

Turkey,  Carving  of,  79  ;  Figure,  80 ;  Figure 
of  the  Leg,  ib. 

Turkeys,  Directions  for  Keeping  and  Rear- 
ing, 217,  218;  Figure  of  Variegated 
Cambridge  Turkeys,  217. 

Turkish  Bath,  see  Bathing. 

Turning-saw,  its  Uses,  49  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Turnip  Fritters,  67. 

Turnip-tops,  Dressing  of,  183. 

Turnips,  Sowing  of,  138,  139,  149,  191. 

,  Stewed,  182,  183. 

Twirling  the  Trencher  (a  game).  Par- 
ticulars of,  159. 

Typhoid  Fever,  Diagnosis,  215,  216 ; 
Causes,  216  ;  Treatment,  ib. 

Typhus  Fever,  Diagnosis  and  Particulars 
of,  216;  Treatment,  ib. 


U. 


Unions,  Particulars  of,  206. 

Urine,  Incontinence  of,  in  .Sleep,  287. 


V. 


Vaccination  and  Small-pox,  Particulars  of 
Vaccination,  its  Protective  Power,  &c., 
187. 

Valisneria,  Spiral,  63  ;  Figure  of,  tb. 

Varicose  Vein,  Burst,  Treatment  and  Ban- 
daging of,  29,  30. 

Vase,  Modelling  of,  346  ;  Figures,  345. 

Veal,  How  the  Beast  is  Divided,  with  Il- 
lustrations, 261  ;  Qualities  of,  ib. 

,  How  to  Pot,  235. 

,  Fillet  of.  Coloured  Plate,  193. 

,  Neck  of,  Carving  of,   143  ;  Figure, 

144. 

,  Loin  of,  Carving  of,  143, 144;  Figure, 

144. 

Sausages,  235. 

Vegetable  Garden,  The — Formation  of, 
224  ;  Situation,  ib.  ;  Exposure,  ib. ; 
Aspect,  ib. ;  Extent,  ib. ;  Soil,  ib.  ; 
Water,  ib. ;  Form,  ib. ;  Walls,  ib.  ; 
Trenching,  Ridging,  Manuring,  Illus- 
trated by  Figures,  239,  240 ;  Rotation 
of  Crops,  Manure,  &c.,  246,  247 ;  As- 
paragus, 287,  288 ;  The  Broad  Bean, 
Runner  Beans,  330,  331  ;  The  Dwarf 
French  Bean,  Red  Beet,  White  Beet, 
355>  356;  Borecole,  or  Kale  —  The 
Green  Borecole  or  Scotch  Kale,  Purple 
Borecole  or  Brown  Kale,  German  Kale 


or  Brown  Kale,  The  Hundred-headed 
Cabbage,  The  Egyptian  Kale,  Ragged 
Jack,  the  Jerusalem  Kale,  The  IVlan- 
chester  Kale,  Melville's  Improved  Bore- 
cole or  Kale,  378,  379.  A^»  G.A.RDK\ 
and  Gardening. 

Vegetables,  109,  1 10 ;  Seasonable  (De- 
cember), III;  (January),  148;  (Feb- 
ruary), 235  ;  (March),  2S4  ;  at  Short 
Notice,  167;  Cooking  of,  182,  183. 

,  the  Culture  of,  272. 

Soup,  see  Soup. 

Velvet-pile  Carpets,  Testing  of  Quality, 
126. 

Veneering,  Particulars,  223. 

Venetian  Blinds,  see  Blinds. 

Venison,  Particulars  for  Marketing,  336. 

Verbenas,  60,  113,  114. 

Vices,  Tail-vices,  Pin-vices,  Table-vices, 
Various  Kinds  of,  50. 

Vine,  109. 

Violets,  82. 

;  Neapolitan  and    Russian,   Growing 

of,  81. 


W. 

Wages,  2,  3. 

Wages  and  Income  Table,  368. 

Wall-flowers,  Culture  of,  81. 

Wall-papers,  18,  19. 

Walls,  Ground  Colour  for,  before  Painting, 
284. 

,  Blue  Wash  for.  Making  of,  204. 

,  Whitewashing  of,  378. 

Walnut,  Description  and  Uses  of,  78. 

Walnuts,  Pickled,  Pickling,  and  Particulars 
of,  196. 

Wardrobes,  156,  157. 

Warning,  13. 

Warm-plate,  Description  of,  19. 

Warts,  Causes  and  Treatment  of,  124. 

Washing,  38. 

Wat  Tyler's  Rebellion,  130. 

Watchmaking,  Particulars,  307,  308,  362, 
363. 

Water,  Overflows  of,  15. 

,  Filtered,  162. 

,  Boiled,  162. 

,  Rain,  162. 

,  Impurities  in,  162,  163. 

,  A  Few  Facts  About,  223. 

Courses,  109. 

Watering  of  Plants,  327. 

Watering-pot,  Uses  of,  137  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 

Water-lilies,  (>t„  64. 

Water-milfoil,  Spiked  {Myriophyllum  spi- 
cat  urn),  63. 

Waterproof  Boots,  190. 

Water-soldier  [Stratiotes  alvides),  63. 

Water  Supply,  162,  163 ;  Particulars  of, 
with  Illustrations,  257,  258  ;  Particulars 
Regarding  Cisterns,  &c.,  with  Illustra- 
tion, 317,  318;  Particulars  of  Ap- 
paratus, &c.,  especially  by  Mr.  J.  L. 
Norton,  of  Belle  Sauvage  Yard,  Lud- 
gate  Hill,  with  Illustrations,  351,  352. 

Wax  for  Modelling,  Preparation  of,  255. 

Wax-work  Busts  and  Statuettes,  Making 
of,  164,  165. 

Ways  and  Means  [Con-espondence],  Con- 
cerning Small  Incomes,  106. 

Weak  Ankles,  Treatment  of,  202. 

Wealth  {Introduction),  I. 

Weights  and  Measures,  Tables  of, 
160. 

Wet  and  Colds,  Precautions  Against,  284. 

Wheel  of  Fortune  for  a  Raiile,  How  to 
Make,  312  ;  Figure  of,  ib. 


CASSELL'S    HOUSEHOLD    GUIDE. 


393 


Wheelbarrow,  15. 

Whelk,  132. 

Whelks,  &c..  Dressing,  of,  140. 

Whist,  The  Game  of,  Directions  for 
Playing,  262,  263  ;  First  Player, 
Second  Player,  Tliird  Player,  Fourtli 
Player,  General  Rules,  Inferences ; 
Laws  of  the  Game — Dealing,  the  Last 
or  Tnrmp  Card,  Exposed  Cards,  278, 
279  ;  Playing  Out  of  Turn,  Revoking, 
319  ;  Single  and  Double  Dumby,  319, 
320 ;  see  Card  Games. 

Whitebait,  Serving  of,  256 ;  Particulars 
and  Dressing]  of,  365,  366 ;  Figure  of, 
366. 

Whitewash,  How  to  Make,  255. 

Whitewashing  Walls,  see  Walls, 

Whiting,  Serving  of,  256. 

Whitlow,  Description  and  Treatment,  252. 

Whooping-cough,  83. 

Will-making,  Law  of,  90,{[9I. 

Wills,  Full  Particulars  Concerning,  90,  91. 


Window-blinds,  15. 

Cleaning,  306. 

Garden,  see  Gardening, 

Gardening,  see  Gardening, 

Windows,  Particulars  of,  140,  142 ;  Figures, 

141  ;    Repairing    of    Sash-lines,    141  ; 

Glazing,    141,    142 ;    Knife    for,    141  ; 

Figanes  of,  ib,;  Thickness  of  Glass,  and 

Price,  ib. 
Wolf,  The,  with  Relation  to  Dogs,  ii. 
Woods  used   in  Household  Carpentry,  77, 
.  78  ;  Seasoning  of,  77  ;  Result  of  Green 

Wood    Left    to  Take   Care  of   Itself 

(Figure),  ib. 
,  Technical  Terms  Applied  to  the  Sizes 

into  which  Pine  and  other  Woods  are 

Cut,  78. 
Wool,  160. 
Worms,    83;    the   Small  Thread  -  womi ; 

the  Round-worm,  the  Tape-worm,  302  ; 

Causes  of  Worm  Disease,   ib.;  Treat- 
ment and  Remedies,  ib. 


Wounds  in   tlie  P.'.Iin  of  the   Hand,    10 ; 
Bandaging  for,  ib. ;  J'igure  of,  9. 

,  Bandaging  and  Treatment  of,  30. 

about  the  Head,  Treatment  of,  29. 

,  Poisoned,  Treatment  of,  51,  52. 

,  Penetrating,  Treatment  of,  52. 

Wrenches,  51,  see  Screw  Hammer. 


Y. 


Yeast,  Making  of,  234. 

Yorkshire  Pudding,  see  Pudding. 

Youth,  Dietary  of,  343. 

,  Dietary  of,  Dr.  Lankester  on,  343; 

Mutton  and  Beef,  Regularity  of  Meals, 
Tea  (as  a  Meal),  Wine  and  Beer,  354 
355- 


Zoophytes,  1 34. 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Kitchen   Range,   Stove,    and    Grid-  t 

iron .         .         .         ,         ,         .         4 
Potato  Pie,  Dish  and  Lid         .         .        61 
Joints  (marked  how  to  carve)    .         .         7  ! 
Bandages     and    How    to     Bandage  I 

(Eight  Figures)  ,         .         ,  8,  9  ^ 

Dogs — Bull  Terrier  and  Scotch  Ter-  i 

rier  .         .         .         .         ,         .       12  | 

Tool-chest 15  j 

Brace  and  Bits  (Four  Figures),  Chisels  • 

(Two  Figures)  .         ,         .       16  1 

Aquarium  for  the  Window  .  .  17 
Aquarium-glass  and    Tanks   (Three  ! 

Figures) 18  j 

Gimlets  (Two  Figures),  Auger,  and  t 

Marking-gauge .         .         .         .       23  | 
Mortice-gauge,    Heads  of  Hammers  | 

(Three  Figures),  Pair  of  Pincers, 

Common  Pliers,  Cutting  Pliers,  | 

Plane,  Double  Iron  of  Planes     ,       24 
Drainage    and    Drain-pipes     (Seven 

Figures) 25 

Bandaging  (Four  Figures)  .  .29 
Fowl-house,  Plan,  &c.  .  .  31,  32 
Infants'  Clothing  (Twelve  Figiues)  ,  33 
Veiner  for  Leather-work,  and  Three 

Leaves 40 

Ivy-leaf 41 

Old  Woman's  Tooth  .  .  .42 
Saw-set  and  Four  Saws  ,  .  .43 
Hanging-baskets  for  I'lowers   (Two  I 

Figures) 44  ; 

Fowl-dish 47 

Fowl-dishes  (Two  Figures)  ,  .48 
Carpenters'  Tools  (Ten  Figures)        49,  50 


Carpenters'   Tools  (Three   Figures), 

Samples  of  Nails       .         .         •       5^ 

Bandages  for  Sprains  (Two  Figures) .       53 

Roast  Fowls  and  Salmon  (marked 
how  to  carve),  and  Figure  of 
Silver  Fish-slice,  or  Knife  .       56 

Flowers,  &c.,  for  Leather-work  (Six 

Figures) 57 

Plans  for  Garden-paths     •         •         .       59 

Dogs — English  Mastiff,  Newfound- 
land   61 

Plants  for  the  Aquarium  (Four  Figures)      63 

Aquarium,  with  Rockwork  and  Fern       64 

Frames,  Pits,  and  Shelters  for  Plants 

(Five  Figures)  ....       65 

Aquarium — Development  of  the  Frog; 
the  Loach,  the  Triton,  the  Com- 
mon Newt         ....       69 

Stretcher — Modes  of  Carrying  in  Cases 
of  Sprained  Ankle,  replacing 
Dislocated  Shoulder,  &c.  (Four 
Figures)    .         ,         .         .         .72 

"  .Sedan-chair"  of  Schoolboys  for 
Carrying,  in  cases  of  Sprained 
Ankle,  &c.,  replacing  Dislocated 
Shoulder 73 

Dogs — the  Pointer,  the  Greyhound  ,       76 

Diagram    Showing    the    Drying    of 

Wood,  Carpenter's  Joint    .         .       77 

Hare,  Turkey,  Calfs  Head,  Shoulder 
of  Mutton  (Two  Figures),  show- 
ing how  to  carve        ...        80 

Fuchsia  in  Pot,  Box  of  Hyacintlis 
and  Spring  Flowers  for  the 
Window Si 


90 


Joints,  Dovetailing,  &c.  (Six  Figures)  S5 
The  Lap  Dovetail  ....  86 
Infants'  Clothing  (Eighteen  Figures)  SS,  89 
Diaphanie  (Four  Figures)  .         .       92 

Drains 94 

Fowls — Dorking    Cock    and    Hen, 

Wooden  Box  for  Xest 
Christmas  Decorations  (FourFigures) 
Carpenter's  Bench  (Two  Figures) 
Aquarium — Tin    Can,    Net,    Roc'k- 

pool  with   Seaweeds   and    Ar. 

mones,  Shrimp,  /Esop  Prawn 
Dogs—  Scotch  Collie 
Garden-plot,  Showing  How  to  Lay 

out 

Treatment  of  Drowning  (Two  Figures) 
Small  Greenhouse,  without  Heating 

Apparatus ;  ditto,  with  Heating 

Apparatus         .         ,         .         , 
Children's  Clothing  (Twenty-one  Fi- 
gures)      ,         .         ,         .116, 
Fowls — White  Cochin   China   Cock 

and  Hen 

Easy  Chair 

Doors,  &c.  (Five  Figures) 

Designs,  &c ,  for  Screens  and  Albums 

(Eight  Figures) .... 
Marine    Aquarium  —  Sun -star,   Ser- 

pulse,  Crab,  Acorn  Barnacles  on 

a  Limpet-shell  .... 
Garden  Tools  (Fifteen  Figures)      136,  137 
Windows — Pl.T.n  of,  Frame  and  Sash, 

&c.,  Knives  (Five  Figures)         ,     141 
Joints  (Four  Figures),  Pheasant  (Two 

Fijiurcs),  showing  how  to  carve       144 


109 
112 


"7 

121 

126 

12S 

129 


133 


594 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PACE 

Chicken  Coops  (Three  Figures)  .  145 
Garden  Tools  (Ten  Figures)  .  .  149 
Grasses  (Eight  Figures)    .         .      152,    153 

The  Itch 158 

A  Marine  Aquarium  .  .  .161 
Design  for  a  Transparency        .         .165 

Ducks 168 

Teetli  inthe  Jawsof  a  Cliilil,  Lancing 

the  Gums,  Lancet  .  .  -173 
Blinds,  Fittings,  &c.  (Seven  Fi- 
gures) .  .  .  .  .176 
Children's  Clothing  (Eleven  Fi- 
gures) .  ,  .  .  .177 
Bell-hanging  and  Bell-pull  .  .  181 
Bedsteads  (Three  Figures)  .  .  184 
Bedroom  Furniture  (Four  Figures)  .  185 
Cows — Shorthorn,  Ayrshire  .  188,  189 
Chameleon  Top  .  .  .  .192 
Parts  of  Paper   Flowers   and   Tools 

(Eleven  Figures)  .  .  -193 
Poultry  and  Joints  (Seven  Figures), 

showing  how  to  carve  .  .197 
Ingrowing     Toe-nail,     Flat      Foot, 

Housemaid's  Knee     .         .  .201 

Dog's-house     .....     205 
Rod    and    Fittings     for      Window- 
curtains     .....     20S 
Haystack  and  Rick-cloth  .         .         .     209 
Locks     and     Door     Fittings     (Five 

Figures)  .  .  .  .  .213 
Variegated  Cambridge  Turkeys  (Cock 

and  Hen)  .  .  .  .  .217 
Point  Lace  Work  (Four  Figures)  .  225 
Hereford  Cow  ....     228 

West  Highland  Cow         .         .         .     229 
French  Cuisiniere  and  Kitcheii  Re- 
quisites     .         .         .         .         .     232 
Stoves,      Dutch    Oven,     &c.     (I'ive 

Fi."-urcs) 233 


Children's  Clothing  (Seventeen  Fi- 
gures)       ...         ,      236,  237 

Trenching  and  Ridging  (Two  Fi- 
gures)        .         .         . 

Skin  and  Hair  (Two  Figures)  . 

Bedstead  and  Bedroom  Furniture 
(Four  Figiu'es)  .... 

Bedroom  Furniture  (Two  Figures)    . 

Plans  of  Drains  (Four  Figures).      248, 

Milk  Abscess — Female  Figure  . 

Pigeons  and  Fish  (Three  Figures), 
showing  how  to  carve 

Water  Supply — Four  Figures  of  Ap- 
paratus     ..... 

Marketing — Figures  of  Calf  and  Ox, 
showing  how  the  Animals  are 
cut  up 

Paper  Flower  Making  (Seventeen 
Figures)   .         .         .         .264, 

Linen  Press,  or  Mangle  (Two  Figures) 

Gas-fittings  (Seven  Figures) 

Dutch  Hay-barn,  and  Two  Figures 
of  Thorn  or  Quick-hedge  . 

Lace-work — Pattern  in  Spanish  Point 

Trefoil  (Six  Figures)  .         .     281,  282 

Spring-mattress         ....     285 

Asparagus,      Asparagus  -  beds,      and 

Knife  (Four  Figures)  .         .     2S8 

Feather  .Screens  (Four  Figures)  .     289 

Children's  Clothing  (Seventeen  Fi- 
gures)       ....      292,  293 

"  Varna,"  a  High-bred  Arab  (Horse)     296 

Head  and  Neck  of  the  Godolphin 
Arabian  (Horse) 

The  Shetland  (Pony) 

Crystals  for  Windows  (Three  Fi- 
gures)       ..... 

Jet  of  Gas 

Iron  Fencing  ..... 


240 
241 

244 

245 
249 

253 
256 


261 

265 
269 
273 

277 


Knife-cleaner 


297 
297 


299 
300 
301 


Wheel    of 


&c., 
321, 


Fi- 


Boot-cleanin 

Knife-cleaner  . 

Cow-stall 

Matting   (Two   Figure: 

Fortune     .         .         .         .         , 
Table  and  other  Ornaments  (Six  Fi 

gures)        .         .         .         .         , 
Clay  JNIodels  and  Tools  (Group) 
Water  Supply — Apparatus 
Comical  Combinations 
Feather  Screens — The    Hawk, 

Figure  of  a  Bird 
Salmon    ..... 
Horse  (Structure  of) 
Portable  Pump 

Windsor  Beans  (Two  Figures) 
Children's    Clothing    (Thirteen 

gures)  .... 
Marketing — Sheep   and    Lamb, 

cut  up       ...         , 
Patchwork  (Two  Figures) 
Carp,  The         .... 
Plough  and  Farm  Machines 
Models  in  Clay  (Five  Figures) 
Charades  (Three  Figures) 
Indian  Jars  for  Pot  Pourri 
Water  Supply  (Five  Figures)    . 
Models  in  Clay  (Four  Figures) 
Point  Lace  Work     . 
The  Spanish  Point  Loop 
Mantel-shelves    and   Fenders 

Figures)    , 

Whitebait 

Children's    Clothing    (Nineteen    Fi 

gures)  .... 
Garden  Furniture,  Parts  (Seven  Fi 

gures)  .... 
Colt  Prep.ired  for  "Lounging" 
Table  and  Ottoman 


305 
306 

309 
312 

313 
316 

317 
320 

322 
324 
325 
328 
330 

jj-i  333 

how 

•  336 

•  337 

•  341 

•  344 

•  34=^ 
.  348 
■  349 

351.  352 

•  353 

•  35^' 
357 


(Four 


361 
366 

369 

373 
375 

378 


COLOURED     PLATES. 


FRONTISPIECE,  showing  the  method  of  Serving  Sirloin  of  Beef,   Roast  Turkey,  Boiled  Salmon,  Calf's  Plead,  Leg  of  Mutton, 
Roast  Ducks,  Boiled  Turbot,  and  Roast  Hare. 

PLATE   II.,    showing  the  method   of  Serving  Cod's   Head  and  Shoulders,    Saddle  of  Mutton,    Ham,    Fore-quarter  of  Lamb, 
Mackerel,  Goose,  Tongue,  and  Fillet  of  Veal •         .         ,         ,         .      To  fare  fa^e  19S. 


^■3^ 


CASSF.T.T.,    I'ETTKK,    A\n   dALPIN,    BKLLE   S.WWCV.  WORKS,    I.ONPny,    v..r.. 


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